Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water This page intentionally left blank Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water edited by IAN R FALCONER University of Adelaide, Australia ACADEMIC PRESS Harcourt Brace & Company, Publishers London · San Diego · New York · Boston · Sydney · Tokyo · Toronto This book is printed on acid-free paper ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED 24-28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX United States Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC San Diego, CA 92101 Copyright © 1993 Academic Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers A catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library ISBN 0-12-247990-4 Typeset by Keyset Composition, Colchester, Essex, England Printed and bound in Great Britain by The University Press, Cambridge Contents Contributors ix Preface Dedication Chapter Chapter vii χ Some Taxonomic and Biologic Aspects of Toxic Dinoflagellates Karen A Steidinger Methods of Analysis for Algal Toxins: Dinoflagellate and Diatom Toxins John J Sullivan 29 Chapter Mode of Action of Toxins of Seafood Poisoning Daniel G Baden and Vera L Trainer 49 Chapter Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning C.Y Kao 75 Chapter Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Tore Aune and Magne Yndestad 87 Chapter Ciguatera Fish Poisoning Raymond Bagnis Chapter Control Measures in Shellfish and Finfish Industries in the USA James Hungerford and Marken Wekell 105 117 Chapter Seafood Toxins of Algal Origin and their Control in Canada A.D Cembella and E Todd 129 Chapter Taxonomy of Toxic Cyanophyceae (Cyanobacteria) Olav M Skulberg, Wayne W Carmichael, Geoffrey A Codd and Randi Skulberg 145 Chapter 10 Measurement of Toxins from Blue-green Algae in Water and Foodstuffs Ian R Falconer 165 Chapter 11 Mechanism of Toxicity of Cyclic Peptide Toxins from Blue-green Algae Ian R Falconer 177 vi CONTENTS Chapter 12 Diseases Related to Freshwater Blue-green Algal Toxins, and Control Measures Wayne W Carmichael and Ian R Falconer 187 Index 211 Contributors Tore Aune, Department of Food Hygiene, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 8146 Dep 0033, Oslo, Norway Daniel G Baden, University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, NIEHS Marine and Freshwater Biomedical Sciences Center, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA and School of Medicine, University of Miami, Florida Raymond Bagnis, Medical Oceanographic Unit, Institute Territorial de Recherches Medicales Louis Malarde, B.P 30 Papeete Tahiti, Polynesie Franqaise Wayne W Carmichael, Department University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA of Biological Sciences, Wright State A.D Cembella, Biological Oceanography Division, Maurice Lamontagne Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Mont-Joli, Quebec, Canada Present address: Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Geoffrey A Codd, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, UK Ian R Falconer, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia James M Hungerford, Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive SE, Bothell, WA 98041-3012, USA C.Y Kao, Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, NY, USA Olav M Skulberg, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway Randi Skulberg, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway Karen A Steidinger, Department of Natural Resources, Florida Marine Research Institute, St Petersburg, FL, USA John J Sullivan, Varian Associates Inc., 2700 Mitchell Drive, Walnut Creek, CA 94598, USA E Todd, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Ontario, Canada Health Protection Branch, Ottawa, Vera L Trainer, School of Medicine, University of Miami Present address: Department of Pharmacology, SJ-30, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98199, USA viii CONTRIBUTORS Marleen Μ Wekell, Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive SE, Bothell, WA 98041-3012, USA Magne Yndestad, Department of Food Hygiene, The Norwegian Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 8146 DEP 0033, Oslo, Norway College of Preface This volume focuses on a significant problem in public health, that of contamina tion by algal and blue-green algal toxins of food and drinking water The outbreaks of shellfish poisoning on the coasts of the USA, Canada and Central America over the last decade have brought to world attention the existence of red tides and toxic dinoflagellates The poisoning of salmon and sea trout in fish farms off the Scandinavian coast by a microalgal bloom showed Europe that they too were vulnerable to algal contamination of seafood In the South Pacific, ciguatera poisoning has been known for centuries, but only in the last few years has the origin and structure of the toxin been identified Health hazards from toxic blue-green algae in freshwater have been suspected since the 1920s and livestock deaths reported for over a century Only in 1989 was world public attention drawn to the problem, as a result of toxic water bloom on a principal drinking water reservoir supplying the Midlands of the United Kingdom In 1991 different, but also toxic, blue-green algae turned 1000 km of the Darling River in Australia into a poisonous green soup Cattle and sheep died, and emergency action was taken to protect the drinking water supply of the towns using water from the river On the side of research, considerable advances have been made in the chemistry and toxicology of the marine and freshwater toxins and this present knowledge is incorporated in this book Within this volume the authors have provided a systematic review of the taxonomy of toxic algae, factors affecting their distribution, analytical and other methods of toxin detection, the mechanisms of mammalian toxicity, the clinical effects, and control measures It is therefore our intention to provide a reference work that will assist a wide range of concerned authorities, research and health workers who have to deal increasingly with problems caused by marine and freshwater algae An extensive bibliography is provided with each chapter so that the original sources are available to readers The authors themselves have contributed significant research into each of their fields, and thus contribute their own expertise to the overview they have presented Ian R Falconer This page intentionally left blank Index Tables are indicated in bold, Figures in italic Abdominal carcinoma, 179 pain, 87, 91, 98, 107 Absorbtion, PSP toxin, 80, 81, 82 Acetonitrile, 167, 169 Acetylcholine, 57, 83 Acidosis, 81, 84 Aconitine, 58, 62 Actin, 182 ADDA, 170, 177 Adipocytes, 56 Adrenal medulla, 82 Adrenergic systems, 61 Aeration of water, 202 Aerotnonas, 18 Akinetes, cyanophyceans, 148, 149, 154, 159 Alaska, 119, 120-2 Alaskan butter clams (Saxidomus giganteus), 79, 131 Alexandrium (Protogonyaulax), 2, 15, 16, 51, 52, 121, 129, 136 acatenella, 3, 16, 129, 130 catenella, 3, 16, 129, 130 cohorticula, 3, 22, 16 excavatum, 130 fundyense, 3, 16, 130 lusitanicum, 3, 16 minutum, 3, 16 monilatum, 3, 12, 16 ostenfeldii, 3, 16 tamarense, 3, 16, 18, 123, 130 Algae 'watch', 200-1 see also Cyanophyceae, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms Algicides, 201-2 Alkaloids, 146, 151, 158, 159, 188 measurement of, 166, 170, 171 see also Anatoxin-a, Saxitoxin Allergic reactions, 188 Allosteric modulation, 49, 50 Alsidium corallium, 65 Alum salts, 204 Amberjack, 118 Amino acids, 66, 67, 170, 177, 182 see also Domoic acid 2-Amino-N -hydroxyadenine, 97 Amnesic shellfish poisoning, 29, 43, 65 control Canada, 130, 132-3, 141 USA, 117, 125-6 Amphidinium, 2, 105 carterae, 3, 14 klebsii, 3, 14 rhychochepalum, Amphora coffeaeformis, 133 Amplification, 49, 50, 50 Anabaena, 153, 154, 255, 158-9, 187 control, 201 effects of, 188, 292, 192, 295, 196, 197, 198, 199 food source, 200 measurement of, 166, 167, 170, 172, 173 circinalis, 147, 196 flos-aquae, 147, 192, 295, 196 hassallii, 147 lemmermanni, 147 spiroides, 192 spiroides var contractu, 147 variabilis, 147 Anabaenoideae, 153 Anabaenopsis, 152, 153 milleri, 147 Anphanizomenon, 188 flos-aquae, 192, 295, 196 Analeptics, 109 Analysis, 29-30, 43 amnesic shellfish poisoning, 43 blue-green algal toxins, 168 ciguatera, 40-3, 42 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 37, 39^10, 42, 88 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 29, 30, 31-7, 32, 36-8, 172 see also High performance liquid chromatography, Mouse bioassay Anatomy, cyanophyceans, 148-9 Anatoxin-a, 192, 194, 295 measurement of, 167, 168, 170, 171-2, 173 Anatoxin-a(s), 170, 171, 173, 19Φ-6, 295 Animal experimentation, 30, 168 see also Mouse bioassay Anisogametes, 6, Anorexia, 190, 193 Antapical plates, 14 Anthryldiazomethane (ADAM), 40, 42 Anticholinesterase, 84, 167, 172, 194 pesticides, 82-3 Antihistamines, 109 AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), 32, 43, 125, 130 212 INDEX Aphanizomenon, 153, 154, 255, 158, 168, 172, 187, 199, 200 flos-aquae, 18, 147, 158 Aphantoxin, 158 see also Neosaxitoxin, Saxitoxin Apical grove, 12, 17 lists, 16 plates, 7, 14 pore complex, 14, 16, 17-18 Aplysiatoxin, 55, 183, 198, 199 Archaeobacteria, 146 Areflexia, 108 Ares Estuary, 89-90 Artemia, 166 Arthralgia, 107 Artificial disturbance, 110, 112 Asexual reproduction, Asia, 76, 83 ASP see Amnesic shellfish poisoning Aspartate aminotransferase, 179 Assays, 30, 32-4, 33, 39-40, 41-2 see also Mouse bioassay Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 32, 43, 125, 130 Asthenia, 109 Asthma, 109, 199 Ataxia, 81, 107, 110, 194 Atlantic City, 123 Atlantic Ocean, 7, 12, 13, 16 Atropine, 83, 194 sulfate, 109 Australia, 17, 91, 106, 200, 202 Autotrophy, Auxotrophy, p-Azidobenzoic acid, 59 B2 toxin, 37 Bacillus, 18 Bacteria diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 134 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 15, 18, 78 see also Cyanophyceae Baeocytes, 148 Baltic Sea, 151 Barracuda, 13, 109, 110, 118, 135 Barriers, algal bloom, 202 Batrachotoxin, 54, 58, 59, 62 Bay Scallops, Benthic species, 14 Bile acid, 178, 179, 190 Binary fission, 6, 148, 154, 156 Binding, 49, 50, 50, ^ , 58-9, 63-4, 64 Bioaccumulation, 13, 78, 105, 118 Bioassay, 30, 108 mosquito, 41, 112 sea-urchin, 12 see also Mouse bioassay Biochemistry, cyanobacteria, 150 Bioconcentration, 13, 78, 118, 105 Biographic distribution, Biological response, 49-50, 50 Bioluminescence, 129, 171 Biomagnification, 13, 78, 105, 118 Bivalves, 7, 78 Canada, 131 USA, 117, 123 see also Clams, Mussels, Scallops Black band disease, 158 Blindness, 107 Blood gases, 84 pH, 84 pressure, 81-2 Blooms, 187-8, 189-90, 196-7 amnesic shellfish poisoning, 126 control, Canada, 121^, 136, 137 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 89, 93 measurement, water, 165, 166 monitoring, 200-4, 203 neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, 13 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 15, 17 Blue-green algae, 15, 18, 145 see also Cyanophyceae Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), 65, 89, 90, 93, 99, 131 Bluestone, 201 Body temperature, mouse bioassay, 41, 42 Botulinum poisoning, 83 Bradycardia, 108 Brevetoxins, 56, 57, 61, 67 compared ciguatera toxin, 40, 61, 62, 63, 63, 105 compared yessotoxin, 88 control, 123-4 in-vitro effects, 57-8, 59 molecular pharmacology, 58-60, 59, 60 see also Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning British Columbia, 129, 131-2, 136, 137, 140 Bronchial secretion, 83 Bronchopneumonia, 198 Broncogenic carcinoma, 179 Buccinum undatum, 131 Budding, cyanophyceans, 148 2,3-Butanedione, 33 C3 toxin, 37 C4 toxin, 37 C-18 reversed-phase cartridges, 167, 168, 169, 170 Calcium channel, 1, 50 ciguatera toxin, 61-2, 106, 112 maitotoxin, 65, 65, 67 paralytic shellfish toxin, 78 Calcium treatment, 109 California, 119, 121 Gulf of, 17 INDEX California mussels (Mytilus californianus), 131 Calyptra, 149 Campeche, Mexico, Canada amnesic shellfish poisoning, 132-3 ciguatera, 135 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 93, 133-5 monitoring program, 135-6 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 129-32, 130, 132 socioeconomic implications, 136-41, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 Cancer, 88, 97, 98 see also Tumours Capillary electrophoresis (CE), 35, 130 Carangs, 109 Carbamate toxins, 31, 32, 32, 35 Carbamoyl function, 79, 80 Carbodiimides, 54 Carbohydrate metabolism, 182 Carboxyl group, 54 Carcinogens, 183-4, 198 Carcinoma, 179 Cardiac damage, 95 Cardiac muscle cells, 95 Cardiovascular effects, 82, 106, 107-8 Caribbean, 12, 16, 106, 135, 140 /3-Carotene, 168 Carotenoids, cyanobacteria, 149 Cascade systems, 67 Cats, 94 Cell shape, cyanophyceans, 148-9 Cell size, cyanophyceans, 148-9 Central nervous system, 82 Cephalopods, USA, 117 Chaetognaths, 18 Champerico, Guatemala, 76 Charcoal, 84, 109, 192, 196 Chatam, voyages, 77-8 Chemical analysis, water supplies, 165, 168-71 Chemotaxonomy, cyanobacteria, 149-50 Chesapeake Bay, 12 Chickens, 94, 112 Children, 84 Chile, 90, 93 Chills, 123 Chinese hamster lung (CHL), 97 Chlorination, water supplies, 165 Chlorophyll, Cholestyramine, 192 Cholinergic systems, 55, 61, 83 Cholinesterase, 62, 194 Chondria armata, 65 Chromatography, 30, 35, 42-3, 106, 149 column, 34 gas, 40, 170, 172, 173 liquid, 130 partition, 91 reverse phase, 40, 43, 168 Chromodacryorrhea, 194 213 Chromosomes, Chroococcaceae, 153 Chroococcales, 153 Chrysochromulina polylepis, 96 Chrysophyta, 187 Chymotrypsin, 168 Cigua, 105 Ciguatera fish poisoning, 1, 7, 9, 13-15, 105-6, 111-3 analysis, 29, 30, 40-3, 42, 112, 135 control Canada, 135, 139^2, 141 USA, 117, 118, 126 epidemiological patterns, 109-11 human features, 106-9 incidence, 111 mode of action, 60-5, 62-5, 67 species, 3, 4, 5, 151 Ciguatoxin, 13, 40, 60-1, 67, 67, 105-6 in-vitro physiological effects, 61-2, 62 molecular pharmacology, 62-4, 63, 64, 65 see also Ciguatera fish poisoning Cingula, 13, 17 lists, 7, 14, 16 plates, sulcal juncture, 12 Clams, 9, 78, 121, 122, 123 Classification (Cyanobacteria), 145, 146, 148-50 Clear Lake, California, 169, 173 Cleptomixotrophy, Clinical effects ciguatera, 106-9 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 91 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 80-2 Clinocardium nutallii, 131 Clonal cultures, cyanobacteria, 151 Clostridium botulinus, 83 Clupeoid fish, 78, 79, 82 Cluster techniques, Cobalt, 65 Cochlodinium, polykrikoides, Cockles (Clinocardium nutallii), 131 Coelosphaerium, 153, 154, 255, 156 kiitzingianum, 147, 156 Colon, 97 Colorimetric techniques, 33 Column chromatography, 34 Commercial fishing see Canada, United States of America Conger eel, 135 Connecticut, 120, 123 μ-Conotoxins, 52 Control see Canada, United States of America Convulsions, 107 Coolia, 14, 105 monotis, 3, 20, 13, 14 Copper sulfate treatment, 165, 197, 198, 201-2 214 INDEX Coquinas, 9, 17 Coral-reef crabs, 82 Cost-benefit analysis, monitoring, 136-41, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 treatment, 201 COSY, 170 Coupling, Crabs, 15, 78-9 Cramps, 65 Crassosterea gigas, 131 Crayfish, 58, 59 Crustacea, 78, 117 Ctenochaetus striatus, 106, 110 Cuba, 135 Cultures, cyanobacteria, 151-2 Current, membrane, 50 Cyanobacteriales see Cyanophyceae Cyanophyceae, taxonomy, 145, 187 classification, 146, 148-50 cyanobacteria, 146 guide to toxic or potentially toxic cyanophyceans, 152-9, 153, 154, 155 identification, 150-2 toxigenic species, 15, 18, 146, 147 see also Peptide toxins, Water samples Cyanophycin, 149 Cyclosporin-A, 192 Cyclosporine, 178 Cylindrospermopsis, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158, 167 raciborskii, U7, 158, 295, 197 Cylindrospermopsin, 195 Cylindrospermum 147, 153 Cysts, 6, 17 Cytokeratin, 181, 181, 182 Cytology, cyanobacteria, 149, 152 Cytoplasm, cyanobacteria, 149 Daphnia, 166 Darling River, Australia, 166, 196, 201 Death rate, 76, 84, 108 Debromoaplysiatoxin, 157 Decarbamoyl toxins, 31, 32, 79 Dehydration, 108 Denmark, 100, 201 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 2, 97, 150, 182 Dephosphorylation, 96 Depolarization, 58 Dermatitis, 199 Desmokont, Development, economic, 110, 112 Diagnosis paralytic shellfish poisoning, 82-3 Dialysis, 65, 194, 197 Diarrhea ciguatera poisoning, 107, 108, 111 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 87, 91, 98 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 83, 123 Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), 1, 7-8, 10, 11, 87-8 analysis, 29, 30, 37-9, 40, 41, 134 assays, 39-40 clinical effects, 91 control Canada, 230, 133-5 USA, 117, 124-5, 126 distribution, etiology, 91-3 health hazards, 98-9, 182, 183, 184 incidence, 88-91 management, 99-100 mode of action, 54-6, 55, 56, 67 species, 4, 5, 182 toxicity, 93-8, 94 Diatom, 43 see also Amnesic shellfish poisoning Diet pill, 200 Dimethylbenzanthracene, 55, 198 Dimorphism, Dinocysts, 6, 14, 17 Dinoflagellates 35, 36 see also Ciguatera fish poisoning, Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, Paralytic shellfish poisoning Dinokaryotic, Dinokont, Dinophyceae, 1, 187 Dinophysiaceae, Dinophysis, 2, 7-8, 87, 89, 92, 93, 124, 134, 136 acuminata, 4, 7, 8, 90, 92, 93, 124, 134 acuta, 4, 7, 8, 20, 90, 92, 93 analysis, 40, 93 caudata, 4, fortii, 4, 7, 55, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 mitra, 4, 7, 92 norvegica, 4, 7, 90, 92, 93, 134 rotundata, 92 sacculus, 4, 93 skagii, tripos, 4, 7, 92 see also Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Dinophysistoxin (DTX), 87, 88, 91, 134 see also Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1), 8, 42, 88, 134 etiology, 91-2, 93 incidence, 90 toxicity, 94-5, 94, 96, 97 Dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2), 93 Dinophysistoxin-3 (DTX-3), 88, 91-2, 94-5, 94 Dinophysoid thecal pattern, Dinospores, Dinosterol, Dinoxanthophyll, r Diphtheria toxin resistance (DT ), 97 Diploid, INDEX Discovery, exploratory voyages, 77-8 Discriminant function analyses, Dispersal, Dissociation constant, 52, 58 Dizziness, 107, 123 DNA, 2, 97, 150, 182 Dog teeth tuna, 109 Dolphins, 12 Domoic acid, 65-6, 66, 67, 67, 137, 238 analysis, 43 control, 125, 126, 133 see also Amnesic shellfish poisoning Dopamine, 65 Dose-response relationship, 41, 98, 110 Drinking water supplies, 196-7, 200-1, 204 Drying, water samples, 167 DSP see Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Dungeness crabs, 131 Duodenum, 94 Dysesthesia, 107, 108, 111, 112 Dysmetria, 81, 110 Dysphagia, 107 Dysphonia, 107 Dyspnea, 82, 107 Dysuria, 107 Early warning system, 119, 121, 122, 138, 139 Easterscheldt, Netherlands, 89, 91 ECD, 173 Ecology, cyanobacteria, 148, 150-1 Economic development, 106 Electrographic abnormalities, 108 Electrolyte treatment, 99, 109 Electrophoresis, 35 Electrophysiology, 50 Elimination rate, PSP toxin, 80-1, 84 ELISA see Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay Emperor fish, 109 Emulsifying agents, 58 Enterocytes, 95-6, 180 Environmental conditions, 15, 131, 148 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 119 Environmental Resources, Department of, US, 201 Enzyme techniques, 50, 169, 171-2, 173 fingerprinting, 150 Enzyme activity, liver, 179 Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) ciguatera poisoning, 42, 112, 118 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 39, 88, 99, 125, 135 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 34, 131 Enzymes Cyanophyceae, 149 toxin synthesis, 177 Epidemiologists, 118 215 Epidemiology, ciguatera fish poisoning, 109-11 Epinephrine, 82, 83 Epiphytic, 14 Epithecal plates, 7, Ethyl 3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide, 172 Etiology diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 91-3 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 78-9 Eukaryotes, 146 Eurasia, 90 Europe, 76, 83, 89-90, 92, 134 European Community, 100 European oysters (Ostrea edulis), 131 Eutrophic lakes, 188 Evolution, cyanophyceans, 148, 149 Excretion, peptides, 178 Exercise, 84 Exospore production, 148 Fasciculations, 194 Fertilizers, 187, 204 Fiji, 78 Filtration, water supplies, 165, 197 Finance, monitoring, 138-41, 140, 141 Finfish, 117, 118 see also Ciguatera fish poisoning, Grouper, Snapper Fischerella, 153 epiphytica, 147 Fischerellaceae, 153 Fish, 3, 166 kills, 1-2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 16, 18, 124 see also Ciguatera fish poisoning Fisheries and Oceans, Federal Department, Canada, 136 Flagella, 2, Flocculation treatment, 197 Florida Keys, 88 Florida, 9, 118, 124 Department of Natural Resources, Fluid therapy, 84, 109 Fluorescence microscopy, 8, 181, 181 laser-based, 35 Fluorescence-oxidation detection, 33, 35, 36-7, 38 Fluorometric techniques, 33-4, 33 Food Directorate, Department of Health and Welfare, Canada, 136 Food analysis, 166 handling, 111 protein, 200 Forestation, 204 Fourier descriptors, France, 89, 92 Freeze drying, blue-green algal, 167 French Polynesia, 110, 112 216 INDEX Freund's complete adjuvent, 172 Frogs, 18, 52 Fugu poisoning, 18, 52, 75, 78, 83 Function, cyanophyceans, 148 Fundy, Bay of, Canada amnesic shellfish poisoning, 133 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 134 monitoring, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 78, 129, 130, 230, 131, 132 Gambier Islands, 110, 112 Gambierdiscus, 14 toxicus, 4, 22, 13-14, 60, 61, 62, 63, 105, 106 disturbance of, 112 maitotoxin, 64-5 see also Ciguatera fish poisoning Gambiertoxin, 13, 40 Gametes, Gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), 197 Gas chromatography, 40, 170, 172, 173 Gas vacuoles, cyanobacteria, 149, 188 Gaspe, Bay of, 230, 134, 135, 137 Gastrointestinal tract, 31, 188 ciguatera fish poisoning, 106, 107 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 83 see Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Gastropods, 15, 18, 78, 82 Gel permeation chromatography, 91 Genetic constitution, cyanophyceans, 148, 150 Genetic diversity, Genotype, cyanophyceans, 148, 151 Geoducks, 120 Geography, 15, 76 Georges Bank, Canada, 133, 233, 137 Georgia, Strait of, 129 Germany, 90 Gessnerium, 16 Giant sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus), 131 Gloeotrichia, 153, 154, 255, 159, 199 echinulata, 147, 159 Glucose transport, 56 Glutamate, 66, 67 Glutamic acid, 66 Glutathione, 182 Glycogen, 149, 181 Phosphorylase, 182 Glycopyrrolate, 194 Gobies, 18 Goeduck clams (Panopea abrupto), 131 Golgi apparatus, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 94 Gomphosphaeria, 153, 154, 255, 156 läcustris, 147, 156 nägeliana, 147, 156 Goniodoma, 16 Goniodomataceae, 16 Gonyaulacaceae, 16 Gonyaulax, 15, 16 excavata, 78 polyedra, 4, 6, 16 Gonyaulacoid thecal pattern, Gonyautoxin, 18, 53, 54, 67 Gout, 200 Grayanotoxins, 59 Green algae, 177, 189, 199 Green photobacteria, 146 Grouper (Plectropomus leopardus), 13, 106, 109, 110, 117, 135 Growth phase, GTX toxins, 33, 37 GTX IV toxins, 33, 37 Guanidinium, 51, 52, 54, 80 Guanidinium methyl phosphate ester, 172, 194 Guatemala, 84 Guinea pigs, 58 Gulf Coast, Canada, 136, 137 Gulf stream, 9, 124, 126 Gymnodiniaceae, 17 Gymnodinioid thecal pattern, Gymnodinium, 2, 15, 17, 51 bonaerense, 13 breve (Ptychodicus brevis), 4,9,11, 12-13, 17 catenatum, 4,11, 15, 17-18 galatheanum, 4, 12 mikimotoi (Nagasakiense), 4, 12, 17 sanguineum, veneficum, 4, 12 Gymnothorax javanicus, 105 Gyrodinium, 17 aureolum, estuariale, 18 flavum, Haemorrhage, liver, 167, 179, 190, 193 Halichondria melanodocia, 54, 88 okadai, 54, 88 Hapalosiphon, 153 fontinalis, 147, 151 Haploid, 6, Harare, Zimbabwe, 196 Hard-shell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria), 9, 131 Hawaii, 118 Hay-fever like symptoms, 199 Hemagglutinating compounds, 2, 13 Hemolytic compounds, 2, 13, 18, 156 Hepatic necrosis, 190, 193, 197 Hepatitis, 197 Hepatocytes algal toxins, 167, 178, 179-81, 180, 181, 182, 190 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 95, 96, 100 Hepatoenteritis, 179, 197 Hepatopancreas, 93, 131 INDEX Hepatotoxicosis, 188, 190-2, 192, 193 Hepatotoxin, 156, 157, 158, 167, 168, 190-2 see also Microcystin, Peptides Heptapeptides, 156, 158, 170 Herbicides, 202 Heterocysts, cyanophyceans, 148, 149, 154, 159 Heterotrophs, High performance liquid chromatography, 139, 168-9, 170, 171, 172, 173 amnesic shellfish poisoning, 43, 125, 133 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 40, 42, 88, 99, 134 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 34, 35-7, 36-8, 122, 137 High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD), 130, 134, 135 Hippocampal region, 66 Histones, HOHAHA, 170 Homoanatoxin-a, 157 Hormogonales, 153 Hormothamnion, 152, 153, 154, 255, 159 enteromorphoides, 147, 159 Horseradish peroxidase, 172 Housefly (Musca domestica), 33 HPLC see High-performance liquid chromatography HPLC-FD (High performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection), 130, 134, 135 Human waste, 187 Hydrocoryne, 152, 153 Hydrogen peroxide, 36-7 Hydrophobicity, 64 Hydroxy toxins, 33 45-Hydroxy-YTX, 92 Hypercapnia, 81 Hypereutrophic lakes, 188 Hyperphosphorylation, 55, 182 Hypersalivation, 107, 194 Hypersensitivity reactions, 75, 108-9, 110-1, 112 Hypnozygote, 6, 12, 17 Hyporeflexia, 108 Hypotension, 81, 82, 83, 108 Hypothecal plates, Hypothermia, 108 Hypovolemia, 108, 190 Hypoxia, 81 Ichthyotoxins, 12, 96 Identification, cyanobacteria, 145, 150-2 Immigrants, 140 Immunoassay, 169, 172-3 ciguatera fish poisoning, 108, 118 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 8, 134 Immunobead assay, 42, 112 217 Immunological analysis, water supplies, 165, 172-3 Immunology ciguatera fish poisoning, 61 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 39^10, 100 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 34 Immunotoxicity, OA, 98 In vivo techniques, blue-green algal toxins, 166-8 Incidence ciguatera fish poisoning, 111 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 88-91 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 76 Indentation, cyanophyceans, 149 India, 90 Indian Ocean, 106, 111 Indo-Pacific Islands, 106, 111 Indonesia, 76, 78, 91 Infectious food poisoning, 75 Information, 119 Insomnia, 107 Intensity Index, 132 Interleukin-1, 98 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1972), 146, 152 International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (1975), 146, 152 Interphase, Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC), 119 Intestinal injury, 190, 292 Intraperitoneal injection, 30, 31 see also Mouse bioassay Invertebrates, 12 Ion channel function, 50, 67 see also Calcium channels, Sodium channels Ion exchange chromatography, 35 Ion permeability, 50 Ion-spray mass spectrometry (ISP-MS), 40, 130 Ireland, 90, 93 Iron salts, 204 Isogametes, 6, 14 Italy, 17, 90, 93 Jacks, 13, 109 Jamaica, 135 Janus, 78-9 Japan diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 134 neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, 12 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 17, 76, 78, 83 venerupin shellfish poisoning, Japanese little neck (Manila) clams (Tapes philippinarum), 131 Japanese oysters (Crassosterea gigas), 131 Kahala, 118 218 INDEX Kainate, 66, 67 Kainic acid, 66, 67 Key, cyanobacteria, 150, 152, 154 Kidney, cyclic peptide toxins, 178 King-fish, 109 Kofoidian plate pattern, 14, 17, 18 Lanthanum, 65 La Paloma, Uruguay, 90 Lacrimation, 83 Lactate, 84 Lactate dehydrogenase, 39, 179 Lactic acidosis, 84 Laser-based fluorescence, 35 Latin America, 76 LC-ISP-MS, 134 Lesions, 108 Life cycle stages, 2, Light, Lipid-soluble polyether toxins see Ciguatera fish poisoning, Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Lipids, cyanophyceae, 149 Lipophilic toxins, 91, 98 Lipopolysaccharide, 187, 188, 197 Liquid chromatography (LC), 130 Littleneck clams, 120 Liver cyanobacteria effects, 167, 178, 179-84, 197 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 94 tumor, 198 see also Hepatocytes Livestock waste, 187 Livona pica, 105 Lobster, 52, 131 Loire-Atlantique district, 89 Long Island, USA, 90, 93 Lutjanus bohar, 13, 106, 109, 110, 117 Lyngbya, 152, 153, 154, 255, 157, 183 majuscula, U7, 151, 157, 198, 199 Lyngbyatoxin, 183, 199 Lyngbyatoxin-a, 157, 198 Mackerel, 13, 15 Magdalen Islands, Quebec, 131, 137 Maine, 119, 122, 125 Maitotoxin, 13, 62, 64-5, 65, 67, 67, 106, 112 Malaysia, 76 Management diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 199-100 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 83-4 see also Canada, United States of America Manatees, 12 Mannitol, 109 Mass spectrometry, 35, 169-70 Massachusetts, 120, 122, 124, 126 Mastigocladaceae, 153 Mastigocladoideae, 153 Mazatlan Bay, Mexico, 17 Measurements, cyanophyceans, 148 Meat, analysis, 166 Mediterranean, 12 Meiosis, 6, 14 Memory loss, 65 Mercenaria mercenaria, 9, 131 Merismopedioideae, 153 Metabolism, cyanophyceae, 149 Methanol activated cartridges, 167 Methyl-D-aspartate, 66 Methyl atropine nitrate, 194 35-S-Methyl okadaic acid, 55 Mexico, Gulf of, 9, 12, 124 Microbial methods, toxin assay, 170-1 Microbial toxins, 75 Microchaetaceae, 153 Microcystaceae, 153 Microcystin-LA, 172 Microcystin-LR, 167, 171, 172, 179, 184, 198 Microcystin-LY, 172 Microcystin-RR, 172, 198 Microcystin-YM, 167, 172, 179 Microcystin-YR, 172, 198 Microcystins, 156, 177, 190-2, 292 measurement of, 167, 168-70, 171, 172 Microcystis, 153, 154, 255, 156, 177, 187 aeruginosa, 147, 156, 178, 190, 193, 196 biochemical injury, 181-2 botrys, 147, 156 cell control and tumour promotion, 183-4 cell studies and ultrastructural investigations, 179-81 control of, 204 effects of on animals, 188, 190 effects of on humans, 197, 198, 199 food protein, 200 measurement of, 166, 167, 171 pathology, 179 tissue specificity, 178 viridis, 147, 156, 190 wesenbergii, 147, 156, 190 Microcystoideae, 153 Microscopy, cyanophyceans, 148, 149 Microtox, 170-1 Mitosis, 2, 182-3, 184 Mixotrophy, Molecular biology, cyanobacteria, 150 Molecular characterization methods, 169-70 Molecular pharmacology, 52^1, 53, 58-60, 59, 60, 62-4, 63, 64, 67, 78, 79-80, 295, 196 Monitoring, 7, 99-100, 119-20, 220, 135-6, 137, 138, 140, 200-4, 203 Monocytes, 98 Moon snails, 131 Moraxella, 18 INDEX Moray eel (Gymnothorax javanicus), 105, 109-10 Morbidity, 112 Morphology, cyanophyceans, 148-9, 150, 152 Morphometric (dinoflagellates) contour, ratio, Morphometry, cyanophyceans, 149 Morro Bay, 122 Mortality rate, 76, 84, 108 Mosquito bioassay, 41, 112 Motor incoordination, 81, 107 Mouse Unit (MU), 39 Mouse bioassay, 30 amnesic shellfish poisoning, 43, 125, 133 blue-green algal, 166-8, 171, 172, 173 ciguatera, 41, 42, 42, 112, 135 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 39, 40, 88, 93-4, 94, 98-9, 100 monitoring Canada, 134-5 neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, 124, 126 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 32-3, 79 control Canada, 130, 136-7, 138, 139 control USA, 120, 122, 126 Mucocysts, 14 Mucoid nasal discharge, 194 Mucopolysaccharides, 189 Mullet, 110 Musca domestica, 33 Muscarinic receptor pathways, 55, 171 Muscle aches, 107 Muscular twitching, 107 Mussels, 78, 87, 120, 121, 122, 124, 134 Mutagens, 97, 98, 183 Mya arenaria, 131 Myalgia, 107 Myarthralgia, 108 Mydriasis, 108 Myosin, 96, 182 Mytilus californianus, 131 edulis, 65, 89, 90, 93, 99, 131 Nantucket Shoals, Massachusetts, 122, 123, 126 Nassau County, New York, 124 National Marine Fisheries Service, 126 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA), 119, 123, 124-5 National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP), 119 Native little neck clams (Protothaca staminea), 131 Natural Resources of Puerto Rico, Department of, 118 Neck stiffness, 108 Necrosis, liver, 179 Nematocysts, ΝΕΟ toxins, 33, 37 219 Neosaxitoxin, 18, 51, 51, 52, 53, 158, 172, 295, 196 Nerve membranes, 50 Netherlands, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93 Neuroblastoma cells, 58, 61 Neurological problems, 106, 107 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), 1, 9-13 control USA, 117, 119, 123^4 distribution, mode of action, 67 species, 4, Neurotoxicosis, 188, 192 Neurotoxins, 2, 157, 158 ciguatera, 13 measurement of, 167-8, 171 see also Alkaloids, Organophosphates Neurotransmitters, 58 New Brunswick, 133, 233, 134, 135, 137 New England Fisheries Development Association, 126 New Hampshire, 120, 122, 196 New Jersey, 123 Department of Environmental Protection, 123 New York, 123 State University, 123 New Zealand, 91 Newfoundland, 131 Nicotinic receptor pathways, 55, 83, 171 Nitrogen, 2, 187 Nitzschia pseudodelicatissima, 133 pungens, 43, 65, 125 pungens f multiseries, 133, 136 NMR spectroscopy, 134, 170 Nodal rhythm, 108 Nodes of Ranvier, 52, 61 Nodularia, 153, 154, 255, 159, 166, 167, 177, 187, 188, 199 spumigena, 147, 151, 159, 292 Nodularin, 159, 177, 182, 190, 292, 198 measurement of, 169, 171, 172 Nomenclature, 145, 146, 150 Norepinephrine, 65 Normandy, 89 North America, 7, 76, 90 North Carolina, 9, 124 North Sea, 12, 78 Norway, 89, 92, 93, 99 Nostoc, 153, 154, 255, 158, 170 commune, 158 linckia, 147 paludosum, 147 rivulare, 147 zetterstedtii, 147 Nostocaceae, 153 Nostocales, 153 Nostocoideae, 153 220 INDEX Nova Scotia, 8, 90, 131, 133, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137 NSP see Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning Nuclear envelope, Nuclear magnetic resonance, 134, 170 Nucleic acid metabolism, 182 Nucleolus, Nucleus, 12 Nutrition, 149 Observations, cyanophyceans, 148 Octopus, 18 Ohio river, 196 Okadaic acid ciguatera fish poisoning, 14, 61 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 7, 8, 54-6, 55, 56, 67-8, 88 clinical effects, 91 etiology, 91, 92, 93 health hazard, 98 incidence of, 89, 90 measurement of, 37, 39, 40, 41, 134 toxicity, 9Φ-6, 94, 97, 98, 182, 183, 184 Okkirai Bay, Japan, 91 Opiates, 109 Opisthotonos, 194 Optical pattern recognition, Oregon, 119, 121 Organophosphates, 166, 167, 170 see also Anatoxin-a(s) Oscillatoria, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 177, 187 acutissima, 147, 157 agardhii, 147, 152 agardhill/rubescens, 147, 157 effects on animals, 188, 191, 192, 194, 195 effects on humans, 199, 200 formosa, 147, 157, 158 negroviridis, 199 nigro-viridis, 147, 157 rubescens, 152 Vaucher sp, 147 Oscillatoriaceae, 153 Oscillatorioideae, 153 Oscillatoxin-a, 157 Ostrea edulis, 131 Ostreopsidaceae, 14 Ostreopsis, 14, 105 heptagona, 5, 10, 13 lenticularis, 5, 13 ovata, 5, 13 siamensis, 5, 13 Oysters, 9, 120, 121, 122, 123, 134 Pacific Ocean, 7, 13, 106, 135, 137 Islands, 140 Palpitations, 107 Palsy, 107 Palytoxin, 40, 106 Panopea abrupta, 131 Paper chromatography, 35 Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), 1, 7, 15-18, 75-6, 168 analysis, 29, 30, 31-2, 34-7, 36-8, 172 assay, 32-4, 33, 43 classic description, 77-8 control Canada, 129-31, 130, 132, 136-7, 138, 139, 139, 140 USA, 117, 118, 119-23, 220, 126 diagnosis, 82-3 distribution, etiology, 78-9 incidence, 76 management, 83-4 mode of action, 51-4, 52, 53, 67, 79-80, 196 species, 3, 4, symptomatology, 80-2 with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 99 Paralytic poisons see Saxitoxin Parasthesia, 81, 107, 108, 111, 112 Parrot-fish, 106, 110 Partition chromatography, 91 Pectenotoxin-1 (PTX-1), 88, 92, 94, 95, 96 Pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2), 88, 92, 94 Pectenotoxin-3 (PTX-3), 88, 92, 94 Pectenotoxin-4 (PTX-4), 92, 94 Pectenotoxin-6 (PTX-6), 92 Pectenotoxin-7 (PTX-7), 92 Pectenotoxins, 7, 37, 134 etiology, 92 health hazards, 98, 99 toxicity, 94, 95, 96 Pennsylvania, 199 Pentapeptides, 158 Peptides, mechanism of toxicity, 177, 188 biochemical injury caused by microcystin poisoning, 181-3 cell control and tumour promotion, 183-^4 isolated cell studies and ultrastructural investigations, 179-81, 180, 181 measurement of, 166, 171, 173 pathology of toxic injury, 179 tissue specificity of toxicity, 178 see also Microcystins, Nodularin Peptidoglycan, 187 Peridinin, Peridinioid thecal pattern, Peridinium, polonicum, Periodate, 36 Peritonitis, 124 Petechia, 179 pH, 2, 52, 84 INDEX Phalacroma, rotundatutn, 5, Phalloidin, 178, 180 Phanktothrix, 152 Phenols, 146 Phenotypes, 151 Philippines, 76 Phorbol esters, 55, 183, 199 Phormidiaceae, 153 Phormidioideae, 153 Phormidium, 152, 153, 154, 255, 158 corallyticum, 158 formosum, 147, 158 Phosphatase, 55, 56, 56, 67, 68, 96, 97, 182, 183 enzyme method, 171 Phosphate, 202-4 Phosphorus, 2, 187 Phosphorylase, 182 Phosphorylase a, 198 Phosphorylation, 55, 56, 67-8, 96, 96, 182-1 Photobacterium phosphoreum, 171 Photophobia, 107 Photosensitization, 190, 192 Photosynthesis, 2, 8, 14, 146 o-Phthalaldehyde (OPA), 35-6 Phycocyanins, 189, 199 Phylogenetics, cyanobacteria, 149, 150 Physostigmine, 194 Phytoplankton see Dinoflagellates Picric acid, 33 Pigments, cyanobacteria, 149, 188-9 Placopecten magellanicus, 131 Planktivorous fish, 15 Plankton, 91 Planktothrix, 153 Planozygote, 6, 14 Plates, dinoflagellates, 2, 7, 8, 13-14, 16 Plectropomus leopardus, 13, 106, 109, 110, 117, 135 Pneumonia, 199 Point Reyes, 122 Polymorphism, 6, 8, 149 Polypeptides, 146, 159 Polyphosphate, 149 Population dynamics, 136 Pores, 14, 16, 17-18 field, 12 plate, 14 Porgies, 109 Portugal, 17, 90, 93 Postcingular plates, 14 Post-column reaction system (PCRS), 35, 37 Potassium channels, 52, 58, 80 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 170 Precingular plates, 14 Pregnancy, 109, 198-9 Prince Edward Island, Canada, 43, 125, 133, 233, 134, 135, 137 221 Prokaryotes, 146 Prorocentroid thecal pattern, Prorocentrolide, Prorocentrum, 2, 7, 87, 93, 105, 136 balticum, concavum, 5, 13, 14, 55 hoffmannianum, 5, 13 lima, 5, 8, 20, 13, 14, 55, 92, 134 mexicanum, 5, 13, 14 micans, 92 minimum, 5, 7, 8, 55 triestinum, 92 Prostration, 107 Protein kinase C, 55, 97, 183 Protein phosphatase (PP1), 55, 56, 56, 67, 96, 97, 98, 198 Protein phosphatase (PP2A), 55, 56, 56, 62, 96, 97, 98, 198 Protein phosphatase 2B, 55, 56 Protein phosphatase 2C, 56 Protein synthesis, 182 Protogonyaulax, 15, 16, 79, 129 tamarensis/catenella see Alexandrium Prototheca staminea, 131 Protozoa, 177 Pruritus, 108 Prymnesiophyceae, 187 Prymnesium parvum, 96 Pseudanabaena, 153, 154, 255, 156-7 catenata, 147, 157 Pseudanabaenaceae, 153 Pseudanabaenoideae, 153 Pseudomonas, 18 Psoriasis, 109 Ptychodiscus brevis, 9, 56, 63, 88, 123-4 Public health monitoring, 29 Puerto Rico, 117, 118, 201 Department of Health, 118 Puffer fish, 18, 52, 75, 78, 83 Pure cultures, cyanobacteria, 151 Purple photobacteria, 146 Pusules, Pyrodinium, 2, 15, 16-7, 51, 79 bahamense, 6, 16 bahamense var compressum, 5, 15 Pyrrhophyta, 187 see also Dinoflagellates Quebec, 136, 137 Queensland, 197 Quincke edema, 109 Quinones, 202 Quisquilate, 66 Radioactivity labelling, 178 Radioimmunoassay (RIA), 34, 39, 42, 112 Radiolabeling, 50 222 INDEX Rating scale, mouse bioassay, 41, 42 Razor clams, 120, 131 Recreational water, 199, 200-1, 204 Recumbency, 194 Red algae, 15 Red snapper, 135 Red tides, 9, 78, 90 hotline, 121 'Red water', 129 Reef fish see Ciguatera fish poisoning Reefs, 78, 106, 110, 111, 112 Regulation ciguatera poisoning, 111, 112 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 99-100 see also Canada, United States of America Renal failure, 167 Reproduction, cyanophyceans, 148 Respiration, 182, 188 Response time, 138 Reversed phase chromatography, 40, 43 Rhodamine, 180 Rhode Island, 120, 123 Rhodophyceae, 146 Rifampicin, 178 Rifampin, 192 Right branch block, 108, 110-1 Risk assessment, 99, 100, 136, 138, 204 Rivulariaceae, 153 Rock cods, 109 ROESY, 170 Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 94, 95, 190 St Lawrence Estuary, 129, 130, 230, 131, 135, 137 Salamanders, 18 Salinity, Salisbury, Rhodesia, 196 Salivation, 83 Salmonella typhimurium, 97 Salt, 32 Sampling see Monitoring Sardinella, 78 Satellite Imagery, 124, 126 Saxidomus giganteus, 79, 131 Saxitoxin, 15, 16, 18, 51, 52, 75, 158 analysis, 32, 33, 34, 35, 168, 170, 172 compared to brevetoxins, 57, 58 control, Canada, 131 In-vitro effects, 51-2 molecular pharmacology, 52-A, 53, 67, 78, 7980, 295, 196 Scallops, 78, 87, 90, 121, 122, 124 Scandinavia, 89 Scanning electron microscopy, 8, 180, 181 Scari toxin, 13, 106 Schizothrix, 153, 154, 255, 157 calcicola, 147, 157, 196, 199 Schizotrichaceae, 153 Scytonemataceae, 153 Α-Scorpion toxins, 59, 62 Scotoma, 107 Scrippsiella, Scytonema, 153 pseudohofmanni, 147 Sea anemone toxin, 62, 63 Sea bass, 109 Seabirds, 12 Sea perch, 109 Sea spray, 123-4 Sea-urchin bioassay, 12 Seasonality, 6, 120, 121-2, 124 Sedimentation treatment, 197 Selaroides, 78 SEM, 8, 180, 181 Sentinel mussel sampling, 123 Sep-Pak cartridges, 167 Serine, 56, 182, 183 Sewage treatment, 204 Sewickley, Pennsylvania, 196 Sexual reproduction, Sexually dimorphic, Shape, dinoflagellates, 8, 12 Shellfish, 78, 168 industry, USA, 117 see also Bivalves, Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, Paralytic shellfish poisoning, Venerupin shellfish poisoning Silymarin, 192 Similarity, cyanobacteria, 149 Single-cell protein (SCP), 200 Sinusal bradycardia, 108 Size, dinoflagellates, 12 Skin rash, 108 Small intestine, 94, 95-6, 97, 178 Smooth muscle, 51, 56, 96, 182 Snapper (Lutjanus bohar), 13, 106, 109, 110, 117 Socioeconomic implications of seafood toxin monitoring, 136-41, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 Sodium borotritiide, 58 Sodium channels, 1, 50, 67 brevetoxins, 57, 58-9, 59 Ciguatoxin, 61-2, 62, 63, 63, 106, 112 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 96 neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, 18, 52-4, 53, 78, 79-80, 83, 196 analysis, 34 management, 84 Sodium cyanide, 78 Soft-shell clams (Mya arenaria), 131 Sogndal, Norway, 92 Soil erosion, 204 South America, 90 South Korea, 17 INDEX 223 South Pacific Commission, 111 South Pacific Epidemiological and Health Information Service, 111 South Puget Sound, 121 Spain, 8, 12, 17, 89-90, 92 Spanish mackerel, 109, 110 Spectral techniques, 149 Spindle, Spirulina, 200 Spisula solidissima, 9, 131 Sponges, 54-5 see Okadaic acid Sporopollenin, Squid, 52, 53, 58 Starfish, 18 Steroids, 109 Stick test, 42 Stigonematales, 153 Stomach tumours, 97 Structure, cyanophyceans, 148 STX toxin, 34 Suckling mouse assay, 39, 88, 94 Suffolk County Department of Health Services, 123 Sulcal intrusion, 12 lists, 7, 16 plates, 7, 16, Sulfated toxins, 92 Sulfocarbamoyl toxins, 31-2, 32, 35, 37, 79 Sunray Venus clams, Surface ornamentation, Surf clams (Spisula solidissima), 9, 131 Surgeon fish (Ctenochaetus striatus), 106, 110 Surgeon General of the United States, 119 Surveillance, 112 Sweden, 89, 92 Swiss Albino mice, 66 Symptomatology see Clinical symptoms Synaptosomes, 58, 60 Synechococcoideae, 153 Synechococcus, 147, 153, 154, 255, 156 Synechocystis, 146, 153, 154, 255, 156 Systematics, 145, 146, 148-50 compared Ciguatoxin, 61, 62 in-vitro effects, 52, 53 molecular pharmacology, 52, 54, 79-80 Texas, Thecal pattern, plates, 17 Thermic sensation, 81, 107, 108, 111, 112 Thin layer chromatography, 35, 170 Thiol metabolism, 182 Thoracic carcinoma, 179 lymphosarcoma, 179 Threonine, 56, 182, 183 Tingling, 123 Tissue culture, 34 Toadstool peptide toxin, 178 Tolypothrix, 153 byssoidea, 147 Tolypotrichoideae, 153 Tourism, 135, 140 Toxicosis, 188 Toxin profile, 32, 34 Transduction, 49, 50 Transmission electron microscopy, Tremors, 107, 194 Trend analysis, 136 Trevallies, 109 Trichocysts, Trichodesmium, 152, 153, 154, 255, 157 erythraeum, 147, 157 Trichomes, cyanophyceans, 148, 149, 154, 157, 158, 159 Trifluoroacetic acid, 170 Trigger-fish, 110 Trinidad, 12 Trypan blue dye, 180 Trypsin, 168 Tumors blue green algae, 179, 182, 183-4, 198, 199, 204 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 97, 98 single cell protein, 200 Turban shells, 110 Tycoplanktonic, 14 Tahiti, 110 Tapes philippinarum, 131 Tasmania, 17 Taxonomy see Cyanophyceae Teleocidin, 55 TEM (transmission electron microscopy), Temperature, sea, 2, 131 Teratogenic activity, 198-9 12-O-Tetradecanoyl phorbol-3-acetate (TPA), 97 Tetrahydropurine, 51, 79 Tetrodotoxin, 18, 75, 78, 81, 83 compared brevetoxin, 57, 58, 59 UBE Industries, Inc., 39, 125 Ultrastructure, cyanobacteria, 149 Ultra violet detection, 35, 43, 133 United States of America, control measures, 117, 126 amnesic shellfish poisoning, 125-6 ciguatera, 106, 118 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, 124—5 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 119, 125, 126 National Marine Fisheries Service, 122 National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 119 224 INDEX United States of America, control measures—con id neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, 123-4 paralytic shellfish poisoning, 119-23, 220 shellfish and finfish industry, 117-8 Uric acid, 200 Urticaria, 109 Uruguay, 90 USSR, 90 Uterine adenocarcinoma, 179 Vagotonic features, 108 Variability, analysis, 30, 33 Vasoconstrictor nerves, 82 Vasodepression, 82 Vasodilator nerves, 82 Venerupin shellfish poisoning, distribution, Venezuela, 12, 76 Ventilation, 84 Ventral flange, 12 Verapamil, 65 Veratridine, 58, 59, 62, 62 Veratrum alkaloids, 59 Vibrio, 18 alginolyticus, 18 Viral contamination, 134 Visual blurring, 107 Vitamin B 6, 109 Vitamin B 2, 109 Vitamin C, 109 Vitiligo, 109 Voltage, membrane, 50 Voltage clamp experiments, 58 Waddensea, Netherlands, 89, 91, 93 Wandering pacemaker, 108 Washington, 119, 120-2 Water samples, blue green algae, 165-6, 173, 196-7, 204 enzymic methods, 171-2 HPLC, 168-9 immunoassay, 172-3 in-vitro testing, 166-8 microbial methods, 170-1 molecular characterization methods, 169-70 neurotoxin detection and measurement, 170 West Indies, 106, 111 Whelks (Buccinum undatum), 131 Workshop on Harmful Algal Blooms, Canada, 136 World War 2, 106 Wrasses, 109 Xanthid crabs, 78 Xanthophylls, 149 Yessotoxin (ΥΤΧ), 7, 88, 92, 98, 99 analysis, 37, 134 compared Ciguatoxin, 63, 105 toxicity, 94, 95, 96 Zinc, 32-3, 137, 138 Zooplankton, 79 Zygotes, 6, 16 .. .Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water This page intentionally left blank Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water edited by IAN R FALCONER University of Adelaide, Australia ACADEMIC PRESS... Center, Brooklyn, New York, NY, USA Olav M Skulberg, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway Randi Skulberg, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway Karen A Steidinger,... and other marine ALGAL TOXINS IN SEAFOOD AND DRINKING WATER ISBN 0-12-247990-4 Copyright © 1993 Academic Press Ltd All rights of reproduction in any form reserved Κ A STEIDINGER organism mortalities,