Breadmaking © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Related titles: More baking problems solved (ISBN 978-1-84569-382-4) When things go wrong in the bakery, the pressures of production not allow time for research into the solution Solving these baking problems has always been the province of ‘experts’ However, with a methodical approach, keen observation and a suitable reference book then the answers to many bakery problems are straightforward The companion volume to the popular Baking problems solved, More baking problems solved contains the answers to further frequently asked questions Once again arranged in a practical question-and-answer format, it enables busy bakery professionals to understand causes of their problems and implement solutions It is of invaluable use to all bakery professionals, bakery students, food technologists and product developers Cereal grains (ISBN 978-1-84569-563-7) The quality of cereal products is dependent to a large extent on the suitability of the cereal grains processed Therefore it is essential that cereals producers and handlers understand grain quality requirements for different end uses Grain suppliers and users must also be able to rapidly and accurately assess grain end-use quality and use this information to direct their grain quality management activities This book provides a convenient and comprehensive overview of academic research and industry best practice in these areas Chapters review quality aspects of different cereals and also specific aspects of grain quality analysis and management Technology of functional cereal products (ISBN 978-1-84569-177-6) Cereal grains and their fractions contain many health-protecting compounds, such as phytochemicals, vitamins and indigestible carbohydrates, but the texture and taste of functional cereal products can be less than ideal Technology of functional cereal products reviews technologies for producing a wide range of cereal products with different health-promoting properties and more acceptable sensory quality Introductory chapters summarise the health effects of whole grains and cereal components such as resistant starch The second part of the book focuses on technologies to improve the quality of a wide range of cereal products, such as fortified breads, pasta and products made from non-wheat grains such as oats and rye Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s titles can be obtained by: • • • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 832819; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 499140 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80, High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK) contacting our US office (e-mail: usmarketing@woodheadpublishing.com; tel (215) 928 9112; address: Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA) If you would like e-versions of our content, please visit our online platform: www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Please recommend it to your librarian so that everyone in your institution can benefit from the wealth of content on the site © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition: Number 229 Breadmaking Improving quality Second edition Edited by Stanley P Cauvain © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2012931170 ISBN 978-0-85709-060-7 (print) ISBN 978-0-85709-569-5 (online) ISSN 2042-8049 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (print) ISSN 2042-8057 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (online) The Publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk, UK Printed by TJI Digital, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Contents Contributor contact details Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xv xxi Introduction to breadmaking S Cauvain, BakeTran, UK 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Wheat and its special properties 1.3 Converting wheat to flour 1.4 Food safety and nutrition 1.5 Making bread 1.6 Functional ingredients 1.7 Bread in the future 1.8 References Breadmaking: an overview S Cauvain, BakeTran, UK 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Bread dough development 2.3 Breadmaking processes 2.4 What determines bread quality? 2.5 Dough mixing and processing 2.6 Cell creation during mixing 2.7 Dough processing 2.8 Gas bubble control during dough processing 2.9 Proving and baking 2.10 Future trends 2.11 Sources of further information and advice 2.12 References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 11 12 15 19 21 22 25 26 28 29 29 vi Contents Part I Wheat and flour quality 33 The chemistry and biochemistry of wheat H J Cornell, RMIT University, Australia 3.1 The structure and composition of the wheat kernel 3.2 Wheat carbohydrates 3.3 Wheat proteins 3.4 Wheat lipids 3.5 Wheat enzymes and their roles 3.6 Pigments and their structures 3.7 Recent developments in wheat utilisation 3.8 Future trends 3.9 Sources of further information and advice 3.10 References 35 Techniques for analysing wheat proteins A M Gil, University of Aveiro, Portugal 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Separation methods 4.3 Analysing molecular properties 4.4 Rheological measurements 4.5 Infrared spectroscopy 4.6 NMR spectroscopy 4.7 Electron spin resonance spectroscopy 4.8 Future trends 4.9 Acknowledgements 4.10 References 77 Wheat proteins and bread quality E N Clare Mills, N Wellner, L A Salt, J Robertson and J A Jenkins, Institute of Food Research, UK 5.1 Introduction: cereal protein classification 5.2 Cereal proteins and breadmaking quality 5.3 Prolamin structure and bread quality 5.4 Soluble proteins, xylanase inhibitors and bread quality 5.5 Detergent-solubilised proteins and bread quality 5.6 Genomics and the wheat grain proteome 5.7 Conclusion and future trends 5.8 Acknowledgements 5.9 References 100 Wheat starch structure and bread quality A.-C Eliasson, Lund University, Sweden 6.1 Introduction: the importance of starch structure to bread quality 123 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 35 42 51 64 66 68 68 70 70 72 77 78 80 81 83 85 91 93 95 95 100 107 108 111 113 115 117 118 118 123 Contents 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Starch properties and baking performance Physico-chemical properties of starch in relation to the baking process Starch structure and chemical composition Future trends Sources of further information and advice References Assessing grain quality C W Wrigley, Wrigley Consulting, Sydney, Australia and I L Batey, Sunset Consulting, Sydney, Australia 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The importance of quality assessment at harvest 7.3 The grain chain 7.4 Analysis during breeding to achieve quality targets 7.5 Analysis on-farm to achieve quality targets 7.6 Sampling aims and methods 7.7 Analysis at grain receival to achieve quality targets 7.8 Analysis during storage and transport to achieve quality targets 7.9 Analysis in buying and blending to achieve flourquality targets 7.10 Future trends 7.11 Sources of further information and advice 7.12 References Milling and flour quality G M Campbell, C Webb and G W Owens, Satake Centre for Grain Process Engineering, University of Manchester, UK and M G Scanlon, University of Manitoba, Canada 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Flour milling 8.3 Recent developments in flour milling 8.4 Flour milling and flour quality 8.5 Milling research 8.6 The future of flour milling 8.7 Conclusion 8.8 Acknowledgements 8.9 References Wheat breeding and quality evaluation in the US M Tilley and Y R Chen, Center for Grain and Animal Health Research, USA and R A Miller, Kansas State University, USA 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Wheat classification © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 vii 124 131 134 140 141 141 149 149 151 154 156 158 161 165 177 178 179 181 181 188 188 189 196 201 206 212 213 213 214 216 216 218 viii Contents 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Selection of wheat varieties with desired characteristics Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 10 Improving wheat protein quality for breadmaking: the role of biotechnology P R Shewry and H D Jones, Rothamsted Research, UK 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Wheat gluten proteins and dough strength 10.3 High molecular weight (HMW) subunits and bread quality 10.4 The genetic transformation of wheat 10.5 Manipulating HMW subunit composition and dough properties 10.6 Prospects for using genetic modification (GM) to improve wheat processing quality 10.7 Sources of further information and advice 10.8 Acknowledgements 10.9 References 221 233 234 235 237 237 238 240 244 246 251 252 252 253 11 Novel approaches to modifying wheat flour processing characteristics and health attributes: from genetics to food technology S Islam, W Ma, G Yan, F Bekes and R Appels, CSIRO Plant Industry, Australia 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Exploiting natural variation in gluten proteins to modify wheat quality 11.3 The genetic modification of wheat 11.4 Use of non-wheat flours to modify bread quality attributes 11.5 Modifications to reduce wheat allergy and intolerance 11.6 Conclusions 11.7 References 261 266 268 274 282 284 Part II Dough development and particular bread ingredients 297 12 Bread aeration and dough rheology: an introduction G M Campbell and P J Martin, Satake Centre for Grain Process Engineering, University of Manchester, UK 12.1 Introduction: the appeal of raised bread and the unique rheology of wheat flour doughs 12.2 The history of bread aeration studies 12.3 The history of dough rheology studies 12.4 Methods for studying bread aeration and dough rheology 299 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 259 259 299 301 303 308 Contents 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 ix Breadmaking – a series of aeration/rheology interactions The future of bread aeration and rheology research Conclusions Acknowledgements Further reading References 314 325 325 327 328 329 13 The molecular basis of bread dough rheology P S Belton, University of East Anglia, UK 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Factors affecting dough rheology 13.3 Polymer networks in doughs 13.4 The molecular mechanism of energy storage in dough 13.5 How much dough rheology can we explain? 13.6 Future trends 13.7 Sources of further information and advice 13.8 References 337 14 The role of water in dough formation and bread quality A Schiraldi and D Fessas, University of Milan, Italy 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Dough as a dispersed system 14.3 Water displacements and time-dependent properties of the dough 14.4 Future trends 14.5 Sources of further information and advice 14.6 References 15 Foam formation in dough and bread quality P Wilde, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, UK 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Principles of foam formation and stability 15.3 Surface-active dough components 15.4 The role of the aqueous phase of dough 15.5 Analytical techniques 15.6 Future trends 15.7 Sources of further information and advice 15.8 References 16 Controlling bread dough development S Millar and G Tucker, Campden BRI, UK 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Dough rheology during mixing 16.3 Dough development 16.4 Oxidising and reducing agents © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 337 338 341 344 347 348 349 349 352 352 354 359 365 366 366 370 370 371 377 379 389 393 394 394 400 400 401 403 407 788 Index non-cereal starches, 718 oats, 717 proteins, 719–20 pseudocereals, 714–15 rice, 713–14 sorghum, 716–17 wheat starch, 717 cohesiveness, 563–4 combined hedonic aroma response measurement (CHARM), 538 Community Reference Laboratory (CRL), 640 competitive adsorption, 374 competitive inhibition, 474 confocal laser scanning microscopy, 719 conjugated mycotoxins see masked mycotoxins constituent parts, 207 corn see Zea mays CPMG pulse, 360 crumb baking, 665 crumbliness, 564 crust flaking, 664–87, 665 crust quality, 670 cultivar, 165 CXC sequence, 104 cyclodextrinase, 759 cysteine, 448–9 dairy proteins, 719–20 deamidation, 277 debranning, 197–8, 692 Satake Peritec system, 198 defatted rice bran, 704 deformation resistance, 564 ‘degree of cook’ see degree of starch gelatinisation degree of starch gelatinisation, 774 dehydro-L-ascorbic acid, 461 delayed-type hypersensitivity, 712 deoxynivalenol, 626–7 detection frequency method, 538 detergent-solubilised proteins bread quality, 113–15 puroindolines, 114–15 deuterium oxide, 338 di-acyl tartaric esters of monoglycerides (DATEM), 378 dielectric analysis (DEA), 582 dielectric relaxation spectroscopy, 587 dietary fibre, 702, 736 dietary specifications bread formulation, 711–28 future trends, 727–8 glycaemic index and glycaemic load, 721–3 low glycaemic index bread, 722–3 high dietary fibre bread, 723–7 non-wheat fibres supplemented bread, 725–7 wholegrain bread, 724–5 wheat allergy and coeliac disease, 712–21 wheat-free/gluten-free bread, 713–21 differential scanning calorimetry, 434, 582 dipole–dipole interactions, 86 diseases of civilisation, 711, 727 dispersal system, 354–9 desorption isotherms of dough, 358 DTG from wheat flour, 356 Knudsen DTG traces of manually mixed dough, 358 disproportionation, 375–7 disulphide linkages, 340 dividing, 23–4 DNA delivery, 244–5 Do-Maker, 301 Dobraszczyk–Roberts dough inflation system, 83, 568–9 double compression test, 572 double-grinding roller mill, 199 dough rheology assessment during mixing, 565–71 Brabender Extensograph close-up, 569 Chopin instrument, 566 Dobraszczyk–Roberts dough system inflation curve, 570 Kieffer dough and gluten rig extensibility curve, 570 laboratory-scale mixer energy curves, 565 moulder damage on loaf, 568 Perten and Barbender instruments, 567 plant-scale mixer energy curves, 566 texture analysis applications, 562–78 future trends, 578 instrumental analysis principles and types, 564–71 dough conditioners, 487 dough densities, 308 dough development, 403–6 control, 414–19 fixed dough consistency mixing, 417–19 fixed energy input mixing, 415–16 fixed or rising dough temperature mixing, 416–17 fixed time mixing, 414 cross-linking of gluten matrix, 404 Osborne fractions of plants and wheat proteins, 404 dough formation, 431, 505–10 brews and sponges, 507 rheology, dough processing and water level, 507–10 dough piece moulder damage, 509 gas bubble structure damage mechanism, 510 loaf shape distortion, 508 water levels upon different dough making processes, 508 water movement in breadmaking, 506 dough freezing, 363–5 dough mixing, 2, 19–21, 360–1, 388 cell creation, 21–2 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index fixed consistency, 417–19 differing torque curves, 418 power consumption curve, 419 fixed energy input, 415–16 mixer torque curve, 415 fixed or rising temperature, 416–17 fixed time, 414 rheology, 401–3 generalised mixograph curve, 401 dough processing, 19–21, 22–5 dividing, 23–4 final moulding, 25 gas bubble control, 25–6 intermediate or first proving, 24 rounding and first moulding, 24 sheet-and-cut and laminating lines, 25 dough proofing, 362–3 dough quality dough physical state, 433–5 frozen dough physical state, 436–7 molecular mobility in dough state diagram, 436 molecular mobility, 430–43 dough formation, 431 dough microstructure representation, 432 future trends, 442–3 glass transition, 431–3 properties in baking, 437–9 baked dough molecular mobility, 438–9 dough rheology, 299–327 bread making, 314–25 energy storage molecular mechanism, 344–7 factors, 338–41 mobile fraction variation of high molecular weight subunits, 339 future trends, 325 history, 303–7 loop and train model, 347–8 mixing, 401–3 generalised mixograph curve, 401 molecular basis, 337–49 polymer networks, 341–4 raised bread and wheat flour, 299–301 cereal-based food products classification, 302 studying methods, 308–14 biaxial extensional rheology of bread dough, 311 dough strength, 238–40 DoughLab, 310 down-regulation, 250–1 drought, 159 dry processing, 744–5 dry yeast, 674 DTG peak, 361 Dupond, 645 durum wheat, 218, 221 DUS, 157 dynamic headspace, 533 789 dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), 582 dysbiosis, 618 EC 1.13.11.12, 487 EC 2.3.2.13, 488 EC 3.5.1.1, 488 EC 178/2002, 637 EC 178/2010, 620 EC 401/2006, 620, 643 EC 576/2006, 637 EC 1784/2003, 630 EC 1881/2006, 632, 634, 637 effective diffusion coefficient, 591 egg proteins, 720 ‘Ehrlich–Neubauer–Fromherz’ pathway, 527 einkorn wheat, 35 elasticity, 564, 569 electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 589 electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), 135 electron spin resonance spectroscopy, 81, 91–3 conventional ESR spectra of 4-maleimido-TEMPO spin-labelled gluten, 94 1H NMR spectra of Amazonia gluten, 93 electrostatic separation, 692 Eleusine coracana, 716 ellipsometry, 392 ‘Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas’ route, 528 emmer wheat, 35 emulsifiers, 378–9 emulsion, 502 encapsulation, 554 end-product quality, 154 end product signature, 562 Endomyces fibuliger, 608, 610 endoproteases, 474 endosperm, 37–8 amino acid level in hard red wheat, 37 endoxylanases, 483 energy storage molecular mechanism in dough, 344–7 beta sheet content change, 346 hydration effect on HMW subunits interaction and structure, 345 enriched flour, 694 enthalpies, 140 enzymatic processing, 276–7 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 638 enzymes, 720–1 baking examples, 488–93 breadmaking applications, 470–93 amylases, 477–82 future trends, 493 lipases, 485–6 other enzymes, 488 oxidoreductases, 486–8 xylanases, 482–3 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 790 Index Chorleywood bread procedure, 492 phospholipase vs traditional emulsifiers, 492 commercial production, 474–6 extended shelf life, 490 crumb firmness and elasticity vs maltogenic α–amylase dosage, 490 flour supplementation, 489 fungal-amylase dosages influence, 489 frozen part-baked bread, 492 frozen products, 492–3 genetically modified organism (GMO), 476 nature of, 471–4 definition, 471 enzyme kinetics, 473 factors influencing activity, 473–4 induced fit model illustration, 472 nomenclature, 471–2 specificity, 472–3 structure, 472 other bread types, 493 overnight-fermented bread, 490–1 phospholipase vs traditional emulsifiers, 491 proteolytic enzymes, 483–5 protease action and reducing agent on gluten illustration, 484 straight dough process, 490 different amylases effect on volume and crumb structure, 491 unproved frozen dough, 492–3 equilibrium relative humidity (ERH), 516 Eragrostis tef, 716 ergot, 629–31 ergotamine, 630 ergotism, 617 ESR spectrum, 92 essential oils, 604–7 esterifying agents, 338 ethanol, 602 ethanol emitter (EE), 551 EU 165/2010, 632 EU-FRESHBAKE project, 671, 675 EUREKA project, 644 European Commission, 775 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 725 Eurotium amstelodami, 607 Eurotium herbariorum, 607 Eurotium repens, 598, 601, 607 Eurotium rubrum, 601, 607 Eurotium sp., 598–9, 601, 606 exoproteases, 484 expressed sequence tags (ESTs), 115 extended shelf life, 490 extensibility, 564, 567 Extensimeter see alveograph extensograph, 310 EyeFoss, 645 Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, 714, 755 Fagopyrum tartaricum Gaertner, 714 falling number, 126, 229 FAO Economic and Social Department, 697 FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 81, 631, 633 farinograph, 309 farm analysis to achieve quality targets, 158–61 grain filling risks, 159–61 grain variety requirements, 158 soil and nutrients requirements, 158–9 fat, 17–18 fermentation, 128, 456–7, 525–8 fibre definition, 738 dry processing, 744–5 modification, 744–8 sources, 737–41 cereal and non-cereal based fibre sources dietary fibre contents, 738 wet processing, 745–8 bran breads staling measurements, 747 bran supplemented breads specific volumes, 746 field flow fractionation, 405 field sampling, 164 finger millet see Eleusine coracana finger span cross-modality matching (FSCM), 538 firmness, 563 flavour, 524 flour, 16–17 mycotoxin contamination, 614–50 analytical techniques development, 637–43 associated problems in food chain, 618–21 future trends, 646–50 legislation, 631–7 non-invasive and rapid (screening) techniques development, 644–5 wheat conversion, flour colour, 229 flour divides, 203–4 flour manufacture, 189 flour maturing, 454–5 flour milling, 188–214, 189–96, 201–6 future trends, 212–13 modern evolution, 190–2 ‘French’ process’ for flour milling, 191 modern process, 192–6 block diagram representation, 193 break system, 194–5 flour release, 196 purification system, 195 reduction system, 195–6 wheat milling preparation, 192–4 recent developments, 196–201 debranning, 197–8 double-grinding roller mill, 199 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index on-line process control, 199–201 pin mill, 199 research, 206–12 flour proximates, 230 flour quality, 125–7, 188–214, 201–6, 674 automation and testing, 205–6 components, 201–2 manipulation, 203–4 product delivery, 206 technological developments, 204–5 flour release, 196 flour separation, 198 flour supplementation, 491 flour yield, 228–9 fluorescence polarisation immunoassay (FPA), 638–9 foam analytical techniques, 389–93 sample extraction and preparation, 389–90 surface techniques, 390–3 dough and bread quality, 370–94 dough aqueous phase role, 379–89 future trends, 393–4 improving functionality, 393–4 understanding the mechanism, 393 principles and stability, 371–7 foam formation, 371–3 foam stability, 373–7 surface-active dough components, 377–9 foam drainage, 373 foam formation, 371–3 bubble break-up during mixing, 372 foam stability, 373–7 folic acid, 696 food allergen, 275–9 ‘food-grade’ sorghum, 716 food polymer approach, 588 food safety, 4–5 Food Safety Modernisation Act, 637, 649 food technology wheat flour, 259–84 gluten protein variation to modify wheat quality, 261–6 modifications to reduce wheat allergy and intolerance, 274–82 non-wheat flours to modify bread quality, 268–74 precipitating factors for wheat-related health problems, 283 wheat genetic modification (GM), 266–8 fortification, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), 83, 84 Fourier transformed-infrared-attenuated total reflection (FT-IR-ATR), 645 Fox and Flory equation, 435 foxtail millet see Setaria italica fracturability, 564 free induction decay (FID), 360 free thiol oxidation, 448 791 Free Zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE), 79 freeze-tolerant yeast, 674 freezing, 661 freezing rate, 673 freezing velocity see freezing rate fringed-micelle model, 439 frozen dough technology, 443 frozen par-baked bread, 492 frozen part-baked technology, 664–71 frozen part-baked bread final baking, 667–8 frozen part-baked bread quality management, 668–71 partial baking and crust flaking impact, 664–7 baking conditions impact on centre of bread, 666 baking plateau duration impact on bread crumb, 667 partial baking impact on glycaemic index, 671 frozen products, 492–3 fructan, 741 fumonisins, 623–4 EU regulation maximum level in cereal products, 624 functional cereal foods, 69 functional ingredients, 6–7 fungal α-amylase, 479–80 Fusarium acuminatum, 628 Fusarium anthophilum, 623 Fusarium culmorum, 609, 625 Fusarium equiseti, 628 Fusarium graminearum, 609–10, 625 Fusarium moniliforme see Fusarium verticillioides Fusarium nygamai, 623 Fusarium poae, 628 Fusarium proliferatum, 623 Fusarium sp., 604, 614, 616–20 Fusarium sporotrichioides, 628–9 Fusarium verticillioides, 623–4 γ–relaxation, 433 gamma gliadins, 267 gas bubble, 25–6, 371 gas cells, 373 gas chromatography, 537 gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), 537 gassing power, 674 gelatinisation, 129, 131 gels, 502 genetic modification (GM) wheat, 266–8 wheat quality improvement, 251–2 genetic transformation wheat, 244–6 characterisation, 246 DNA delivery, 244–5 regeneration and selection, 245 genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 476 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 792 Index genetics HMW subunit, 240–2 SDS-PAGE from wheat genotypes, 242 wheat flour, 259–84 gluten protein variation to modify wheat quality, 261–6 modifications to reduce wheat allergy and intolerance, 274–82 non-wheat flours to modify bread quality, 268–74 precipitating factors for wheat-related health problems, 283 wheat genetic modification (GM), 266–8 genomics wheat grain, 115–17 plant genes function and distribution, 117 germinating wheat, 278 Gibberella fujikuroi see Fusarium verticillioides Gibbs–Marangoni mechanism, 374 glass transition, 364 glass transition temperature, 432, 436–7, 582 glasses, 430 gliadins, 55–6, 238–40, 264, 449–50 properties, 56 subunits separation, 239 globulin, 100 glucose oxidase, 463, 487, 759–60 glutamatic, 230 glutathione, 452 glutathione dehydrogenase, 461 glutelin, 100 gluten, 11, 19, 266 gluten-free bread, 272–5 gluten intolerance see coeliac disease gluten network, 10 gluten protein, 449–52 classification and characteristics, 450 disulfide structures schematic, 451 variation to modify wheat quality, 261–6 antigenicity and allergenicity, 262–3 gluten content, 266 gluten-to-gliadin ratio, 262 high molecular weight glutenin subunit (HMWGS), 263–4 low molecular weight glutenin subunit (LMWGS) identification, 264 water-soluble proteins, 264–6 gluten-to-gliadin ratio, 262 glutenin macro polymer (GMP), 307 glutenins, 54–5, 238–40, 264, 449 HMW subunits, 107–8 properties, 55 subunits separation, 239 gluten–starch matrix, 380 glycaemic carbohydrate, 721 glycaemic index, 721–3 glycaemic load, 721–3 glycolysis, 527 glycoproteins, 62 Gordon–Taylor equation, 436 grab sampling, 162 grain blending, 178–9 grain breakage, 207–11 feed, design and operational factors, 209 grain buying, 178–9 grain chain, 151, 154–6 dough strength as Rmax in Brabender units, 155 grain quality attributes in wheat products, 155 grain contaminants, 167–71 bunt spores in brush end of grains, 168 Ergot bodies growing in wheat bread, 168 insect-eaten grains, 171 grain defects, 167–71 bunt spores in brush end of grains, 168 Ergot bodies growing in wheat bread, 168 insect-eaten grains, 171 grain filling, 159–61 mixograph curves for dough from heat shocked grain during filling, 161 grain hardness, 171–3, 207–11 mill deposition effect on particle size distribution, 210 Grain Inspection Packers and Stockyard Administration, 772 grain moisture, 166–7 grain particle, 211–12 grain protein content, 175 quality, 176 grain quality, 149–81, 152 breeding analysis, 156–7 buying and blending analysis, 178–9 future trends, 179–81 grain chain, 154–6 grain receival analysis, 167–77 on-farm analysis, 158–61 overview, 149–51 attributes, 151 value-addition chain of events, 150 quality assessment at harvest, 151–4 sampling aims and methods, 161–5 storage and transport analysis, 177–8 grain receival analysis to achieve quality targets, 165–77 defects and contaminants, 167–71 grain hardness, 171–3 grain moisture content, 166–7 pre-harvest sprouting, 171 protein content, 174 protein quality, 176 starch properties, 176–7 test weight, 168 variety identification, 173–4 grain storage, 177–8 grain transport, 177–8 grain variety, 158 identification, 173–4 ‘Lab-on-a-chip’ analysis, 175 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index ‘green’ dough technology see non-fermented frozen dough technology group specificity, 472 guar gums, 742 gums see hydrocolloids 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry, 587 halogenates, 460–1 hammer milling, 773 hand feel, 309 Hansenula sp., 549 Hanson, M., 305 hard red spring wheat, 218, 221 hard red winter wheat, 218, 220 hard white wheat, 218, 221 hardness, 563 harvest quality assessment, 151–4 loaf volume results for flour samples, 153 harvested grain, 164–5 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), 615, 621 hazelnut testa, 704 headspace extraction methods, 533–4 heat-shock response, 160 hemicellulose, 739 high-fibre breads fibre enriched foods quality improvement, 744–9 baking procedure optimisation, 748–9 fibre modification, 744–8 fibre sources, 737–41 fibre definition, 737–8 insoluble fibre, 739–40 soluble fibre, 740–1 high-fibre baking challenges, 741–4 flavour, 744 volume and texture, 742–3 quality improvement, 738–50 fibre use rationale, 736–7 future trends, 749–50 high-intensity mixers, 409 high molecular weight glutenin subunit (HMWGS), 263–4, 267 high-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE), 79 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 638 high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), 79 HMW subunits, 338–9, 340, 344, 347–8 bread quality, 240–4 association of aggregated gluten proteins with baking quality, 241 composition and breadmaking correlation, 242–3 genetics, 240–2 quality scores, 243 793 quantitative and qualitative effects on breadmaking, 244 quantitative variation, 243 composition manipulation and dough properties, 246–51 gene down-regulation, 250–1 gene effects on functional properties, 249 general consideration, 246–9 overexpression effect, 250 transgenic wheat mixing properties analysis, 248 glutenins, 107–8 Holy Fire see St Anthony’s Fire horizontal bar mixer, 409 HT-22 toxin, 627–9 hydrocolloids, 552–3, 675, 718–9, 740 hydrogen bond, 500 hydrogen nucleus, 499 hydrogen peroxide, 463 hydroxonium ions, 500 hypercalcemia, 696 ideal fluid, 305 IgE antibody, 712 improvers, 18–19, 303 Indian Central Food Technological Research Institute (CTFRI), 768 induced fit model, 472 infrared spectroscopy, 81, 83–5 Fourier-deconvoluted FTIR spectra of HMW spectra, 85 injera, 761, 763–4 Kisra making machine, 764 production flow chart, 763 innovative extraction techniques, 534–7 volatile extraction during baking, 534–6 on-line extraction device schematic, 535 volatile extraction under in-mouth conditions, 536–7 artificial mouth schematic, 537 insects, 170 insoluble dietary fibre, 723, 739–40 International Agency of Research on Cancer (IARC), 618 International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), 618 inulin, 726 iodate, 460 ion exchange (IE) chromatography, 57 isabgol see ispaghula husk ISO 9000, 205 isoelectric focusing (IEF), 59 ispaghula husk, 758 Joined Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), 618 kernel hardness, 226–7 single-kernel classification system, 227 Kieffer extensibility rig, 568 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 794 Index kisra, 764 Kluyveromyces marxianus, 550 kneading, 526 L-ascorbic acid, 461–2 L-cysteine, 464 laboratory-scale mixers, 317 lactic acid bacteria, 549, 610 Lactobacillus brevis, 671 Lactobacillus brevis lindneri, 549 Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp bulgaricus, 550 Lactobacillus fermentum, 671 Lactobacillus plantarum, 549, 671, 774 Lactobacillus plantarum 21B, 610 Lactobacillus plantarum FST 1.7, 760 Lactobacillus sp., 737 laminating lines, 25 lamination, 411 Laplace pressure, 376 Laplace principle, 362 latent heat of vaporisation, 500 lateral flow device, 638, 775 LC/MS/MS multitoxin methods, 638, 647, 649 leavening, 299 light microscopy, 308 lignin, 739 limit of quantification, 639–40 linkage specificity, 472 lipase, 485–6, 553 gas cells stabilisation, 486 triglyceride general structure, 485 lipid-complexed amylose (LAM), 137 lipid-free amylose (FAM), 137 lipids, 378 lipoproteins, 66 lipoxygenase, 462–3, 487, 525, 553 liquid-state high-resolution NMR wheat proteins, 87–90 13C CP/MAS spectra of omega-gliadins, 89 LMW subunits, 347 LMW thiol compounds, 452–4 GSH and CSH influence on dough rheology, 454 GSH and GS levels in wheat flours, 453 lock and key model, 472 loop and train model, 347–8 low-glycaemic-index carbohydrates, 722 low-intensity mixers, 408–9 Artofex mixer, 408 low molecular weight glutenin subunit (LMWGS), 264, 267 lupin flour addition with wheat in bread making, 270–2 lupin-wheat bread protein profiles, 271 Lycopersici sp., 623 lyophilic colloidal systems, 505 magic angle spinning (MAS), 86 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 677 magnetic resonance imaging tomography, 308 maize, 755 maltogenic α -amylase, 480–1 Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives, 620 marker-assisted breeding (MAS) programs, 619 Martin Process, 45 masa, 765 masked mycotoxins, 619–20, 647 mass spectrometry, 60–2 mass spectrometry-based assays, 639 ‘mastication simulator’ see artificial mouth maximum freeze-concentration, 437 mechanical dough development, 301, 456 medium-intensity mixers, 409 melanoidins, 530 membrane based immunoassays, 639 memory fluids, 306 Michaelis complex see Michaelis–Menten model Michaelis–Menten model, 473 microDoughLab, 309 mid-infrared spectroscopy, 83, 84 millets, 715–16 milling, 228 milling quality, 156 milling research, 206–12 automation, 212 grain properties, 207–11 particle properties and millstream flows, 211–12 milling to infinity system, 190 millstones, 190–1 millstream flows, 211–12 mixed inhibition, 474 mixed wheat, 219 mixing, 127, 316–18 mixograph, 401, 774 Mixolab, 309 Mize, M D., 301 modified atmosphere packaging, 517, 603, 680 molecular mass albumins, 265 molecular mobility dough, 431–7 dough and bread quality, 430–43 control for bread quality improvement, 439–42 dough properties in baking, 437–9 future trends, 442–3 molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP), 638 moth bean see Vigna aronitifolia mould-free shelf life (MFSL), 516 mould prevention, 597–610 future trends, 610 mould control techniques and limitations, 599–603 preservative concentration effect on mould-free shelf life, 600 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index mould problem in bread, 597–9 allowable preservatives under UK and EU regulations, 598 new methods development for mould control, 604–10 biopreservatives, 610 cinnamon oil effect on fungi growth, 606 effective dose of essential oils and resveratrol for control, 605 essential oils, 604–7 in situ control using anti-oxidants and essential oils, 607–9 ochratoxin content of bread, 609 synthetic anti-oxidants, 604 moulding, 318–19 final, 25 rounding and first, 24 Mucorales sp., 598 multigrain strategy, 704 Mycoderma aceti, 527 Myco6in1 LC/MS/MS, 638 mycotoxin contamination analytical techniques development, 637–43 CEN/TC 275 standards and EN-ISO methods, 641–2 lots division according to product and weight, 643 mycotoxins limit of quantification, 640 associated problems in food chain, 618–21 masked mycotoxins and co-occurrence, 619–20 prevention, 620–1 resistance, 618–9 sampling, 620 future trends, 646–50 biosensor and nanopore techniques, 648–9 climate change and biodiversity, 646–7 detoxification and decontamination, 646 horizontal food safety measures, 649–50 masked mycotoxins, 647 mycotoxins co-occurrence, 647 legislation, 631–7 summary of mycotoxins maximum levels, 634–6 non-invasive and rapid (screening) techniques development, 644–5 acoustic signal and wheat quantity relationship in modal system, 645 parent mycotoxins in bread cereals, 621–31 aflatoxins, 622–3 classification by toxicity, 622 deoxynivalenol, 626–7 ergot, 629–31 fumonisins, 623–4 ochratoxin A, 624–5 T-2 and HT-22, 627–9 zearalenone, 625–6 wheat flour and bread, 614–50 important mycotoxins for cereal products, 615–16 795 mycotoxins chemical structures, 617 mycotoxins, 599 NDM-1 gene, 618 near-infrared spectrometer, 421–2 near infrared spectroscopy, 83, 84, 313, 423–4, 645 Neurospora sitophila, 516 Neurospora sp., 598 ‘neutral’ gases, 501 Newport Scientific DoughLab, 565 Newtonian fluid, 305 nivalenol, 626 no-time dough mixing, 15 ‘no-time’ systems, 458 non-cereal starches, 718 non-competitive inhibition, 474 non-fermented frozen dough technology, 671–6 dough system freezing, 672 dough systems frozen storage, 675–6 freezing rate impact on baking performance, 673–4 non-fermented frozen dough formulation, 674–5 ‘non-freezable’ water, 515 non-starch polysaccharides, 482 non-wheat bread products, 761–9 processes and technologies, 761, 763–9 injera, 761, 763–4 papad, 766–9 tortillas, 764–6 product types, 761 traditional types, 762 non-wheat flour bread quality, 754–78 future trends, 776–8 kafirin and zein resin viscoelastic properties, 777 bread quality modification, 268–74 comparison of major nutritional components of lupin, 269 flour composition in gluten-free bread, 272–5 lupin flour with wheat in bread making, 270–2 soybean flour with wheat in bread making, 269–70 non-wheat pan breads, 755–61 gluten-free bread production, 757 grain structure and chemistry, 755–7 quality issues, 757–61 quality issues, 769–76 traditional non-wheat bread products, 761–9 processes and technologies, 761, 763–9 product types, 761 non-wheat pan breads, 755–61 gluten-free bread production, 757 grain structure and chemistry, 755–7 grain proximate composition, 756 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 796 Index wheat bread and gluten-free bread standard process, 758 quality issues, 757–61 use of enzymes, 759–60 use of hydrocolloids, 758–9 use of sourdough fermentation, 760–1 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 81, 85–91, 420 liquid-state high-resolution NMR of wheat proteins, 87–90 rheo-NMR of wheat proteins, 90–1 solid-state high-resolution NMR of wheat proteins, 87–90 solid-state low-resolution NMR of wheat proteins, 87 nutrient requirements, 158–9 nutrition, 4–5, 39–41 vitamins, RDI and levels in hard red wheat, 40 oats, 717, 725 ochratoxin A, 624–5 odour, 524 omega gliadins, 267 on-line extraction system, 535 on-line process control, 199–201 flour stream live and processed images, 200 Organisación Panamericana de la Salud (OPS), 695 Osborne classification, 78 Osborne Medal, 301 OSME, 538 oven drying method, 575 ‘oven rise’ technology see pre-fermented frozen dough technology oven step, 128–30 overexpression, 250 overnight-fermented bread, 490–1 oxidants, 458–65 see also improvers azodicarbonamide, 462–3 effects of, 459 halogenates, 460–1 L-Ascorbic acid, 461–2 lipoxygenase, 463–3 oxygen, 459–60 peroxides, 463 oxidoreductases, 486–8 oxygen, 459–60 oxygen absorber, 551 oxygen nucleus, 499 Paecilomyces spp., 634 Pan American Health Service, 701 Pan de Vida, 701 panel sensory evaluation, 776 Panicum miliaceum, 716 papad, 766–9 commercial papad products, 767 production flow chart, 768 parent mycotoxins, 621–31 aflatoxins, 622–3 EU regulation maximum level in cereal products, 624 classification by toxicity, 622 deoxynivalenol, 626–7 EU regulation maximum level in cereal products, 628 ergot, 629–31 fumonisins, 623–4 ochratoxin A, 624–5 EU regulation maximum level in cereal products, 625 T-2 and HT-22, 627–9 zearalenone, 625–6 EU regulation maximum level in cereal products, 626 part-baked breads, 512, 668 Pascale’s table, 648 pearl millet see Pennisetum glaucum pearling see debranning pectin, 741 Penicillium commune, 601, 608 Penicillium corylophilum, 601, 604, 606–7, 609–10 Penicillium expansum, 610, 634 Penicillium roqueforti, 601–2, 608 Penicillium sp., 598–9, 604–6, 614 Penicillium verrucosum, 598, 604, 606, 608–9, 624 Pennisetum glaucum, 715–16 pentosans, 51, 482 permeability, 590–1 peroxides, 463 Perten DoughLab see Newport Scientific DoughLab phase dispersion, 355 phase separation, 354, 355 phosphorous, 690 photographs, 308 physico-chemical extraction methods, 532 phytase, 693 Pichia sp., 549 pin mill, 199 plant breeding, 68–9 Plantago ovata, 726, 741, 758 plasticisation, 432 polished-grading method, 692 polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), 59 polymer crystallisation theory, 441 polymer networks dough, 341–4 equilibrium effect on cross-linked and uncross-linked polymers, 343 extension effect, 342 polymers, 377 potato flour, 718 pre-fermented frozen dough technology, 676–9 pre-harvest sprouting, 171 degrees of wheat grains, 172 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index pre-processing see debranning precision agriculture, 180 principle component analysis (PCA), 645 Prionotus punctatus, 701 product delivery, 206 prolamin, 61, 100, 102, 756 structure and bread quality, 108–11 composition, 110–11 S-poor, 109–10 propionic acid, 600–1 proso millet see Panicum miliaceum protease, 67 protein-lipid interactions, 385–6 added lipid influence on loaf volume, 386 protein subunits, 338, 340 protein–protein hydrogen bonds, 360 proteins, 719–20 protein–water hydrogen bonds, 360 proteolytic enzymes, 483–5, 553 proteome, 114–16 proving, 26–8, 319–21, 388, 510–14 dough during proofing, 27 intermediate or first first proof effect on bread quality, 24 stem contribution to crust conversion, 511–12 conversion mechanism representation, 513 water and foam to sponge formation, 512–14 pseudocereals, 714–15, 755 psyllium see Plantago ovata purification system, 195 purifiers, 195 puroindolines, 114–15 purothionins, 62 quinoa, 715, 773 Radical Bread Process, 411–14 CBP loaf structure, 413 texture and C-cell parameters, 414 raised bread, 299–301 Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), 621, 637, 649 Rapid Visco Analyser, 774 ready-to-bake products, 523 ‘ready-to-bake’ technology see pre-fermented frozen dough technology recrystallisation, 123–4 redox agents oxidants and reductants, 458–65 azodicarbonamide, 462–3 effect of oxidants, 459 halogenates, 460–1 L-Ascorbic acid, 461–2 lipoxygenase, 463–4 oxygen, 459–60 peroxides, 463 reductants, 464–5 redox reactions during processing, 454–8 baking, 457–8 dough mixing, 455–6 797 fermentation, 456–7 flour maturing, 454–5 redox state in flour, 448–54 cysteine, 448–9 gluten proteins, 449–52 LMW thiol compounds, 452–4 use in breadmaking, 447–66 future trends, 465–6 reductants, 458–65 azodicarbonamide, 462–3 halogenates, 460–1 L-Ascorbic acid, 461–2 lipoxygenase, 463–3 oxygen, 459–60 peroxides, 463 reduction system, 195–6 regional performance nursery, 223–4 Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of Chemicals (REACH), 618 relative humidity, 357–8, 358, 503 Reportable Food Registry (RFR), 621, 637, 649 resilience, 563 resistant starch, 726–7, 740, 742 retarding, 511 retrogradation, 131–3, 438, 574 reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), 78, 452 reversed phase chromatography, 57–8 pyridylethylated glutenin sub-units separation from wheat, 58 rheo-NMR, 90–1 Rhizopus stolonifer, 608 rice, 713–14, 755 rice-based gluten-free bread, 273 rice flour, 773 rice paddy, 714 roller milling method, 692 rye bread baking, 745 doughs, 512 S-poor prolamin, 109–10 Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 546, 549, 602 Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS7764, 700 Saccharomyces cerevisiae var chevalieri, 671 Safety Modernisation Act, 621 salt-soluble globulins, 264 salts, 17, 338, 339–40 sampling aims and methods, 163–5 cultivar identification, 165 field, 164 harvested grain, 164–5 standard method for analysing grain quality, 163–4 saturated vapour pressure (SVP), 503 scanning electron microscopy, 308 scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), 80–1 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 798 Index sclerotium, 629 secondary structure, 471 seed displacement, 577 selenium, 693 sensitisation phase, 712 Setaria italica, 716 sheet-and-cut, 25 sheeting, 411 short chain fatty acids, 737 signal transduction by ion nano-gating (STING) technology, 649 single-kernel characterisation system (SKCS), 180, 208, 227 single pulse excitation (SPE), 88 size exclusion chromatography, 58–9 size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC), 78, 82 skinning, 510 slow-acting oxidising improvers, 462 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), 80 SMS Texture Analyser system, 569, 572 sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), 59, 78 sodium metabisulfite, 464, 484–5 sodium steroyl lactylate, 748–9 soft red winter wheat, 218, 221 soft white wheat, 218–19, 221 softness, 563 soil requirements, 158–9 Solid Phase MicroExtraction (SPME), 533, 551 solid-state high-resolution NMR wheat proteins, 87–90 13C CP/MAS spectra of omega-gliadins, 89 solid-state low-resolution NMR wheat proteins, 87 solid-state magnetic resonance, 587 soluble dietary fibre, 723, 740–1 soluble proteins, 111–13 solvent extraction, 532 sorbic acid, 599–601 sorghum see Sorghum bicolor Sorghum bicolor, 716, 755 sourdough, 551, 552, 671, 675, 722–3, 746–7, 760 fermentation, 282, 745 technology, 279–82 MALDI-TOF mass spectra of wheat gliadin, 281 soy flour, 720 soybean flour, 269–70 specific heat capacity, 500 specificity, 472–3 spherocrystal, 48 spiral mixers, 409 spiral mixing, 15 sponge and dough, 14–15 method, 490 sponges, 507 springiness, 563 squeeze test, 310, 515 St Anthony’s Fire, 629 staling, 7, 130, 580, 667–9 starch, 755 starch crystallinity, 439–41 starch gelatinisation, 514, 773 starch granules crystalline organisation, 136–8 particles and surface, 134–6 chemical composition of large A and small B wheat starch granules, 136 DSC characteristics of A and B wheat starch granules, 136 starch retrogradation, 438–9 static headspace, 533 stereochemical specificity, 472 stickiness, 564 straight dough process, 490 strain hardening, 306 Strecker degradation, 530 submerged fermentation, 475 sucrose see sugar Sudan Food Processing Research Centre, 764 sugar, 17 sulfhydryl–disulfide interchange reaction, 260 surface rheology, 391–2 surface tension, 390–1 synthetic anti-oxidants, 604 T-2 toxin, 627–9 TA-XT2 texture analyser, 775 tartary buckwheat see Fagopyrum tartaricum Gaertner tef see Eragrostis tef tempering, 192–4, 693–4 Tenax, 536 tertiary structure, 471 test weight, 166, 226 texture analysis applications to dough and bread, 562–78 future trends, 578 bread instrumental analysis principles and types, 571–7 crumb structure measurement, 575–7 freshness assessment, 574–5 other measurements, 577 softness and resilience assessment, 572–3 definition of terms, 563–4 dough instrumental analysis principles and types, 564–71 rheology assessment during mixing, 565–71 thermodynamic incompatibility, 354–5 thermogravimetry (TG), 355 thermomechanical analysis (TMA), 582 Thermotoga maritima, 669 thin layer chromatography (TLC), 638 thiol/disulfide interchange reaction, 456 thiols glutathione (GSH), 457 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index thousand kernel weight (TKW), 227 time intensity method, 538 time-resolved fluorescence, 81 time to peak mixing, 402 tortillas, 764–6 corn tortillas, 765 industrial manufacture flow chart, 766 Trachyspermum sp., 605 transglutaminase, 488, 720–1, 760 transverse relaxation time, 587 Triticum aestivum, 261 725 Triticum speltoides, 261 Triticum tauschii, 261 Triticum turgidum, 261 TTT diagram, 363 two-photon-induced fluorescence spectroscopy (TPIF), 645 type IV allergic reaction see delayed-type hypersensitivity ultra-fine grinding, 692 ultrasound, 419–20 unclassed wheat, 221 uncompetitive inhibition, 474 United States Standards for Wheat, 218 unproved frozen dough, 492–3 urad see Vigna mungo urea, 338, 339 US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 621, 694, 696–7, 725 US Grain Standards Act (1916), 219 very high-intensity mixers, 409–11 Tweedy high-speed mixer, 410 Vigna aronitifolia, 767 Vigna mungo, 766–7 visco-elastic mechanism, 374 Vitamin A, 696 volatile compounds analysis, 532–8 extraction, 532–8 formation, 524–31 baking, 528–31 fermentation, 525–8 hydroperoxide decomposition diagram, 528 kneading, 525 linoleic acid lipoxygenase oxidation, 526 Maillard reaction schematic, 529 Maillard volatiles chemical structures, 531 yeast and bacteria fermentation pathways, 527 identification and quantification, 537 odourant volatiles determination, 537–8 Volscan Profiler, 577 VSL#3, 280 water, 18, 338–9 water absorption, 202 799 water control breadmaking, 499–518 future trends, 518 water in breadmaking, 502–5 dough formation, 505–10 brews and sponges, 507 rheology, dough processing and water level, 507–10 proving and baking, 510–14 stem contribution to crust formation, 511–12 water and foam to sponge formation, 512–14 water activity after baking, 514–17 anti-mould agents for bread, 517 bread shelf life, 515–16 ERH and MFSL relationship, 517 microbial shelf life impact, 516–17 moisture movement during cooling, 514–15 water composition and properties, 499–502 water properties, 500 water displacement dough time-dependent properties, 359–65 ageing bread, 365 dough freezing, 363–5 dough mixing, 360–1 dough proofing and baking, 362–3 water-logging, 159 water-soluble albumins, 264 water-to-protein ratio, 339 watery eye, 353 western white wheat, 219 wet chemistry method, 644 wet processing, 745–8 wheat, 447 carbohydrates, 42–51 chemistry and biochemistry, 35–70 carbohydrates, 42–51 enzymes, 66–8 future trends, 70 kernel structure and composition, 35–42 lipids, 64–6 pigments, 68 proteins, 51–64 utilisation development, 68–70 enzymes, 66–8 flour conversion, future trends, 70 genetic modification (GM), 266–8 genetic transformation, 244–6 kernel structure and composition, 35–42 lipids, 64–6 lupin flour addition in bread making, 270–2 milling preparation, 192–4 mycotoxin contamination, 614–50 analytical techniques development, 637–43 associated problems in food chain, 618–21 future trends, 646–50 legislation, 631–7 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 800 Index non-invasive and rapid (screening) techniques development, 644–5 pigments, 68 proteins, 51–64 soybean flour addition in bread making, 269–70 US breeding and quality evaluation, 216–34 classification, 218–21 future trends, 233–4 overview, 233–4 varieties selection and characteristics, 221–33 utilisation development, 68–70 vs cereals, 41–2 wheat allergy, 712–21 modification reduction, 274–82 food allergen reduction, 275–9 sourdough technology, 279–2 wheat-free/gluten-free bread, 713–21 corn, 717 enzymes, 720–1 hydrocolloids, 718–19 millets, 715–16 non-cereal starches, 718 oats, 717 proteins, 719–20 pseudocereals, 714–15 rice, 713–14 sorghum, 716–17 wheat starch, 717 wheat ash, 228 wheat bran, 742 wheat bread fibre enhancement, 702–5 commercial sliced breads nutrition facts, 703 nutritional enhancement, 687–706 enriching ingredients, 700 processing effect on wheat nutritional value, 690–2 wheat flour improvement during breadmaking, 698–700 wheat nutritional value, 689–90 protein supplementation, 700–1 wheat breeding, 156–7 classification, 218–21 future trends non-conventional bread, 233–4 overview, 216–18 US wheat-growing region, 217 US quality evaluation, 216–34 varieties selection and characteristics, 221–33 wheat breeding programs, 222–6 typical process stage, 222 wheat carbohydrates, 42–51 biosynthesis, 42 cellulose and pentosans, 51 molecular structures, 42–5 3-dimensional amylose structures, 44 amylose and amylopectin simplified structures, 43 Haworth amylose and amylopectin simplified structures, 43 starch gel syneresis, 46 wheat flour starch isolation, 45–6 wheat starch commercial uses, 50–1 physical and chemical properties, 48–50 purification and separation, 46–8 wheat classification, 218–21 grading, 219 usage by class, 219–21 wheat enzymes, 66–8 amylase, 67 protease, 67 wheat flour, 38 contribution to daily energy and protein intake of wheat, 688 genetics to food technology, 259–84 gluten protein variation to modify wheat quality, 261–6 modifications to reduce wheat allergy and intolerance, 274–82 non-wheat flours to modify bread quality, 268–74 nutritional enhancement, 687–707 nutritional improvement during breadmaking, 698–700 breadmaking conditions effect on phytate activity and content, 700 nutritional value enhancement approaches, 693–8 agronomic fortification, 692–3 bread dough phytate content, 697–8 legislation concerning enrichment, 694 tempering, 693–4 vitamin and mineral addition, 694–8 precipitating factors for wheat-related health problems, 283 processing effect on wheat nutritional value, 690–2 wheat flour characteristics from different extraction rate, 691 wheat-baked goods enriching ingredients, 700–5 fibre enhancement, 702–5 protein supplementation, 700–1 wheat consumption in different continents, 688 wheat genetic modification (GM), 268–8 wheat nutritional value, 689–90 nutrition distribution chart, 689 wheat flour dough, 406 rheology and raised bread, 299–301 wheat flour replacement mixtures, 705 wheat germ, 691–2, 748 wheat gluten complex and functional properties, 53–4 uses, 54 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index wheat gluten protein, 238–40 wheat grading, 219 US standards requirements, 220 wheat grain genomics, 115–17 plant genes function and distribution, 117 proteome, 115–17 wheat intolerance modification reduction, 274–82 food allergen reduction, 275–9 sourdough technology, 279–82 wheat kernel structure and composition, 35–42 breadmaking, 38 components, 36 endosperm, 37–8 wheat flour, 38 wheat for basic nutrition, 39–41 wheat vs cereals, 41–2 wheat lipids, 64–6, 384–5 effect of weigh ratio of neutral/polar lipids, 385 extraction and analysis, 65–6 lipoproteins, 66 wheat moisture, 227–8 wheat pigments, 68 wheat polysaccharides, 386–7 wheat protein, 51–64, 228, 383–4 analysing techniques, 77–95 analytical techniques, 59–62 bioactive, 62–4 bread quality, 100–18 cereal protein and breadmaking quality, 107–8 cereal protein classifications, 100–6 classification and letter symbol for amino acids, 52 detergent-solubilised proteins and bread quality, 113–15 electron spin resonance spectroscopy, 91–3 fractionation, 57–9 future trends, 93–4, 117–18 genomics and wheat grain proteome, 115–17 gliadins, 55–6 glutenins, 54–5 glycoproteins, 62 GM for wheat quality processing, 251–2 HMW subunit and bread quality, 240–4 HMW subunit composition manipulation and dough properties, 246–51 infrared spectroscopy, 83–5 isolation and purification, 56–7 molecular property analysation, 80–1 NMR spectroscopy, 85–91 polypeptide helical structure, 53 prolamin structure and bread quality, 108–11 purothionins, 62 801 quality improvement in breadmaking, 237–52 rheological measurements, 81–3 gliadin/glutenin ratio effect, 82 separation methods, 78–9 SDS-CE of wheat glutenins, 80 soluble proteins, xylanase inhibitors and bread quality, 111–13 wheat genetic transformation, 244–6 wheat gluten complex and functional properties, 53–4 wheat gluten protein and dough strength, 238–40 flour particle after digestion, 238 wheat gluten uses, 54 wheat quality classification, 218–21 future trends non-conventional bread, 233–4 gluten protein variation, 261–6 improvement using genetic modification (GM), 251–2 overview, 216–18 US wheat-growing region, 217 US breeding evaluation, 216–34 varieties selection and characteristics, 221–33 Wheat Quality Council (WQC), 224 quality target for different wheat classes, 225 wheat quality laboratories, 224–6 wheat starch, 717 bread quality and structure, 123–41 commercial uses, 50–1 future trends, 140 importance to bread quality, 123–4 improved quality, 69–70 isolation, 45–6 particle size distribution of potato, wheat and rice starch, 47 physical and chemical properties, 48–50 thermograms of heated wheat starch, 49 wheat starch slurries viscosity, 49 physicochemical properties related to baking process, 131–4 gelatinisation, 131 retrogradation, 131–3 rheological properties, 133–4 properties, 176–7 properties and baking performance, 124–30 fermentation, 128 flour quality, 125–7 mixing, 127 oven step, 128–30 staling, 130 purification and separation, 46–8 structure and chemical composition, 134–40 amylose and amylopectin, 138–40 crystalline organisation of granules, 136–8 granules, 134–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 802 Index wheat usage, 68–70, 219–21 wheat varieties selection and characteristics, 221–33 quality indices and test, 226–33 US breeding programs, 222–6 whey protein, 719 white club wheat, 219 white rice, 714 wholegrain bread, 724–5 wholegrain cereals, 724 wholemeal flour, 691 World Health Organisation (WHO), 695 World Trade Organisation, 633 X-ray, 308 x-type HMW subunits, 455 xylanase B, 669 xylanase inhibitors, 112–13 xylanases, 482–3 xyloglucans, 739 yeast, 17 yield potential, 156 Zea mays, 717 zearalenone, 625–6 zeins, 717 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 ... Managing wine quality Volume 1: viticulture and wine quality Edited by A.G Reynolds Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: milk production and processing Edited by M Griffiths Improving. .. improving quality Edited by W Jongen 74 The nutrition handbook for food processors Edited by C J K Henry and C Chapman 75 Colour in food: improving quality Edited by D MacDougall 76 Meat processing: improving. .. breadmaking quality 5.3 Prolamin structure and bread quality 5.4 Soluble proteins, xylanase inhibitors and bread quality 5.5 Detergent-solubilised proteins and bread quality 5.6