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This page intentionally left blank Change in Contemporary English Based on the systematic analysis of large amounts of computer-readable text, this book shows how the English language has been changing in the recent past, often in unexpected and previously undocumented ways The study is based on a group of matching corpora, known as the ‘Brown family’ of corpora, supplemented by a range of other corpus materials, both written and spoken, drawn mainly from the later twentieth century Among the matters receiving particular attention are the influence of American English on British English, the role of the press, the ‘colloquialization’ of written English, and a wide range of grammatical topics, including the modal auxiliaries, progressive, subjunctive, passive, genitive and relative clauses These subjects build an overall picture of how English grammar is changing, and the linguistic and social factors that are contributing to this process is Emeritus Professor of English Linguistics in the Department of Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of English at the University of Zăurich is Professor of English Linguistics in the Department of English at the University of Freiburg is Lecturer in English Language and Linguistics in the School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History at the University of Salford General editor Merja Kytăo (Uppsala University) Editorial Board Bas Aarts (University College London), John Algeo (University of Georgia), Susan Fitzmaurice (Northern Arizona University), Charles F Meyer (University of Massachusetts) The aim of this series is to provide a framework for original studies of English, both present-day and past All books are based securely on empirical research, and represent theoretical and descriptive contributions to our knowledge of national and international varieties of English, both written and spoken The series covers a broad range of topics and approaches, including syntax, phonology, grammar, vocabulary, discourse, pragmatics and sociolinguistics, and is aimed at an international readership Already published in this series: Christian Mair: Infinitival Complement Clauses in English: A Study of Syntax in Discourse Charles F Meyer: Apposition in Contemporary English Jan Firbas: Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication Izchak M Schlesinger: Cognitive Space and Linguistic Case Katie Wales: Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English Laura Wright: The Development of Standard English, –: Theories, Descriptions, Conflicts Charles F Meyer: English Corpus Linguistics: Theory and Practice Stephen J Nagle and Sara L Sanders (eds.): English in the Southern United States Anne Curzan: Gender Shifts in the History of English Kingsley Bolton: Chinese Englishes Irma Taavitsainen and Păaivi Pahta (eds.): Medical and Scientific Writing in Late Medieval English Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury and Peter Trudgill: New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution Raymond Hickey (ed.): Legacies of Colonial English Merja Kytăo, Mats Ryden and Erik Smitterberg (eds.): Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change John Algeo: British or American English? A Handbook of Word and Grammar Patterns Christian Mair: Twentieth-Century English: History, Variation and Standardization Evelien Keizer: The English Noun Phrase: The Nature of Linguistic Categorization Raymond Hickey: Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms Găunter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlăuter (eds.): One Language, Two Grammars?: Differences between British and American English Laurel J Brinton: The Comment Clause in English Lieselotte Anderwald: The Morphology of English Dialects: Verb Formation in Non-standard English Change in Contemporary English A Grammatical Study Lancaster University Universităat Zăurich Albert-Ludwigs-Universităat Freiburg, Germany University of Salford CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521867221 © Geoffrey Leech, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, Nicholas Smith, 2009 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2009 ISBN-13 978-0-511-64028-5 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-86722-1 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of figures List of tables Preface Abbreviations and symbolic conventions Introduction: ‘grammar blindness’ in the recent history of English? . Grammar is more than an arbitrary list of shibboleths . Grammatical changes: proceeding slowly and invisible at close range? . A frame of orientation: previous research on recent and ongoing grammatical changes in English . Conclusion Comparative corpus linguistics: the methodological basis of this book . (Computer) corpus linguistics: the Brown Corpus and after . Comparable corpora and comparative corpus linguistics . The methodological basis of comparable corpus linguistics . Stages of investigation (A) Rationalize the mark-up of the corpora (B) Undertake annotation of the corpora (C) Use search and retrieval software to identify and extract recurrent formal features in the corpus (D) Refine the comparative analysis (D) Derive difference-of-frequency tables (D) Derive difference-of-frequency tables from inter-corpus comparisons page x xiv xix xxiv v vi Contents (D) Undertake further categorization of instances of features found in the corpora (E) Further qualitative analysis, examining individual instances, or clusters of instances, in both corpora (F) Functional interpretation of findings . Further details and explanations of the stages of investigation .. (B) Annotation .. (C) Search expressions in CQP .. (D) Frequency across genres and subcorpora .. (D) External comparisons .. (D) Further categorization of instances found in the corpora .. (E) Further qualitative analysis .. (F) Functional interpretation of findings on all levels . Conclusion The subjunctive mood . Introduction . The revival of the mandative subjunctive .. Overall developments of the mandative subjunctive .. Is the mandative subjunctive losing its formal connotations? . The were-subjunctive .. The were-subjunctive: diachronic development .. The were-subjunctive: a recessive formal option? . Revival and demise of the subjunctive? An attempt at reconciling apparently contradictory developments . Summary and conclusion The modal auxiliaries . The declining use of the modal auxiliaries in written standard English –/ . The changing use of the modals in different genres and subcorpora . The changing use of the modals in spoken vs written corpora . The core modals and competing expressions of modality Contents vii . Shrinking usage of particular modals: a more detailed examination .. The modals at the bottom of the frequency list: shall, ought to and need(n’t) .. The semantics of modal decline: may, must and should . Conclusion The so-called semi-modals . Auxiliary–lexical verb gradience . Overall changes in frequency of semi-modals . Further evidence for grammaticalization? Phonetics and semantics .. Phonetic reduction and coalescence: gonna, gotta and wanna .. Signs of abstraction and generalization (semantic weakening) . The ecology of obligation/necessity . Conclusion The progressive . Introduction . Basic and special uses of the progressive . Historical background . Overview of recent distribution patterns .. Distribution in written BrE and AmE .. Distribution in contemporaneous BrE speech and other registers . Present progressive active .. Quotations and contracted forms .. Stative verbs .. Subject type and reference .. Special uses . The progressive passive . The progressive in combination with modal auxiliaries .. Modal auxiliary + be -ing .. Will + be -ing . Summary and conclusion The passive voice . Introduction . The be-passive . The get-passive . The mediopassive . Summary and conclusion viii Contents Take or have a look at a corpus? Expanded predicates in British and American English . The state of the art . Hypotheses . Defining the variable . Results .. Stylistic variation .. Diachronic variation .. Regional variation . Summary Non-finite clauses . Introduction: long-term trends in the evolution of English non-finite clauses . Changes in non-finite clauses I: case studies of individual matrix verbs .. Help + infinitive .. Prevent/stop + NP + (from) + gerund .. Start and stop in catenative uses .. Want to .. Assessing the speed of changes . Changes in non-finite clauses II: statistical trends in the tagged corpora . Conclusion The noun phrase . Parts of speech: an overall survey . Nouns and noun sequences .. Common nouns .. Proper nouns, including proper nouns as acronyms . Noun sequences and other juxtapositions .. Noun + common noun sequences .. Noun sequences with plural attributive nouns .. Sequences of proper nouns . 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The role of qualia in the interpretation and acceptability of middle expressions in English.’ English Language and Linguistics (), – Ziegeler, Deborah ‘Agentivity and the history of the English progressive.’ Transactions of the Philological Society , – Index A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers xxi, , , , , , , ability , abstract nouns – abstraction academic writing see also Learned subcorpus accelerating change acronyms , , adjectives – adversative , advertising language Aktionsart see aspect, progressive (aspect) American English xxiii, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , and passim see also spoken English, American; written English, American American mass print media American National Corpus , , Americanism , Americanization , , , , – analytical grammar analyticization , – ANC – see American National Corpus annotation of corpora , , see also tags anti-colloquialization – apparent time , , , apposition , archaism ARCHER see A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers articles aspect , , , see also progressive (aspect) attributive adjectives , attributive nouns plural – audience design Australian English , automatic processing, automatic tagging , , –, – auxiliarization auxiliary verbs –, Baker, Paul xxii bar charts Barber, Charles bare infinitive see also infinitive; to-infinitive Bauer, Laurie , – be able to , , –, , (be) going to , , , , –, , , , , , , be-passive , , , , , , , see also passive be supposed to , , , be to (semi-modal) , , , , , , , begin , , Biber, Douglas , , , , , , –, see also Biber et al Biber et al () , , , , , , , , B-LOB Corpus xxi, , , , , BNC see British National Corpus BNCdemog , , , BNC Sampler Corpus brackets Briticism , , , British English xxiii, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, and passim British National Corpus (BNC) xxi, , , , , , , , , , , , , , broadcast discussion , broadcast interviews Brown Corpus xix, , , , , , , , and passim Brown family of corpora, the xix–xxii, , , , –, , , , , and passim by-agents , 335 336 Index Bybee, Joan L Bybee et al () counterfactual Crystal, David – C tagset , C tagset xxii, , Cambridge International Corpus (CIC) xxi can (modal auxiliary) , , , Canadian English catenative verbs Chafe, Wallace change, determinants of – social processes of – Chomsky, Noam , CLAWS tagger xxii, Coates, Jennifer , collocation colloquial , , , , , , language colloquialization , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, , –, colon comma common nouns , plural comparable corpora, comparability xx, , , , , , , , comparison of adjectives – CONCE see Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English concordance conditionals hypothetical consistency of change contemporaneous corpora , contractions , see also let us, let’s negative , verb , see also progressive, contracted forms convergent change , , conversation , conversion co-referential corpus linguistics , , and passim comparative – methodology Chapter (passim), diachronic comparative short-term diachronic comparative , – Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English (CONCE) , Corpus of Spoken Professional American English corrective coefficient , CQP software xxiii, , , could , , database , DCPSE see Diachronic Corpus of Present-Day Spoken English decelerating change definite article the , democratization , , Denison, David , , , , , densification , , –, , , , , deontic modality –, , , , , , , derived datasets determiners detransitivization deverbal preposition – Diachronic Corpus of Present-Day Spoken English xxi, , –, , , , , , , , , , DICE mini-corpus , –, , , , , , , , , , , different rates of change difference-of-frequency tables – direct quotations direct speech see also quoted material distributional fragmentation divergent change do-support for have drift , DSEU mini-corpus , –, , , , , , , , , dynamic modality Early Modern English (EModE) , , , , , , economy eighteenth century , , , , elicitation data , , empirical orientation epistemic modality –, , , , , , errors, tagging exclamation mark , expanded predicate Chapter (passim), , , aspectual difference modification patterns semantics of , face-to-face conversation see conversation Fairclough, Norman features , Fiction subcorpora , , , , , , finite complement clauses Index 337 first person pronouns –, , , Fitzmaurice, S see Wright, Susan F-LOB Corpus see Freiburg-LOB Corpus follow-my-leader , formal (vs functional) , formal (vs informal) , , , fossilization Foster, Brian Francis, Nelson , , , , Freiburg-Brown (Frown) Corpus xix, , , and passim Freiburg-LOB (F-LOB) Corpus xix, , , , and passim frequency adverbs frequency changes xx, frequency, decrease in increase in frequency per million words Frown Corpus see Freiburg-Brown Corpus fiction , from-less gerund full stop , functional analysis, functional explanations , , , – functional niche future time expressions , , gender bias General Prose subcorpora , , , , generalization, semantic , , generalized subject pronoun , genitive genres xx, , , , , , , , , , , , , gerund , –, , gerundial clause , , get-construction, inchoative get- passive , , , , , , gonna , –, see also (be) going to gotta , , – see also (have) got to Government-and-Binding Theory gradience, gradient , , grammar , , grammatical change and passim grammaticalization , , –, , , , , , , , , , , , – granularity Greenbaum, Sidney group verbs (had) better , , , , , , , , , have (main verb) constructed as auxiliary – contracted form with do-support – (have) got to , , , , , , , –, , , have to , , , , , , , , –, , he, gender-neutral , – he or she , – help (verb) help + infinitive , , Helsinki Corpus horror aequi principle , Huddleston, Rodney Huddleston and Pullum () , , , , , hypercorrection , , , hypothetico-deductive method ICAME (International Computer Archive of Modern and Medieval English) xix ICAME Bibliography ICE-GB see International Corpus of English – Great Britain in order that in order to indefinite article Indian English , indicative , , , , , infinitive , –, , , see also bare infinitive; to-infinitive inflection inflectional comparison – informal , , , , , , , , , , , see also colloquial; colloquialization informalization see also colloquialization information density, informational orientation , , , , , , see also densification infrequent inherent semantic properties International Corpus of English–Great Britain , , , , interrogative clauses Jamaican English Jespersen, Otto , , , , , Johansson, Stig , Johnson, Samuel Kăonig, Ekkehard , Kuˇcera, Henry , , Labov, William lag Lancaster (±years) corpus Lancaster (±years) corpus see B-LOB Corpus Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus xix, , , , , and passim 338 Index language contact Late Modern English (LModE) , , , layering LCSAE see Longman Corpus of Spoken American English Learned genre, Learned subcorpus , , , , , , , , , , , Lee, David Leonard, Rosemary let us, let’s – lexical density , –, light verb , , , live commentaries Ljung, Magnus LLC see London Lund Corpus of Spoken English LOB Corpus see Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus London Lund Corpus of Spoken English, London-Lund Corpus Longman Corpus of Spoken American English (LCSAE) xxi, , , , , , , mail-order catalogue corpus main verb – mandative subjunctive see subjunctive mark-up matching corpora see also comparable corpora matrix verbs , may , , , , , , –, , , permission , mayn’t mediopassive , bare , semantics of mental process verbs methodology, comparable corpus , bottom up Middle English , , might mightn’t Miss modal auxiliaries, modals Chapter (passim), , , , –, , , , , core –, , , frequency change –, –, , , , , marginal – monosemy, trend towards , , , – passive progressive semantic categories – see also deontic modality; dynamic modality; epistemic modality; permission; possibility; volition modal idioms modal periphrasis modality , , Modern English , , , see also Early Modern English; Late Modern English mood , morphology Moss´e, Fernand , Mr, Mrs multi-word verbs must , , , , , , , –, , , , –, , ‘authoritative’ sense –, mustn’t N+N sequences, N+CN sequences see noun-noun sequences names see personal names, proper nouns of organizations of US presidents narrative , necessity , , , – need to , , , , , , –, , , –, –, , , , need(n’t) , , , , , , –, , negative contractions – see also contractions New Zealand English , news reporting , , , see also Press subcorpora newspaper language see Press subcorpora NICE properties nineteenth century , , , , , , , , no way nominalization –, non-finite clauses non-finite verbs Chapter (passim), non-progressive see progressive: vs non-progressive non-standard language not-negation and no-negation – nouns , , see also common nouns; proper nouns; titular nouns noun phrase Chapter (passim), , noun–noun sequences , , –, , , long sequences – noun + common noun sequences –, proper – Index 339 ‘nouniness’, nominal style –, see also densification -n’t see negative contractions object obligation , , , , –, OED xxi, , , , of (preposition) of-genitive , , –, , of-phrases , Old English , , , , , ought to , , , , –, , , , oughtn’t to Oxford English Dictionary see OED Oxford Text Archive xix Palmer, F R , , paradigmatic atrophy , parallel change , part-of-speech annotation/tagger/tagging/tags xxii, , participles adjectival verbal parts of speech –, , passive (voice) Chapter (passim), , , , , , , , , , , see also be- passive;get- passive; progressive: passival, progressive passive prescriptive avoidance of text linguistic function of past perfect passive progressive pattern meaning , , period see full stop permission, permissibility , , personal names –, phonetic reduction –, , phrasal verbs pied-piping construction –, , plural PN+PN see noun–noun sequences, proper Popper, Karl popularization , , POS see part-of-speech possibility , , , post-editing , Potter, Simeon precision prepositions , , preposition stranding –, prescription, prescriptive, prescriptivism , , , , , , , , , , , , , in the USA Present-Day English (PDE) , , , , present perfect passive progressive Press subcorpora , , , , , –, , prestige barrier , , prevent + NP + (from) + gerund progressive (aspect/construction) Chapter (passim), , , , , , , , , , , , , , always-type , , , contracted forms , , frequency , , , futurate use , , , , , , , interpretive use , , , , , , meanings , see also progressive: special uses modal + progressive , , , origins , paradigm , , , , , participial progressive passival progressive , past progressive , , present progressive , , , , , , , , , , , progressive passive , , , , , , quoted vs non-quoted usage , , special uses , , , , subjects , , , , vs non-progressive , , , , , , , will + be -ing , , , , with stative verbs , , , , , pronouns , , see also progressive: subjects proper nouns –, proper noun sequences – Pullum, Geoffrey K punctuation –, purported change purpose clause qualitative analysis , , , – quantitative analysis , , , question mark questions – non-sentential – tag – Quirk et al () – quotative go and be like quoted material , – see also progressive: quoted vs non-quoted usage real-time diachronic corpus , re-analysis 340 Index recall redundancy regionally-specific change , register , see also genres regular expression relative clauses , , , , –, –, relative pronoun , , , non-finite non-restrictive , restrictive , , representativeness , responsibility cline of result clause Rohdenburg, Găunter , root modality see deontic modality Rosenbach, Anette , Sapir, Edward , –, science fiction scientific discourse Scottish English search and retrieval software second-person pronouns , semantic bleaching semantic categories of modals – semantic weakening , , semi-auxiliaries semi-colon semi-modals Chapter (passim), , , , , –, –, , , , sentence length SEU see Survey of English Usage s-genitive , , , , , , –, , , shall , , , , –, , , future , , prescriptive use of stipulative sense shan’t she or he – should , , , , –, , , , , weak inference/obligation , – Smitterberg, Erik , , , so that sociolinguistic globalization – sociolinguistics , split infinitives , , – spreadsheet , spoken English, spoken language , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , see also conversation American –, , – see also American English British , –, , , , , , , , see also British English start , start/stop + gerund –, stop + NP + (from) + gerund Strang, Barbara M H , , , , , stretched verb constructions style , style guides , , style marker subcorpus, subcorpora , , , , – subject subjunctive (mood) Chapter (passim), active demise of mandative , , , –, , , passive remnants revival , , , , subordinate clauses suffixes support verb constructions Survey of English Usage syncretism , syntactic variables tagger xxii, see also part-of-speech tagger tags see also part-of-speech tags tagset , – telephone conversation see also conversation Template Tagger xxii, text category, text type , , , , , , see also genres text sample xx that relativization, that relative clauses –, –, , That Rule they, singular use , , , – titular nouns to-infinitive , see also bare infinitive; infinitive Traugott, Elizabeth United States see American English USAS semantic tagging software used to variable, definition of , variation diachronic , regional , , , , , , , register Index 341 voice (active and passive) volition , , –, wanna , , –, see also want to want to , , , , –, , , , we, generic use web-based corpus linguistics wh-complement clause – wh- pronouns – wh- relativization, wh- relative clauses , –, , , , which (relative pronoun) –, , , who , , whom , , , –, will (modal auxiliary) , , , , , , , see also progressive: will + be -ing women’s movement word classes see parts of speech frequency word-formation WordSmith Tools World Wide Web, the xxii would , , would rather Wright, Susan , , written English, written language xx, , , , , , , , , , , , , , American , – see also American English British , –, see also British English you, generic use zero relativization, zero relative clauses , –, –, Zwicky, Arnold ... tables Table A? ??.b Table A? ??. 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