VICTIM REPARATION UNDER THE IUS POST BELLUM Victim Reparation under the Ius Post Bellum fills an enormous gap in international legal scholarship It questions the paradigmatic shift of rights to reparation towards a morality-based theory of international law At a time when international law has a tendency to take a purely positivistic and international approach, Shavana Musa questions whether an embrace of an evaluative approach alongside the politics of war and peace is more practical and effective for war victims Musa provides a never-before-conducted contextual insight into how the issue has been handled historically, analysing case studies from major wars from the seventeenth century to the modern day She uses as-yetuntouched archival documentation from these periods, which uncovers unique data and information on international peacemaking, and actually demonstrates more effective practices of reparation provisions compared with today This book combines historical analysis with modern day developments to provide normative assertions for a future reparation system is a lecturer in international law, security and human rights at the University of Manchester, and a Fulbright Scholar in cyber security at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, DC She is also the founder and CEO of Ontogeny Global, a revolutionary risk management firm She has conducted projects on human rights within the international investment regime, child labour, as well as the complexities surrounding law and technology CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW: 139 Established in 1946, this series produces high quality, reflective and innovative scholarship in the field of public international law It publishes works on international law that are of a theoretical, historical, crossdisciplinary or doctrinal nature The series also welcomes books providing insights from private international law, comparative law and transnational studies which inform international legal thought and practice more generally The series seeks to publish views from diverse legal traditions and perspectives, and of any geographical origin In this respect it invites studies offering regional perspectives on core problématiques of international law, and in the same vein, it appreciates contrasts and debates between diverging approaches Accordingly, books offering new or less orthodox perspectives are very much welcome Works of a generalist character are greatly valued and the series is also open to studies on specific areas, institutions or problems Translations of the most outstanding works published in other languages are also considered After seventy years, Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law sets the standard for international legal scholarship and will continue to define the discipline as it evolves in the years to come Series Editors Larissa van den Herik Professor of Public International Law, Grotius Centre for International Legal Studies, Leiden University Jean d’Aspremont Professor of International Law, University of Manchester and Sciences, Po Law School A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume VICTIM REPARATION UNDER THE IUS POST BELLUM An Historical and Normative Perspective SHAVANA MUSA University of Manchester University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108471732 DOI: 10.1017/9781108559171 © Shavana Musa 2019 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2019 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Musa, Shavana, author Title: Victim reparation under the ius post bellum : an historical and normative perspective / Shavana Musa, University of Manchester Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2018 | Series: Cambridge studies in international and comparative law; 139 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2018034113 | ISBN 9781108471732 (alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Reparation (Criminal justice) | War reparations | War victims–Legal status, laws, etc Classification: LCC KZ6785.M87 2018 | DDC 341.6/6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018034113 ISBN 978-1-108-47173-2 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate CONTENTS Introduction 1.1 A Point on Selection and Methodology 1.2 Repairing a Definition Peace Treaties and Admiralty Courts 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Amnesty Clauses Restitution Clauses 15 Postliminium 18 Admiralty Courts and Reparation 2.4.1 Bond and Bail 28 2.5 Conclusion 32 3 22 33 The Anglo-Dutch Wars 3.1 The First Anglo-Dutch War 35 3.1.1 A Deviant Denmark 36 3.1.2 Negotiations at the End of the First Anglo-Dutch War 3.1.3 The Treaty of Westminster 1654 41 3.1.4 The Commission 43 3.1.4.1 The Claims 45 3.1.5 The English National Agenda 52 3.2 The Second Anglo-Dutch War 55 3.2.1 The Treaty of Breda 1667 56 3.3 The Third Anglo-Dutch War 58 3.3.1 The Treaty of Westminster 1674 59 3.4 Admiralty Courts during the Anglo-Dutch Wars 60 3.4.1 The English Admiralty 61 3.4.2 The Dutch Admiralties 68 3.5 Conclusion 70 74 The Silesian Loan Affair and the Seven Years War 4.1 The Silesian Loan Affair 74 4.1.1 British Depredations against Prussian Subjects 4.1.2 A Reprisal War in the Midst 81 v 38 76 vi 4.1.3 Negotiations on the Treaty of Westminster 1756 4.1.4 Concluding Remarks 85 4.2 The Seven Years War 85 4.2.1 Merchants in the War 87 4.2.2 The Rule of 1756 and the Doctrine of Continuous Voyage 89 4.3 The Peace Treaties Ending the Seven Years War 101 4.3.1 The Treaty of Paris 1763 101 4.3.2 The Treaty of Hubertusberg 1763 102 4.4 Conclusion 103 The American War of Independence 105 5.1 American Loyalists 107 5.2 The Peace of Paris 1783: Additional Reparation Issues 5.3 The Jay Treaty 1794 124 5.3.1 The British Debts Commission 129 5.3.2 The Maritime Claims Commission 139 5.4 Conclusion 143 The Anglo-Argentine Commission 84 123 146 6.1 Compensation for British Merchants 148 6.1.1 The Anglo-Argentine Commission 153 6.2 Conclusion 154 The American Civil War 157 7.1 The Alabama Arbitration: An International Tribunal 7.2 The Alabama and the Nineteenth Century 167 7.3 Additional Claims Arising from the War 171 7.3.1 The Southern Claims Commission 174 The Second Anglo-Boer War 161 177 8.1 The Invasion Losses Enquiry Commission 179 8.2 The South African Deportation Military Authorities Compensation Commission 193 8.3 Other Compensatory Mechanisms 198 8.3.1 Central Judicial Commission 198 8.3.2 A Domestic Mechanism: The Derelict Stock Fund 200 8.4 The Treaty of Vereeniging 201 8.5 Conclusion 203 Reparation and International Law from the Twentieth Century 205 9.1 International Law in the Making 205 9.1.1 International Humanitarian Law 205 9.1.1.1 State Responsibility 208 vii 9.1.2 International Criminal Law 209 9.1.3 Human Rights Law 214 9.1.4 Transnational Public Law Litigation or Arbitration 9.2 Conclusion 229 10 A Peaceful and Normative Conclusion? 10.1 10.2 10.3 Historical Observations 234 Peace Treaties and International Law The Normative Element of Reparations 216 233 239 246 List of Cases 252 List of Treaties, Legislation and Other Legal Instruments Bibliography 256 Index 272 Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law 284 254 Great Britain (cont.) American loyalists and, 106–123 amnesty in, 12 Angel Raphael, 96–97 Argentina and, 146–148, 155 Articles of Peace, 11 Austria and, 75 Boers and, 203–204 Central Judicial Commission and, 199–200 commercial ambitions of, 35–36 Council of State, 37–38 France and, 58, 75–77, 86 Germany and, 199–200 imperialism, 204 international law and, 3, 164 Latin American Wars of Independence and, 146–147 military, 54 Navigation Act, 33, 36 neutrality, 160–161, 167 privateering, 36, 87–88 Prussia and, 76–77, 79 reparations and, shipbuilders, 157 in South Africa, 177 Spain and, 155–156 Treaty of Alliance, 75 Treaty of Washington and, 166–167 group representations, 225–226 ‘gunboat diplomacy,’ 156 Hague Convention (1907), 205–206, 218 Convention Relative to Prisoners of War, 207 self-executing nature of, 221–222 Hamdan v Rumsfeld, 221 Harvey Birch (ship), 158 Henry IV (king), 14 Herzegovina, 215 historical context, of reparation, 4, 6, 234–239 Hopkirk v Bell, 134–135 Human Rights Committee, 215 human rights law, 214–216 armed conflict and, 215 humanitarian law and, 214 instruments of, 215 humanitarian law, 205–209 human rights law and, 214 reparation and, 219 victim reparation rights and violations of, 222 Humberto Alvarez-Machain et al v USA, 218 Huskisson (ship), 148–149 IACtHR See Inter-American Court of Human Rights ICC See International Criminal Court ICTR See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY See International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ILC See International Law Commission imperialism, 156, 204 unilateral, Indemnity and Special Tribunals Act (1900), 181 individual rights See also right to reparation in Additional Protocol I, 206 international law and, 218–219 self-executing treaties and, 221–222 sovereignty and, 79 Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), 214, 216 International Criminal Court (ICC), 209–210 jurisdiction, 210 length of proceedings, 212–213 The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, 212–213, 230 Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 211 on victim reparation rights, 212–213 international criminal law, 1, 209–214 financing reparation claims, 210–211 ICC, 209–210 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 213 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 213 international investment law, 229 international law, 239–246 admiralty courts and, 22 creation of, 205–229 criminal law, 209–214 deportations and, 196 Great Britain and, 3, 164 human rights law, 214–216 humanitarian law, 205–209 individual right to reparations and, 218–219 military damage and, 181–182 reparations in, 1–3, 220–221, 245 Silesian Loan Affair and, 85 transnational public law litigation of arbitration, 216–229 twentieth century, 205–232 violation of, 164 wartime injury and, 205 International Law Commission (ILC), 208–209 international treaties, supremacy of, 133–134 international tribunal Alabama arbitration, 161–167 commissioner impartiality, 161 intrastate conflicts, 229 Invasion Losses Enquiry Commission, 7, 179–193, 203 claim criteria, 186–188 claimants, 187–190 companies, 190–191 compensation, 180, 183–184, 188 direct losses, 184–185 indirect losses, 184–186 individual loss and, 181 livestock and, 186, 192 losses excluded from compensation, 186 loyalists, 193 loyalty and, 191–192 military damage and, 181–182 refugees, 192 regions and, 183 traitors, 192–193 Israel, 207 ius ad bellum, 8, 232 ius in bellum, 232 ius post bellum, 232 just war and, 18 normativity of, 246–247 reparation as, 247 ius postliminii, 3, 18 movable property and, 57 restitution of movables and, 16 Jay Treaty (1794), 6–7, 107, 124–144 Article 7, 139–140, 142 British Debts Commission, 129–139 commissions, 129, 236–237 compensation criteria, 138 compensation under, 135–136 lawful impediments provision, 132 Maritime Claims Commission, 139–143 mixed commissions and, 124–126 negotiations, 137 neutrality and, 142 unpaid debts under, 129 Jefferson, Thomas, 139, 142–143 Johnson-Clarendon Treaty, 161–162 just war, 8, 12 ius post bellum and, 18 legal war and, 18 legality of, property losses in, 18 Kadic v Karadzic, 218 land seizures, 57–58 status quo ante bellum rule and, 58–59 Latin American Wars of Independence, British merchant compensation and, 148–154 commissions and, 237 Great Britain and, 146–147 privateering in, 148 law of nations, 24, 82–83, 155 admiralty courts and, 25 neutrality law and, 160 politics and, 230–231 prize law and, 22–23 wartime victims and, 24–25 law of nature, 114 legal war just war and, 18 postliminium and, 20–21 letters of marque, 42, 148 liability privateering and, 100 reparation and, 222 Limitation Acts of Virginia, 135 Lincoln, Abraham, 159, 171 livestock, 186, 192, 200–201 loyalists, 6–7, 106–107 See also American loyalists Second Anglo-Boer War and, 180, 193 loyalty American Civil War pardons and, 171, 173 of Confederates, 174 Invasion Losses Enquiry Commission and, 191–192 Southern Claims Commission and, 175–176 lucrum cessans, 49–50 lump-sum settlements, 2, 167, 170 Luxembourg Agreement, 222 Maritime Claims Commission, 107, 139–145 compensation, 142 evidentiary issues, 141–142 jurisdiction, 141 married women, 188–189 Martial Law, 181 Massacre Plan de Sanchez v Guatemala, 216 mercantilism, 55, 72 merchants, 62–64, 67–68, 238–239 in American War of Independence, 139 Anglo-Dutch Wars and, 34 Arbitration Commission, First Anglo-Dutch War and, 44–52 in Latin American Wars of Independence, 148–154 neutral, 88–90 in Seven Years War, 87–89, 100–101, 104 Treaty of Westminster (1654) and injury to, 42 as wartime victims, 26–28 military damage, international law and, 181–182 mixed commissions, 167 for Alabama arbitration, 161–162 for individual claims, Jay Treaty and, 124–126 Treaties of Westminster, 124–125 moral damage, 196 moral responsibility, 160, 248 morality, 122–123 movable property, 16 ius postliminii and, 57 restitution of, 16, 20–32 in Treaty of Breda, 57 Napoleonic Wars, 147 Nashville (ship), 158 Natal Government Railway, 189–190 naval warfare, 54 Navigation Act (1651), 33, 36 Neo-stoics, Netherlands De Adventure, 96 The Amsterdam, 93–95 De Aventurier, 94–95 Central Judicial Commission and, 199 De Fortuyn, 95 neutral merchants, 93 Rawagede massacre, 220 Treaty of Alliance, 75 Die Vier Gebroeders, 94–95 Netherlands South African Railway Company, 197–198 neutral merchants admiralty courts and, 96 Doctrine of Continuous Voyage and, 96–97 Dutch, 93 evidentiary requirements and, 98 French, 93 privateering and, 95 in Seven Years War, 88–90 neutral victims, 60–61, 99 admiralty courts and, 64, 72 of Anglo-Dutch Wars, 72 compensation to, 26 of First Anglo-Dutch War, 64–67 of Seven Years War, 88–89, 93 neutrality British, 160–161, 167 law, law of nations and, 160 Proclamation of Neutrality, 127–128 South African Deportation Military Authorities Compensation Commission and, 197–198 US, 127–128, 142 noncombatants, protection of, 205 non-discriminatory war, amnesty clauses and, 12 non-state actors, 206 normativity of reparations, 5, 7, 233–234, 246–251 oubliance, rule of, Palestine, 207 Las Palmeras v Columbia, 214 pardons American Civil War, 171–173 reparation and, 171–172 Peace of Westphalia, 5–6, 11 peace treaties, 6, 239–246 admiralty courts and, 8–32 amnesty clauses in, 9–12, 32, 240 Articles of Peace, 11 claims commissions and, 243–244 historical trends, 241–242 reparation in, 240 restitution clauses in, 32 right to reparation and, 239 Seven Years War, 101–103 peacemaking admiralty courts and, 71–72 amnesty and, 13 amnesty clauses and, 8–9 negotiating and, 230 reparations and, 2, 230, 249 restitution clauses and, 8–9 personal injury, 122 political context, of reparations, 5, 55, 238 postliminium, 14–21 applications of, 21 booty and, 21 enslaved peoples and, 18–19 legal war and, 20–21 prisoner of war and, 18–19 restitution and, 18–19 Vattel on, 20–21 power balance of, friendly powers, 196 law and, 25–26 prisoner of war, 123 Convention Relative to Prisoners of War, 207 postliminium and, 18–19 privateering, 22 in Anglo-Dutch Wars, 34–35 Argentine, 148–151 bills of exchange, 88 bond and bail practices, 28–29 Dutch, 36 English, 36 in Latin American Wars of Independence, 148 legality of, 34 liability and, 100 neutral merchants and, 95 Second Anglo-Dutch War and, 55 in Seven Years War, 87–88 victims of, 22–23 prize court, 151 prize law, 3, 22–23 in admiralty courts, 61 bond and bail, 99 contraband and, 91–92 Court of Admiralty, English, 91–92 court of captor and, 83 English, 61 jurisdiction of, 97 procedural elements, 98–99 in seventeenth century, 34 victims of privateering and, 23 Proclamation of Neutrality, 127–128 property See also movable property admiralty courts and restitution of, 61 American Civil War and restitution of, 171 expropriated, 173 immovable, 19–20 just war and confiscation of, 18 personal, 21 restitution of, 19–20, 61, 171 The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, 212–213, 230 prudence, Prussia, 76–77 See also FrancoPrussian War; Silesian Loan Affair Court of Admiralty, English and complaints from, 76–77 Great Britain and, 76–77, 79 Rawagede massacre, 220 realty, restitution of, 16 reciprocity, 134 recognition, 248 Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Article 41, 207 reprisals, 84 Silesian Loan Affair and, 83–84 requisitions, 172–173 American Civil War and, 173 res ipsa loquitur, 227 restitution allowable, 16–17 American loyalist, 114–115 of immovable property, 19–20 of movable property, 16, 20–32 postliminium and, 18–19 of property, 19–20, 61, 171 of realty, 16 status quo post bellum rule and, 17 of territory, 17–18 restitution clauses, 14–18 amnesty clauses and, 15–16 movable property and, 16 in peace treaties, 32 peacemaking and, 8–9 in Treaties of Münster, 15–16 retribution, 251 right to reparation, 2, 7, 206–208, 233–234 humanitarian law violations and, 222 ICC on, 212–213 peace treaties and, 239 Rome Statute Article 75, 210–211 Article 82(4), 211 assistance mandate, 211–212 ICC jurisdiction and, 210 procedural rights under, 211 Trust Fund under, 210–212 Rule of 1756, 89–101 Sanchez-Llamas v Oregon, 221 Second Anglo-Boer War, 7, 177–204 Central Judicial Commission, 179, 198–200 commissions, 238 compensation after, 179–180, 204 consequences of, 177–178 deportations, 193–194 Derelict Stock Fund, 200–201 guerilla warfare, 178 Invasion Losses Enquiry Commission, 179–193 loyalists and, 180, 193 married women and, 188–189 military damage in, 182–183 Natal Government Railway and, 189–190 refugees, 192 reparation and, 238 scorched-earth policy, 178 Siege of Mafeking, 180–181 South African Deportation Military Authorities Compensation Commission, 193–198 treason, 192–193 Treaty of Vereeniging, 178, 201–202 victims, 178–179, 203–204 Second Anglo-Dutch War, 35, 55–58 mercantilism and, 55 peace negotiations, 56 privateering and, 55 Raid of Medway, 56 Treaty of Breda, 56–58 seizures in First Anglo-Dutch War, 64–67 land, 57–58 lawful, 81–82 self-executing treaties, individual rights and, 221–222 self-interest, 238 Sequestration Act (1777), 132 Seven Years War, 6, 14, 74, 85–101 admiralty courts and, 104 contraband in, 90–92 Doctrine of Continuous Voyage and, 89–101 French and Indian War, 86 merchant injury in, 100–101, 104 merchants in, 87–89 neutral merchants in, 88–90 neutral victims of, 88–89, 93 peace treaties ending, 101–103 privateering in, 87–88 reparation and, 103–104, 235–236 Rule of 1756 and, 89–101 trade and commerce in, 87 Treaty of Hubertusberg, 102–103 Treaty of Paris (1763), 101–102 victims of, 24, 88–89, 93 Shenandoah (ship), 158, 165 shipowners, 151 Silesian Loan Affair, 6, 24, 74–85 admiralty courts and, 81 Commercial Treaty, 89–90 France and, 82–83 Frederick II and, 78–81, 103 international law and, 85 loan repayment, 78–79 Prussian commission and, 80–81 reparations and, 80–81, 235 reprisal and, 83–84 reprisal war and, 81–84 Treaty of Westminster (1756) and, 84–85 Silesian Wars, 75–76 South Africa Boers and, 177 deportations, in Second Anglo-Boer War, 193–194 Great Britain and, 177 Netherlands South African Railway Company, 197–198 South African Deportation Military Authorities Compensation Commission, 193–198 claimants, 196–197 claims, 195 compensation, by country, 195 on deportations, 196 moral damage and, 196 neutrality and, 197–198 Southern Claims Commission, 174–176 commissioners, 175 compensation, 176 evidentiary requirement, 175 loyalty and, 175–176 Treaty of Washington and, 173–174 sovereignty clemency and, 12–13 First Anglo-Dutch War and, 39 individual rights and, 79 subject allegiance and, 113–114 Spain Anglo-Spanish Commission, 155–156 Articles of Peace, 11 Great Britain and, 155–156 St Croix River Boundary Commission, 107 states equality of, 13, 134 responsibility, international humanitarian law and, 208–209 right and duties of, status quo ante bellum rule, 18, 47 land and, 58–59 Treaty of Hubertusberg and, 103 status quo post bellum rule, 17 statute of limitation, 227 subjects allegiance, 113–114 legal standing of, Sweden Angel Raphael, 96–97 First Anglo-Dutch War and, 64–67 Tel-Oren v Libyan Arab Republic, 218 territory, restitution of, 17–18 Third Anglo-Dutch War, 35, 58–60 Anglo-Dutch Commercial Treaty and, 92–93 Commissie van Retorsie, 69 public opinion, 58–59 Treaty of Westminster (1674), 59–60 Thirty Years War, tort law Alabama Arbitration and, 166 wartime victims and, 222–223 torture, 218 United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture, 211 trade and commerce, 26–28, 55, 72, 87, 95 See also merchants transitional justice processes, 240–243 transnational law admiralty courts and, 23–24, 28, 231 bail and bond practices, 31 consistent processes of, 231–232 legal centralization and, 31 public and private sphere in, 31–32 US, 216–217 transnational public law litigation or arbitration, 216–229 ATCA and, 217–218 civil litigation and, 226–227 class action and, 225 international investment law and, 229 national fora and, 226 structure of, 227–228 treason, 192–193 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), 86 Treaty of Alliance (1668), 75 Treaty of Breda (1667), 35, 56–58 amnesty clause in, 56–57, 70 contraband in, 91 land seizures in, 57–58 movable property in, 57 parties and application of, 13 Treaty of Breslau, 77–79 Treaty of Commerce Between Great Britain and Rio de la Plata (1825), 147, 154 compensation in, 150 Treaty of Dover (1670), 58 Treaty of Dresden, 78–79 Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), 169 Treaty of Hartford (1650), 125 Treaty of Hubertusberg (1763), 102–103 status quo ante bellum and, 103 Treaty of Münster (1648), 11–12 parties and application of, 13 restitution in, 15–16 Treaty of Osnabruck, 11 Treaty of Paris (1763), 101–102, 235–236 amnesty clause, 101, 123 Treaty of Paris (1783), 123–124, 236 American Loyalists Claims Commission and, 118 amnesty and, 123 Article 5, 111–112, 118 critics of, 113–128 loyalist provisions in, 111–112, 114–115 noncompliance with, 127 wartime debts and, 120–126 Treaty of Vereeniging (1902), 178, 201–202, 204, 238, 244 reparations, 7, 178, 202 Treaty of Washington (1871), 162–163 compensation in, 166 due diligence in, 164–165 first rule, 164 Florida and, 165 Great Britain and, 166–167 Shenandoah and, 165 ships in violation of, 165–166 Southern Claims Commission and, 173–174 third rule, 164–165 Treaty of Westminster (1654), 35, 41–43, 71 amnesty clause in, 41, 70 bond and bail practices in, 29 commission under, 42–43 Denmark and, 38, 43 merchant injury in, 42 mixed commissions and, 124–125 reparations in, 41–43 Treaty of Westminster (1674), 35, 59–60 arbitration and, 71 commission, 59 mixed commissions and, 124–125 reparation provisions, 61–62 Treaty of Westminster (1756), 84–85 United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC), 244 United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture, 211 United States (US) See also American Civil War; American loyalists; American War of Independence; Anglo-American relations Alabama Arbitration, 161–167 ATCA and, 217–218 commissions by, economic development, 137–138 Limitation Acts of Virginia, 135 navy, 159 neutrality, 142 Proclamation of Neutrality, 127–128 reparation to, 158–159 transnational law in, 216–217 uti possidetis rule, 17 de Vattel, Emmerich, 17, 81–82 on alien treatment, 138 on postliminium, 20–21 victim groups, 225–226, 248–250 See also neutral victims; wartime victims Die Vier Gebroeders (ship), 94–95 War of the Austrian Succession, 74 Ware v Hylton, 132–134 Wars of Religion, 14 wartime debt American Loyalists Claims Commission and, 121, 126–127 contractual issues, 131 Hopkirk v Bell, 134–135 Jay Treaty and, 129 Treaty of Paris (1783) and, 120–126 Ware v Hylton, 132–134 wartime injury, armed conflict context and, 224 claim commissions, 228 international law and, 205 reparations for, 1–2, 250–251 reparations for, nineteenth century, 167 wartime victims, 117–118, 247 admiralty courts and, 24–25 American Civil War, 158 Anglo-Dutch Wars, 24, 35 bail and bond practices for, 30–31 context of, 232 of First Anglo-Dutch War, 52–55 group representations, 225–226 individual, merchants ad, 26–28 reparation, 229–230 rights, 207–208 Second Anglo-Boer War, 178–179, 203–204 tort law and, 222–223 Washington, George, 139, 143 Westphalian State model, Whigs, 114 widows, reparations to, 52–53 William Cunningham & Company, 136–137 wounded compensation for, 72 reparations to, 52–54 CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW Books in the Series 139 Victim Reparation under the Ius Post Bellum: An Historical and Normative Perspective Shavana Musa 138 The Analogy between States and International Organizations Fernando Lusa Bordin 137 The Process of International Legal Reproduction: Inequality, Historiography, Resistance Rose Parfitt 136 State Responsibility for Breaches of Investment Contracts Jean Ho 135 Coalitions of the Willing and International Law Alejandro Rodiles 134 Self-Determination in Disputed Colonial Territories Jamie Trinidad 133 International Law as a Belief System Jean d’Aspremont 132 Legal Consequences of Peremptory Norms in International Law Daniel Costelloe 131 Third-Party Countermeasures in International Law Martin Dawidowicz 130 Justification and Excuse in International Law: Concept and Theory of General Defences Federica Paddeu 129 Exclusion from Public Space: A Comparative Constitutional Analysis Daniel Moeckli 128 Provisional Measures before International Courts and Tribunals Cameron A Miles 127 Humanity at Sea: Maritime Migration and the Foundations of International Law Itamar Mann 126 Beyond Human Rights: The Legal Status of the Individual in International Law Anne Peters 125 The Doctrine of Odious Debt in International Law: A Restatement Jeff King 124 Static and Evolutive Treaty Interpretation: A Functional Reconstruction Christian Djeffal 123 Civil Liability in Europe for Terrorism-Related Risk Lucas Bergkamp, Michael Faure, Monika Hinteregger and Niels Philipsen 122 Proportionality and Deference in Investor-State Arbitration: Balancing Investment Protection and Regulatory Autonomy Caroline Henckels 121 International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations Daniëlla Dam-de Jong 120 Proof of Causation in Tort Law Sandy Steel 119 The Formation and Identification of Rules of Customary International Law in International Investment Law Patrick Dumberry 118 Religious Hatred and International Law: The Prohibition of Incitement to Violence or Discrimination Jeroen Temperman 117 Taking Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Seriously in International Criminal Law Evelyne Schmid 116 Climate Change Litigation: Regulatory Pathways to Cleaner Energy Jacqueline Peel and Hari M Osofsky 115 Mestizo International Law: A Global Intellectual History 1842–1933 Arnulf Becker Lorca 114 Sugar and the Making of International Trade Law Michael Fakhri 113 Strategically Created Treaty Conflicts and the Politics of International Law Surabhi Ranganathan 112 Investment Treaty Arbitration as Public International Law: Procedural Aspects and Implications Eric De Brabandere 111 The New Entrants Problem in International Fisheries Law Andrew Serdy 110 Substantive Protection under Investment Treaties: A Legal and Economic Analysis Jonathan Bonnitcha 109 Popular Governance of Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of International Law Matthew Saul 108 Evolution of International Environmental Regimes: The Case of Climate Change Simone Schiele 107 Judges, Law and War: The Judicial Development of International Humanitarian Law Shane Darcy 106 Religious Offence and Human Rights: The Implications of Defamation of Religions Lorenz Langer 105 Forum Shopping in International Adjudication: The Role of Preliminary Objections Luiz Eduardo Salles 104 Domestic Politics and International Human Rights Tribunals: The Problem of Compliance Courtney Hillebrecht 103 International Law and the Arctic Michael Byers 102 Cooperation in the Law of Transboundary Water Resources Christina Leb 101 Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law Sarah Dromgoole 100 State Responsibility: The General Part James Crawford 99 The Origins of International Investment Law: Empire, Environment and the Safeguarding of Capital Kate Miles 98 The Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Carrie McDougall 97 ‘Crimes against Peace’ and International Law Kirsten Sellars 96 Non-Legality in International Law: Unruly Law Fleur Johns 95 Armed Conflict and Displacement: The Protection of Refugees and Displaced Persons under International Humanitarian Law Mélanie Jacques 94 Foreign Investment and the Environment in International Law Jorge E Viñuales 93 The Human Rights Treaty Obligations of Peacekeepers Kjetil Mujezinović Larsen 92 Cyber Warfare and the Laws of War Heather Harrison Dinniss 91 The Right to Reparation in International Law for Victims of Armed Conflict Christine Evans 90 Global Public Interest in International Investment Law Andreas Kulick 89 State Immunity in International Law Xiaodong Yang 88 Reparations and Victim Support in the International Criminal Court Conor McCarthy 87 Reducing Genocide to Law: Definition, Meaning, and the Ultimate Crime Payam Akhavan 86 Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality Sundhya Pahuja 85 Complicity and the Law of State Responsibility Helmut Philipp Aust 84 State Control over Private Military and Security Companies in Armed Conflict Hannah Tonkin 83 ‘Fair and Equitable Treatment’ in International Investment Law Roland Kläger 82 The UN and Human Rights: Who Guards the Guardians? Guglielmo Verdirame 81 Sovereign Defaults before International Courts and Tribunals Michael Waibel 80 Making the Law of the Sea: A Study in the Development of International Law James Harrison 79 Science and the Precautionary Principle in International Courts and Tribunals: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality Caroline E Foster 78 Transition from Illegal Regimes in International Law Yaël Ronen 77 Access to Asylum: International Refugee Law and the Globalisation of Migration Control Thomas Gammeltoft-Hansen 76 Trading Fish, Saving Fish: The Interaction between Regimes in International Law Margaret A Young 75 The Individual in the International Legal System: Continuity and Change in International Law Kate Parlett 74 ‘Armed Attack’ and Article 51 of the UN Charter: Evolutions in Customary Law and Practice Tom Ruys 73 Theatre of the Rule of Law: Transnational Legal Intervention in Theory and Practice Stephen Humphreys 72 Science and Risk Regulation in International Law Jacqueline Peel 71 The Participation of States in International Organisations: The Role of Human Rights and Democracy Alison Duxbury 70 Legal Personality in International Law Roland Portmann 69 Vicarious Liability in Tort: A Comparative Perspective Paula Giliker 68 The Public International Law Theory of Hans Kelsen: Believing in Universal Law Jochen von Bernstorff 67 Legitimacy and Legality in International Law: An Interactional Account Jutta Brunnée and Stephen J Toope 66 The Concept of Non-International Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law Anthony Cullen 65 The Principle of Legality in International and Comparative Criminal Law Kenneth S Gallant 64 The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law Franziska Humbert 63 Shipping Interdiction and the Law of the Sea Douglas Guilfoyle 62 International Courts and Environmental Protection Tim Stephens 61 Legal Principles in WTO Disputes Andrew D Mitchell 60 War Crimes in Internal Armed Conflicts Eve La Haye 59 Humanitarian Occupation Gregory H Fox 58 The International Law of Environmental Impact Assessment: Process, Substance and Integration Neil Craik 57 The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration: Versailles to Iraq and Beyond Carsten Stahn 56 United Nations Sanctions and the Rule of Law Jeremy Matam Farrall 55 National Law in WTO Law: Effectiveness and Good Governance in the World Trading System Sharif Bhuiyan 54 Cultural Products and the World Trade Organization Tania Voon 53 The Threat of Force in International Law Nikolas Stürchler 52 Indigenous Rights and United Nations Standards: Self-Determination, Culture and Land Alexandra Xanthaki 51 International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights: Refuge from Deprivation Michelle Foster 50 The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict Roger O’Keefe 49 Interpretation and Revision of International Boundary Decisions Kaiyan Homi Kaikobad 48 Multinationals and Corporate Social Responsibility: Limitations and Opportunities in International Law Jennifer A Zerk 47 Judiciaries within Europe: A Comparative Review John Bell 46 Law in Times of Crisis: Emergency Powers in Theory and Practice Oren Gross and Fionnuala Ní Aoláin 45 Vessel-Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation Alan Khee-Jin Tan 44 Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law Christian J Tams 43 Non-Governmental Organisations in International Law Anna-Karin Lindblom 42 Democracy, Minorities and International Law Steven Wheatley 41 Prosecuting International Crimes: Selectivity and the International Criminal Law Regime Robert Cryer 40 Compensation for Personal Injury in English, German and Italian Law: A Comparative Outline Basil Markesinis, Michael Coester, Guido Alpa and Augustus Ullstein 39 Dispute Settlement in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Natalie Klein 38 The International Protection of Internally Displaced Persons Catherine Phuong 37 Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law Antony Anghie 35 Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States Judith Gardam 34 International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of International Justice: The Rise of the International Judiciary Ole Spiermann 32 Great Powers and Outlaw States: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order Gerry Simpson 31 Local Remedies in International Law (second edition) Chittharanjan Felix Amerasinghe 30 Reading Humanitarian Intervention: Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law Anne Orford 29 Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of International Law Joost Pauwelyn 27 Transboundary Damage in International Law Hanqin Xue 25 European Criminal Procedures Edited by Mireille Delmas-Marty and J R Spencer 24 Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law Liesbeth Zegveld 23 Sharing Transboundary Resources: International Law and Optimal Resource Use Eyal Benvenisti 22 International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law René Provost 21 Remedies against International Organisations Karel Wellens 20 Diversity and Self-Determination in International Law Karen Knop 19 The Law of Internal Armed Conflict Lindsay Moir 18 International Commercial Arbitration and African States: Practice, Participation and Institutional Development Amazu A Asouzu 17 The Enforceability of Promises in European Contract Law James Gordley 16 International Law in Antiquity David J Bederman 15 Money Laundering: A New International Law Enforcement Model Guy Stessens 14 Good Faith in European Contract Law Reinhard Zimmermann and Simon Whittaker 13 On Civil Procedure J A Jolowicz 12 Trusts: A Comparative Study Maurizio Lupoi and Simon Dix 11 The Right to Property in Commonwealth Constitutions Tom Allen 10 International Organizations before National Courts August Reinisch The Changing International Law of High Seas Fisheries Francisco Orrego Vicuña Trade and the Environment: A Comparative Study of EC and US Law Damien Geradin Unjust Enrichment: A Study of Private Law and Public Values Hanoch Dagan Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe Malcolm D Evans Ethics and Authority in International Law Alfred P Rubin Sovereignty over Natural Resources: Balancing Rights and Duties Nico Schrijver The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law Donald R Rothwell Fragmentation and the International Relations of Micro-States: Self-Determination and Statehood Jorri C Duursma Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations C F Amerasinghe ... VICTIM REPARATION UNDER THE IUS POST BELLUM Victim Reparation under the Ius Post Bellum fills an enormous gap in international legal scholarship It questions the paradigmatic... under the sway of their original sovereign’.48 The principle can be aligned to the principle of the status quo ante bellum Postliminium can be sourced from the ius postliminii of Roman law, the. .. aspects of the victim claims This also extended to the wartime landscape, where the outcome of legal maritime cases affected the relations between states and the ius in bello and ius post bellum