The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel P1

The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons, DSc (Eng), FREng, FIEE Emeritus Professor of Electrical Engineering University of Liverpool, UK JOHN WILEY & SONS LTD Chichester ´ New York ´ Weinheim ´ Brisbane ´ Singapore ´ Toronto The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 First Edition published in 1992 by Pentech Press Copyright & 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Baf®ns Lane, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 1UD, England National 01243 779777 International (+44) 1243 779777 e-mail (for orders and customer service enquiries): 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propagation channel/J.D Parsons ± 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-471-98857-X (alk paper) Mobile radio stations Radio ± Transmitters and transmission Radio wave propagation I Title TK6570.M6 P38 2000 621.3845 ± dc21 00-032482 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 471 98857 X Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Dobbie Typesetting Limited, Devon Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bookcraft (Bath) Ltd This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustaintable forestry, in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 To my wife, Mary and in memory of my parents Doris and Oswald The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 Contents Preface xv Preface to the ®rst edition xvii Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Frequency bands 1.2.1 VLF 1.2.2 LF and MF 1.2.3 HF 1.2.4 VHF and UHF 1.2.5 SHF 1.2.6 EHF 1.3 Mobile radio frequencies 1.3.1 Radio links 1.3.2 Area coverage 10 1.4 Postscript 13 References 14 Fundamentals of VHF and UHF Propagation 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Propagation in free space 16 2.3 Propagation over a re¯ecting surface 18 2.3.1 The re¯ection coecient of the Earth 18 2.3.2 Propagation over a curved re¯ecting surface 21 2.3.3 Propagation over a plane re¯ecting surface 22 2.4 Ground roughness 24 2.5 The e€ect of the atmosphere 26 2.5.1 Atmospheric ducting and non-standard refraction 29 References 31 Propagation over Irregular Terrain 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Huygens' principle 3.3 Di€raction over terrain obstacles 32 32 33 34 viii Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.3.1 Fresnel-zone ellipsoids 36 3.3.2 Di€raction losses 37 Di€raction over real obstacles 41 3.4.1 The uniform theory of di€raction 42 Multiple knife-edge di€raction 46 3.5.1 Bullington's equivalent knife-edge 47 3.5.2 The Epstein±Peterson method 47 3.5.3 The Japanese method 49 3.5.4 The Deygout method 50 3.5.5 Comparison 50 Path loss prediction models 52 3.6.1 The Egli model 53 3.6.2 The JRC method 54 3.6.3 The Blomquist±Ladell model 56 3.6.4 The Longley±Rice models 56 3.6.5 CCIR methods 60 3.6.6 Other methods 62 Discussion 64 References 68 Propagation in Built-up Areas 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Built-up areas: a classi®cation problem 72 4.2.1 A classi®cation approach 73 4.2.2 Classi®cation methods: a brief review 74 4.3 Propagation prediction techniques 77 4.3.1 Young's measurements 77 4.3.2 Allsebrook's method 79 4.3.3 The Okumura method 81 4.3.4 The Ibrahim and Parsons method 88 4.3.5 The Wal®sch±Bertoni method 91 4.3.6 Other models 95 4.4 Microcellular systems 101 4.4.1 Microwave measurements 102 4.4.2 UHF measurements 105 4.4.3 Microcellular modelling 107 4.5 Discussion 110 References 111 Characterisation of Multipath Phenomena 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The nature of multipath propagation 5.3 Short-term fading 5.3.1 The scattering model 5.4 Angle of arrival and signal spectra 5.5 The received signal envelope 5.6 The received signal phase 114 114 116 119 120 122 125 127 Contents ix 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 Baseband power spectrum LCR and AFD The PDF of phase di€erence Random FM Rician fading Spatial correlation of ®eld components 5.12.1 Cross-correlation 5.13 The signal received at the base station 5.13.1 Vertically separated antennas 5.13.2 Horizontally separated antennas 5.14 The magnetic ®eld components 5.15 Signal variability 5.15.1 Statistics of the fast fading 5.15.2 Statistics of the local mean 5.15.3 Large area statistics References 128 130 134 136 139 140 142 144 146 147 150 152 153 155 155 162 Wideband Channel Characterisation 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Frequency-selective fading 6.2.1 Channel characterisation 6.3 Characterisation of deterministic channels 6.3.1 The time domain function 6.3.2 The frequency domain function 6.3.3 The time-variant transfer function 6.3.4 The delay/Doppler-spread function 6.3.5 Relationships between system functions 6.4 Randomly time-variant linear channels 6.4.1 Channel correlation functions 6.4.2 Relationships between the functions 6.5 Classi®cation of practical channels 6.5.1 The wide-sense stationary channel 6.5.2 The uncorrelated scattering channel 6.5.3 The WSSUS channel 6.6 Channel characterisation using the scattering function 6.6.1 The point scatterer description 6.6.2 Statistical point scatterer model 6.6.3 The scattering function 6.7 Mobile radio channel characterisation 6.7.1 Small-scale channel characterisation 6.7.2 Large-scale channel characterisation References 164 164 165 166 167 168 169 169 170 171 172 172 173 174 174 175 177 178 179 180 181 184 185 188 189 Other Mobile Radio Channels 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Radio propagation into buildings 7.3 Propagation inside buildings 190 190 191 195 x Contents 7.3.1 Propagation characteristics 7.3.2 Wideband measurements 7.4 Ray tracing: a deterministic approach 7.5 Radio propagation in tunnels 7.6 Propagation in rural areas 7.6.1 Introduction 7.6.2 Signal statistics 7.6.3 Small-scale signal variations: statistical modelling References 196 199 203 210 211 211 212 215 218 Sounding, Sampling and Simulation 8.1 Channel sounding 8.2 Narrowband channel sounding 8.2.1 A practical narrowband channel sounder 8.3 Signal sampling 8.4 Sampled distributions 8.4.1 Sampling to obtain the local mean value 8.4.2 Sampling a Rayleigh-distributed variable 8.5 Mean signal strength 8.5.1 Con®dence interval 8.6 Normalisation revisited 8.7 Wideband channel sounding 8.8 Wideband sounding techniques 8.8.1 Periodic pulse sounding 8.8.2 Pulse compression 8.8.3 Convolution matched-®lter 8.8.4 Swept time-delay cross-correlation 8.9 System requirements 8.9.1 Accuracy of frequency standards 8.9.2 Phase noise in signal sources 8.10 A practical sounder design 8.10.1 Data processing 8.11 Experimental data processing 8.11.1 Frequency domain characterisation 8.11.2 Large-scale characterisation 8.11.3 Summary 8.12 Radio channel simulation 8.12.1 Hardware simulation of narrowband channels 8.13 Wideband channels 8.13.1 Software simulation 8.13.2 Hardware simulation References 221 221 221 223 226 227 228 229 229 230 232 233 234 234 235 236 237 239 241 242 242 243 246 247 248 248 248 249 253 253 257 261 Man-made Noise and Interference 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Characterisation of pulses 9.2.1 Spectrum amplitude of a rectangular pulse 263 263 265 265 Contents 9.2.2 Impulse generators Characterisation of impulsive noise 9.3.1 Measurement parameters Measuring equipment 9.4.1 Bandwidth 9.4.2 Dynamic range 9.4.3 Receiver sensitivity and noise ®gure 9.4.4 Impulse response Practical measuring systems 9.5.1 Measurement of amplitude probability distribution 9.5.2 Measurement of noise amplitude distribution Impulsive noise measurements Discussion Performance prediction techniques 9.8.1 Assessment of receiver performance using APD 9.8.2 Assessment of receiver performance using NAD Interference 9.9.1 Single interferer 9.9.2 Multiple interferers References 267 267 267 270 273 273 274 274 275 276 278 280 286 287 288 289 295 298 299 304 Mitigation of Multipath E€ects 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Diversity reception 10.3 Basic diversity methods 10.3.1 Selection diversity 10.3.2 Maximal ratio combining 10.3.3 Equal-gain combining 10.4 Improvements from diversity 10.4.1 Envelope probability distributions 10.4.2 LCR and AFD 10.4.3 Random FM 10.5 Switched diversity 10.6 The e€ect of diversity on data systems 10.7 Practical diversity systems 10.8 Post-detection diversity 10.8.1 Uni®ed analysis 10.9 Time diversity 10.10 Diversity on hand-portable equipment 10.11 Discussion and conclusions 10.12 Interleaving 10.13 Channel equalisation 10.13.1 Adaptive equalisers 10.14 Non-linear equalisers 10.14.1 Decision feedback equalisers 10.14.2 MLSE Viterbi equaliser 10.15 Channel coding 307 307 307 308 311 312 313 315 315 317 320 321 322 325 325 328 328 330 335 335 337 337 338 339 339 341 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10 xi xii Contents 10.15.1 Linear block codes 10.15.2 Convolutional codes Codes for fading channels 10.16.1 Performance of codes in fading channels Speech coding 10.17.1 Sub-band coders 10.17.2 Pulse-excited coders The RAKE receiver Smart antennas 10.19.1 Considerations and possibilities Wideband modulation: the alternative 10.20.1 Mitigation bandwidth References 342 344 344 345 347 347 348 348 350 351 355 356 359 Planning Radio Networks 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Cellular systems 11.2.1 Interference considerations 11.3 Radio coverage 11.3.1 Coverage of a small area 11.3.2 Coverage area of a base station 11.4 Planning tools 11.4.1 Self-regulating networks 11.5 A modelling and survey analysis module 11.5.1 Data preparation 11.5.2 Model calibration 11.5.3 Developing a model 11.5.4 Limits on coecients 11.5.5 Microcell model 11.6 Grade of service 11.6.1 Milli-erlangs per subscriber 11.7 Summary and review 11.7.1 Cell site dimensioning 11.7.2 Base station site planning 11.7.3 Frequency planning 11.7.4 Outputs of planning 11.7.5 Conclusion 11.8 A design example 11.9 The future 11.9.1 A UMTS planning tool 11.9.2 Ray tracing models References 362 362 363 366 369 369 371 373 379 379 380 380 382 384 384 384 385 386 386 388 388 392 392 392 395 396 399 401 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 11 Appendices 403 A Rayleigh Graph Paper and Receiver Noise Figure 403 B Rayleigh Distribution (dB) and CNR in a Rayleigh Fading Environment 405 The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 Chapter Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND The history of mobile radio goes back almost to the origins of radio communication itself The very early work of Hertz in the 1880s showed that electromagnetic wave propagation was possible in free space and hence demonstrated the practicality of radio communications In 1892, less than ®ve years later, a paper written by the British scientist Sir William Crookes [1] predicted telegraphic communication over long distances using tuned receiving and transmitting apparatus Although the ®rst radio message appears to have been transmitted by Oliver Lodge in 1894 [2], it was the entrepreneur Marconi [3] who initially demonstrated the potential of radio as a powerful means of long-distance communication In 1895, using two elevated antennas, he established a radio link over a distance of a few miles, and technological progress thereafter was such that only two years later he succeeded in communicating from The Needles, Isle of Wight, to a tugboat over a distance of some 18 miles (29 km) Although it seems highly unlikely that Marconi thought of this experiment in terms of mobile radio, mobile radio it certainly was Nowadays the term `mobile radio' is deemed to embrace almost any situation where the transmitter or receiver is capable of being moved, whether it actually moves or not It therefore encompasses satellite mobile, aeromobile and maritime mobile, as well as cordless telephones, radio paging, traditional private mobile radio (PMR) and cellular systems Any book which attempted to cover all these areas would have to be very bulky and the present volume will therefore be concerned principally with the latter categories of use, which are covered by the generic term `land mobile radio' This, however, is not a book that deals with the systems and techniques that are used in land mobile communications; it is restricted primarily to a discussion of the radio channel ± the transmission medium ± a vital and central feature which places fundamental limitations on the performance of radio systems The majority of the book is concerned with the way in which the radio channel a€ects the signal that propagates through it, but there are other chapters treating related topics These have been included to make the book more comprehensive without straying too far from the main theme It is not pro®table at this point to discuss details; they can be left until later Suce it to say that in the vast majority of cases, because of complexity and variability, a The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel deterministic approach to establishing the parameters of the propagation channel is not feasible Almost invariably it is necessary to resort to measurements and to the powerful tools of statistical communication theory One point worth clarifying at this stage, however, is that signal transmission over a mobile radio path is reciprocal in the sense that the locations of the transmitter and receiver can be interchanged without changing the received signal characteristics The discussion can therefore proceed on the basis of transmission in either direction without loss of generality However, a word of caution is needed The levels of ambient noise and interference at the two ends of the link may not be the same, so reciprocity with respect to the signal characteristics does not imply reciprocity with respect to the signal-to-noise or signal-to-interference ratios Some years ago the primary concern of a book such as this would undoubtedly have been the propagation aspects related to traditional mobile radio services which are based on the concept of an elevated base station on a good site, communicating with a number of mobiles in the surrounding area Such systems, known as PMR systems, developed rapidly following World War II, especially once the transistor made it possible to design and build compact, lightweight equipment that could easily be installed in a vehicle and powered directly from the vehicle battery These are often termed dispatch systems because of their popularity with police forces, taxi companies and service organisations who operate ¯eets of vehicles The frequency bands used for dispatch systems lie in the range 70±470 MHz and have been chosen because the propagation characteristics are suitable, the antennas have a convenient size and adequate radio frequency (RF) power can be generated easily and eciently The operational strategy is to divide the available spectrum into convenient channels with each user, or user group, having access to one or more of these channels in order to transmit a message, usually speech, by amplitude modulation or frequency modulation The technique of providing a service to a number of users in this way is known as frequency division multiple access (FDMA), and because each channel carries only one message the term single channel per carrier (SCPC) is also used In the early post-war days, channels were spaced by 100 kHz, but advances in technology, coupled with an ever increasing demand for licences, has led to several reductions to the point where currently in the UK, channels in the VHF band (30± 300 MHz) are 12.5 kHz apart, whereas 25 kHz separation is still used for some channels in the UHF band (300±3000 MHz) For these PMR systems, indeed for any mobile radio system with a similar operating scenario, the major propagation-related factors that have to be taken into consideration are the e€ect of irregular terrain and the in¯uence on the signal of trees, buildings and other natural and man-made obstacles In recent years, however, expanded services have become available, for example radio pagers, which are now in common use Hand-portable, rather than vehicle-borne equipment is also being used by security guards, police ocers and by subscribers to cellular radio-telephone systems Hand-portable equipment can easily be taken into buildings, so a book concerned with propagation must also consider the properties of the signal inside buildings and in the surrounding areas For cordless telephones and the like, there is also a need to study propagation totally within buildings Neither can we restrict attention to frequencies below 470 MHz; ®rst- and second-generation analogue and Introduction digital cellular radio telephone systems, e.g AMPS, TACS, GSM and DCS1800, use frequencies up to 1900 MHz, and third-generation wideband systems will probably use even higher frequencies to solve the problems of spectrum congestion and required bandwidth What then are the matters of primary concern? For transmissions of the traditional type, in which the signals are restricted to fairly narrow radio channels, two major factors have to be quanti®ed: Median signal strength Signal variability The ability to predict the minimum power a transmitter must radiate to provide an acceptable quality of coverage over a predetermined service area and the ability to estimate the likely e€ect of such transmissions on services in adjacent areas, are both critical for improving frequency reuse techniques, for implementing band-sharing schemes between di€erent services and for the success of radio-telephone systems This is not easy and there is a vital and continuing need for a better understanding of the in¯uence of the di€erent urban and terrain factors on the mobile radio signal As far as signal variability is concerned, it is often convenient to separate the e€ects into those which occur over a short distance and those which are apparent only over much longer distances Short-distance e€ects include the rapid fading caused by multipath propagation in urban areas; longer-distance e€ects include the much slower variations in average signal strength as the receiver moves from one area to another For digital systems it is neither ecient nor desirable to use FDMA/SCPC as a multiple-access technique, and spectrum utilisation is substantially improved by allowing each user access to a wider-bandwidth radio channel, but only for a small percentage of the time This time division multiple access (TDMA) strategy is used in the GSM and DCS1800 systems Third-generation systems will be based around wideband code division multiple access (CDMA) and these spread-spectrum systems will o€er even greater capacity and security together with access to multimedia communications First developed for military purposes, CDMA has virtually no noise or crosstalk and is well suited to high-quality multimedia services The characterisation of wideband channels will be discussed in Chapter 6; for now it will suce to note that if digital (pulse) signals propagate in a multipath environment then interference can occur between a given pulse and a delayed version of an earlier pulse (an echo) that has travelled via a longer path This is known as intersymbol interference (ISI) and can cause errors The extent of the problem can be quanti®ed by propagation studies which measure parameters such as the average delay and the spread of delays Finally, in this introductory section, it is worth making two further points Firstly, the geographical service area of many mobile radio systems is too large to be economically covered using a single base station, and various methods exist to provide `area coverage' using a number of transmitters We will return to this topic in Section 1.3.2 Secondly, in order to maximise the use of the available spectrum, channels that are allocated to one user in a certain geographical area are reallocated to a di€erent user in another area some distance away The most common example The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel of this is cellular radio, which relies on frequency reuse to achieve high spectrum eciency However, whenever frequencies are reallocated, there is always the possibility that interference will be caused and it should therefore be understood that adequate reception conditions require not only an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio but also, simultaneously, an acceptable signal-to-interference ratio This subject will be treated in Chapter Throughout the book the term `base station' will be used when referring to the ®xed terminal and the term `mobile' to describe the moving terminal, whether it be hand-portable or installed in a vehicle 1.2 FREQUENCY BANDS Having set the scene, we can now discuss some of the topics in a little more detail It is very important to understand how RF energy propagates and in preparation for a brief general discussion let us de®ne more clearly what is meant by the term `radio wave' and how waves of di€erent frequencies are classi®ed The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio frequencies extends from about 30 kHz to 300 GHz, although radio wave propagation is actually possible down to a few kilohertz By international agreement the radio frequency spectrum is divided into bands, and each band is given a designation as in Table 1.1 Electromagnetic energy in the form of radio waves propagates outwards from a transmitting antenna and there are several ways in which these waves travel, largely depending on the transmission frequency Waves propagating via the layers of the ionosphere are known as ionospheric waves or sky waves; those that propagate over other paths in the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) are termed tropospheric waves, and those that propagate very close to the Earth's surface are known as ground waves Ground waves can be conveniently divided into space waves and surface waves, and space waves can be further subdivided into direct waves which propagate via the direct path between transmitting and receiving antennas and ground-re¯ected waves that reach the receiving antenna after re¯ection from the ground Figure 1.1 gives a simple picture The surface waves are guided along the Earth's surface and because the Earth is not a perfect conductor, energy is extracted from the wave, as it propagates, to supply losses in the ground itself The attenuation of this wave (sometimes known as the Norton surface wave) is therefore directly a€ected by the ground constants Table 1.1 Designation of frequency bands Frequency band Frequency range Extremely low frequency (ELF) Very low frequency (VLF) Low frequency (LF) Medium frequency (MF) High frequency (HF) Very high frequency (VHF) Ultra high frequency (UHF) Super high frequency (SHF) Extra high frequency (EHF) 53 kHz 3±30 kHz 30±300 kHz 300 kHz±3 MHz 3±30 MHz 30±300 MHz 300 MHz±3 GHz 3±30 GHz 30±300 GHz Introduction Figure 1.1 Modes of radio wave propagation (conductivity and dielectric constant) along the transmission path The importance of each of these waves in any particular case depends upon the length of the propagation path and the frequency of transmission We can now discuss each frequency band in turn 1.2.1 VLF In the VLF range the wavelength is very long, typically 105 m, and antennas are therefore very large They have to be very close to the Earth and are often buried in the ground The radio waves are re¯ected from the ionosphere and a form of Earth± ionosphere waveguide exists that guides the wave as it propagates Because of diurnal variations in the height of the ionospheric D-layer, the e€ective height of the terrestrial waveguide also varies around the surface of the Earth The uses of VLF include long-distance worldwide telegraphy and navigation systems Frequencies in the VLF range are also useful for communication with submerged submarines, as higher frequencies are very rapidly attenuated by conducting sea water Digital transmissions are always used but the available bandwidth in this frequency range is very small and the data rate is therefore extremely low 1.2.2 LF and MF At frequencies in the range between a few kilohertz and a few megahertz (the LF and MF bands) ground wave propagation is the dominant mode and the radiation characteristics are strongly in¯uenced by the presence of the Earth At LF, the surface wave component of the ground wave is successfully utilised for long-distance communication and navigation Physically, antennas are still quite large and highpower transmitters are used The increased bandwidth available in the MF band allows it to be used for commercial AM broadcasting, and although the attenuation ... of the radio propagation channel are amongst the most important and fundamental The propagation channel is the principal contributor to many of the problems and limitations that beset mobile radio. .. limitations on the performance of radio systems The majority of the book is concerned with the way in which the radio channel a€ects the signal that propagates through it, but there are other chapters.. .The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Second Edition J D Parsons Copyright & 2000 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98857-X Online ISBN 0-470-84152-4 The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel