Từ điển công nghệ I

I IAA Abbreviation for indol-3-ylacetic acid. Iberian ham A variety of high-quality, dry cured ham, traditionally produced in the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal). These hams are usually produced from Iberian or Iberian x Duroc swine. Traditionally the hams are subjected to long periods of ageing, dur- ing which intense enzymic action helps to develop their distinctive flavour. Increasingly, however, shorter curing periods are being used to reduce costs; this practice results in reduced flavour intensity of the product. Iberian ham of a superior quality is produced from swine fed on acorn-based feeds. Ice Solid form of water, used for numerous food proc- essing applications, including chilling and glazing of foods (e.g. fish). Small pieces of ice, e.g. ice cubes or crushed ice, may be added to beverages to cool them, while flavoured ice is consumed in the form of ice lollies and water ices. Ice crystal characteristics play an important role in determining the quality of frozen foods. Ice cream Frozen dairy product with creamy, smooth and crystalline consistency. In addition to milk and dairy products (such as cream, milk powders, butter and sweetened condensed milk), also con- tains sugar, flavourings and additives (such as emulsifiers and stabilizers). The ingredient mix is processed in an ice cream freezer where it is frozen by contact with the refrigerated wall, blades scraping the mixture from the walls while whipping air into the ice cream. The soft-serve ice cream produced can be hard- ened further by placing in a suitable freezing appara- tus. Ice cream bars Confectionery snack products con- taining ice cream covered with chocolate or other coatings. May be stick novelties, wafer products or cone products. Ice cream cones Thin, slightly sweetened wafers baked on a waffle iron and curled before cooling to form a cone shape. Used to hold one or more scoops of ice cream. Ice cream mixes Commercial products used in manufacture of ice cream. Contain all the main com- ponents of the final product, including milk, cream, sugar, flavourings and emulsifiers. Ice cream wafers Thin, slightly sweetened, waffle- textured wafers that are usually triangular or rectan- gular and served as an accompaniment to ice cream or used to make an ice cream sandwich. Iced coffee Chilled coffee beverages. Iced tea Chilled tea beverages. Ice lollies Portions of ice cream, flavoured water ices or coated ice cream products. Generally served on a stick. Ice milk Low-fat ice cream. Ice nucleation activity Promotion of the formation of ice crystals. Agents displaying ice nucleation ac- tivity include small particles, such as food particles, and large molecules, such as ice nucleating proteins. Ices Term sometimes used for ice cream. Ice wines Sweet dessert wines prepared from winemaking grapes which have been allowed to freeze, traditionally on the vine. The grapes are hand picked and pressed while still frozen, producing highly concentrated grape musts which are rich in acids, sugars and aroma compounds. Produced mainly in Germany (where this wine is known as eiswein) and Canada, but also in a range of other countries. Icings Toppings, usually for cakes and biscuits. Basic formulations for icings consist of icing sugar mixed with water. Other ingredients that may be used include butter/margarines, egg whites and col- orants. Icing sugar Powdered granulated sugar used as an ingredient of fondants and icings that require sweetness and a smooth texture. Anticaking agents, usually starch or tricalcium phosphate, are commonly added to icing sugar. ICP-AES Abbreviation for inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. ICP-MS Abbreviation for inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. ICP-OES Abbreviation for inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. IDF Abbreviation for International Dairy Federa- tion. 222 Idiazabal cheese Immobilization Idiazabal cheese Spanish hard cheese made from unpasteurized ewe milk. Has a compact but not crumbly texture and characteristic smoky flavour. L -Iditol 2-dehydrogenases EC 1.1.1.14. Dehydro- genases which catalyse the interconversion of L - iditol and L -sorbose, although they can also act on D - glucitol (giving D -fructose) and other closely related sugar alcohols. Useful in the analysis of sorbitol. Also known as sorbitol dehydrogenases. Idli A steamed, naturally fermented cake-type product widely consumed as a breakfast food or snack in India. Prepared by fermenting a slurry of ground rice and legumes (usually black gram dhal) and steaming the resulting batters to give products with a soft, sponge-like texture and good digestibility. Ika shiokara Traditional Japanese sea foods, con- sisting of squid flesh fermented with squid liver con- tents and salt. Illipe butter Naturally occurring vegetable fat derived from nuts of various species of the genus Shorea (il- lipe nuts). Shows similar fatty acids composition and melting profile to cocoa butter and is thus used in cocoa butter substitutes. Illipe nuts Nuts produced by various species of the genus Shorea, which yield fats (illipe butter) with similar properties to cocoa butter. Image analysis Analysis of a sample on the basis of its structure, as determined by non-destructive tech- niques such as microscopy. Parameters of interest in the image can be both classified and quantified using the human eye or computer programs. Image processing Technique that can be used with image analysis in which the image of the sample is processed in some way to make it easier to perform further interpretation. Thus, the image quality is im- proved but no analysis or quantification is performed. Imaging Analytical techniques used to produce images of objects or substances which will allow their structure to be studied. Includes magnetic reso- nance imaging and thermal imaging. Imazalil Systemic fungicide which inhibits ergos- terol biosynthesis. Used to control a wide range of fungal diseases on fruits and vegetables. Particu- larly active against fungal strains resistant to ben- zimidazole . Also used as a seed dressing for control of fungal diseases affecting cereals . Classified by WHO as moderately hazardous (WHO II). Imbibition Process of absorption, by soaking up a liquid. Imidacloprid Widely employed systemic insecticide. A chlorinated analogue of nicotine used for control of chewing and sucking insects (e.g. aphids, thrips, some beetles and soil-dwelling insects) in cereals, fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO as mod- erately hazardous (WHO II). Imidan Alternative term for the insecticide phosmet. Imidazoles Heterocyclic compounds containing a 5-membered imidazole ring with two nitrogen atoms. These organic nitrogen compounds are present in histidine, histamine and imidazole alkaloids, and imidazole, a weak base, has been used in the extraction of fats, proteins and polysaccharides for chemi- cal analysis. Imitation cheese Product with the appearance and sensory properties of cheese, but which is differ- ent from genuine cheese in composition. May be based on soybeans rather than milk. Imitation crab meat Product resembling flesh from crab legs which is actually derived from flesh of ma- rine fish (usually a mild-flavoured fish such as pol- lock). The fish is processed by rolling ‘sheets’ of fish and adding colorants to give it the required appear- ance; crab sticks or flaked imitation crab meat are commonly produced. The resulting product is lower in cholesterol than real crab meat. Imitation cream Product with the appearance and sensory properties of cream, but which differs from genuine cream in composition. Usually prepared with vegetable proteins and vegetable fats as substitutes for milk-based components. Also called non-dairy cream. Imitation dairy products Substitutes for dairy products, with vegetable-based components (often soy products) usually replacing all or part of the milk constituents. Products have the appearance and sen- sory properties of dairy products, but differ in com- position. Nutritional properties of the imitation prod- ucts may not match those of the dairy products they are intended to replace. Commonly produced types include imitation cheese, imitation milk and imitation cream. Imitation foods Alternative term for simulated foods. Immersion freezing The preservation of foods by immersion in very cold liquids such as liquid nitro- gen. This process is particularly useful for cooked foods such as meats; their surface temperature is rapidly reduced to slow or stop cooking, which causes steam emission to cease and moisture to be re- tained. Immobilization Process by which microbial, plant and animal cells, and macromolecules (e.g. enzymes) are attached to solid surfaces or entrapped within gels. They can then be used in applications such as bio- conversions and biotransformations, affinity chromatography and biosensors. 223 Immobilized cells Immunological techniques Immobilized cells Microbial, plant and animal cells that have been attached to solid surfaces or entrapped within gels. Can be used in bioconversions not pos- sible with isolated enzymes and in biosensors. En- trapment is the most commonly used method for im- mobilization; gels used include agar, alginates, car- rageenans, polyacrylamides and polyurethane. Immobilized enzymes Enzymes that have been at- tached to solid surfaces or entrapped within gels. Im- mobilization methods include covalent attachment or ionic binding to solid carriers or supports (e.g. cellu- loses, synthetic polymers and DEAE-cellulose), cross-linking with bifunctional reagents, encapsula- tion (e.g. in liposomes) and entrapment within gels. Immobilized enzymes often offer a number of advan- tages over free enzymes, such as ease of reuse and in- creased stability. Immune response Reaction of the body to foreign substances (antigens). Antibodies produced by lymphocytes in response to the antigens can destroy the antigens directly or label them in a way that makes them susceptible to attack by white blood cells. White blood cells specific to the antigens (T-cells) may also be produced. Synonymous with immunological re- sponse. Immunoaffinity chromatography Chromatogra- phy technique in which the stationary phase (immu- nosorbent) is prepared by immobilizing antibodies specific to the analytes of interest onto the surface of a rigid or semi-rigid support. Used as a clean up or preconcentration step in an analytical procedure as well as a separation technique. Immunoassay Analytical techniques in which substances are measured using specific antibodies that bind to the corresponding antigens. Binding is measured by use of antibodies labelled with radioac- tive isotopes, enzymes (enzyme immunoassay) or fluorescent dyes. Immunochemical analysis Analytical tech- niques in which specific immune reactions are em- ployed in the investigation. Immunodiffusion Immunological techniques in which antigens are detected by precipitation reaction with specific antibodies in agar gel. Antigens diffuse out from wells cut into the gel to react either with anti- bodies diffusing from a central well or antibodies in- corporated in the gel. Immunoelectrophoresis Technique combining separation of sample components by electrophore- sis with immunological identification of the separated substances using specific antibodies. Immunofluorescence Immunological tech- niques in which antibodies labelled with a fluores- cent dye are used to detect antigens in the samples. Immunogenicity Extent to which a substance can cause an immune response. Affected by a number of factors, including nature of the substance, dose and previous exposure of the host. Immunoglobulin A One of the 5 major classes of immunoglobulins, commonly abbreviated to IgA. Produced predominantly against ingested antigens, and found in external secretions of mammals, such as saliva, sweat and tears. Also present in colostrum, pro- viding a valuable source of immunity for suckling animals and infants. Provides local immunity against infection in the gut or respiratory tract, preventing at- tachment of microorganisms to epithelial cells. Immunoglobulin E One of the five major classes of immunoglobulins; commonly abbreviated to IgE. Helps to protect against parasitic infections. On bind- ing antigens, IgE molecules trigger histamine re- lease from circulating leukocytes. Following sensiti- zation, however, these antibodies can also be in- volved in the pathogenesis of certain food aller- gies, known as type I hypersensitivity reactions, which include anaphylaxis. Immunoglobulin G The most abundant of the major classes of immunoglobulins in the bloodstream; commonly abbreviated to IgG. Produced by B lym- phocytes following previous exposure to a given anti- gen. Immunoglobulins Proteins (commonly abbreviated to Ig) also known as antibodies, which are produced by white blood cells in response to foreign antigens. Capable of binding the antigens as part of the body's immune response. There are 5 main classes of im- munoglobulins (IgG, IgE, IgM, IgA and IgD), each of which has distinct roles in the immune system. Immunoglobulin Y One of the biologically active substances found in hen egg yolks. This class of immunoglobulins exhibits antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria. Uses include as a therapeutic agent, in immunological techniques and potentially in food preservatives. Immunological effects Influence of exposure to a substance on a body's immune system. Immunological response Alternative term for im- mune response. Immunological techniques Analytical tech- niques in which antigens are detected using anti- bodies. Include agglutination tests, ELISA, ra- dioimmunoassay, immunoelectrophoresis and immunodiffusion. 224 Immunology Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy Immunology Science concerned with the way in which the body reacts to foreign substances. Includes immunity, components of the immune system and di- agnosis of disease. Immunomagnetic separation Immunological techniques in which a substance is separated from a sample using magnetic beads coated with specific an- tibodies. After allowing interaction of the beads with the analyte of interest, they are removed from the sam- ple using a magnetic particle separator. Often used as an enrichment stage in isolation and detection of mi- croorganisms. Immunomodulation Process of influencing the func- tioning of a body's immune system. Immunotherapy A form of therapy that may be used to treat allergies, such as those to foods, pollen and mites. The idea is to stimulate the immune system with gradually increasing doses of the allergens to which the person is allergic. This will have the effect of reducing the immune response to these sub- stances when encountered in the future (hyposensitiza- tion). IMP Abbreviation for inosine monophosphate. Impala Swift-running, medium-sized, graceful ante- lopes (Aepyceros melampus). Impala are hunted for their meat. Impedance Opposition to the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Impellers Devices for driving an item forwards, em- ployed in food processing. Impingement drying Drying technique originally used for paper and textiles but more recently applied to foods. Gas jets are arranged in such a way that the gas, e.g. superheated steam or hot air, impinges perpendicu- larly on the food to be dried. The gas is directed at high velocity, removing moisture from the surface of the food. Processing time is reduced compared with that required for other types of drying. Imports Goods or services that are produced abroad but purchased for use in the domestic economy. Improvers Additives that improve the quality of the final product. Used predominantly in the bakery indus- try. Includes flour improvers which enhance the breadmaking properties of flour. Incaparina Low cost protein-rich food supple- ments introduced by the Institute of Nutrition of Cen- tral America and Panama (INCAP) to combat protein deficiency diseases in infants and others at risk from malnutrition. The original formulation is based on cottonseed meal and corn and has a nutritional value similar to that of milk. Other formulations have been developed based on soybeans and low-cost lo- cal vegetables. Indian mackerel Marine fish species (Rastrelliger kanagurta) from the mackerel family (Scombridae) which is mainly found in the Indo-west Pacific region. Marketed fresh, frozen, canned, dried-salted and smoked; also made into fish sauces. Indian mustard Annual plant (Brassica juncea), re- lated to rapeseed, grown for its seeds which are a source of vegetable oils. Indian shad Marine fish species (Tenualosa ilisha) of the family Clupeidae and of minor commercial im- portance. Found in the Indian Ocean. Marketed fresh or dried-salted. Also known as hilsa shad. Indigo carmine Disodium salt of 5,5c-ingotin disulfo- nic acid. One of a number of artificial colorants used in foods, this one providing deep blue colour. It has low solubility in water but is heat stable. Added to foods including bakery products, snack foods and confectionery. Banned in Norway. Also known as indigotine. Indigotine Alternative term for indigo carmine. Indole acetic acid Alternative term for indol-3- ylacetic acid. Indole-3-carbinol One of the organic nitrogen compounds found in Brassica vegetables, such as cabbages, Brussels sprouts, kale, broccoli and pak choi. Produced by breakdown of glucobrassi- cin, one of the glucosinolates. Demonstrates anti- tumour activity, anticarcinogenicity and cardio- protective effects in animal studies, but human studies are inconclusive. Its major metabolite is 3,3c- diindolylmethane, which also demonstrates anticar- cinogenicity and anti-inflammatory activity. Commercially available as a food supplement. Indoles Group of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds based on the 2,3-benzopyrrole (indole) skeleton. Indole-containing organic compounds include tryptophan, skatole, indole alkaloids, in- dol-3-ylacetic acid and indole-3-carbinol, a gluco- brassicin derivative isolated from cruciferous vege- tables with possible anticarcinogenicity. Indole has an animal-like aroma and has been identified as a volatile constituent in several foods and beverages. Indol-3-ylacetic acid One of the auxins group of plant growth regulators, with the synonym indole acetic acid and the abbreviation IAA. Controls plant growth and differentiation, thereby affecting the yield and quality of fruits and vegetables. Induction heating Heating, e.g. of foods, by produc- tion of an electric or magnetic state by the proximity (without contact) of an electrified or magnetized body. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy An inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy technique that can be used to detect 225 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Injection very small amounts of most elements in solid or aqueous samples. Usually abbreviated to ICP-AES. Samples are nebulized and passed through a tube in an inert gas (e.g. argon) atmosphere. The tube is heated by radiofrequency radiation to produce a plasma with an extremely high temperature. When the sample flows into the plasma, atoms are excited and emit en- ergy at characteristic wavelengths, which is usually de- tected by photographic emulsion detectors or photo- electric transducers. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Mass spectroscopy technique utilizing inductively coupled plasma. Usually abbreviated to ICP-MS. Sam- ples are nebulized and passed through a tube in an inert gas atmosphere. The tube is heated by radiofrequency radiation to produce a plasma with an extremely high temperature, which is then analysed by mass spectros- copy. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy A type of spectroscopy used for analysis of minerals. Usually abbreviated to ICP- OES. Samples (dissolved solids or liquids) are nebu- lized then superheated to degrade the sample into its constituent elements and generate a plasma (i.e. a gaseous mixture of the mineral atoms in an excited state). Atoms in the plasma emit radiation at a wave- length characteristic to a particular mineral. Radiation in the optical range, i.e. ultraviolet, visible or infra- red is detected. For quantitative analysis, the intensity of the radiation of a particular wavelength is measured since it is proportional to the amount of the mineral in the sample. Infant foods Foods designed to meet the nutritional needs of infants, such as infant formulas and wean- ing foods. A wide range of processed infant foods is available in industrialized countries, including rusks, pureed ready meals, fruit drinks and cereal-based dishes. Foods are typically fortified with minerals and vitamins, and designed to be low in sugar and salt. Infant formulas Liquid foods for infants used as a substitute for human milk. Usually take the form of modified cow milk products (milk infant formu- las), which aim to mimic the composition of human milk. Formulas may also be based on milk from other species, soymilk or other products in order to meet the nutritional needs of infants suffering from intoler- ance to cow milk. Infant milk formulas Preparations for feeding to infants and young children, intended to satisfy their specific nutritional requirements. May be based on cow milk or soymilk. Also called human milk substitutes . Infectivity Ability of pathogens to become estab- lished within or on the tissues of a host, or the capabil- ity of pathogens to be transferred from one organism to another. Infestation Condition in which a host is occupied or invaded by parasites, e.g. ticks, lice or mites which may live on the surface of a host, or worms which may live within the organs of a host. Inflammation A protective local response to injury, disease or irritation of the tissues that is characterized by swelling, redness, pain and a feeling of heat in the area affected. Can also be inappropriate and/or chronic. Associated with many diseases including arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, dermatitis, asthma and allergies. Certain foods and food com- ponents are thought to possess anti-inflammatory activity. Inflammatory bowel disease A term that refers to two distinct disorders, Crohns disease and ulcera- tive colitis, both of which involve inflammation of the intestines. Diet therapy may be one approach used to relieve or manage symptoms of these dis- eases. Information processing Evaluation of data using a computer, to generate usable information. Infrared Section of the electromagnetic spectrum of which the radiation has lower energy than the visible spectrum and wavelengths ranging from 750 nm to 1 mm. Abbreviated to IR. Infrared irradiation Application of infrared radia- tion (IR radiation) to products such as foods. Uses in- clude in microbial decontamination, thermal proc- essing and drying procedures, and for extending shelf life. Alternatively known as IR irradiation. Infrared radiation Electromagnetic infrared radia- tion having a wavelength in the range 750 nm to 1 mm which is just greater than that of red light but less than that of microwaves. Emitted particularly by heated objects. Alternatively known as IR radiation. Infrared spectrophotometry Alternative term for IR spectroscopy. Infusions Extracts produced by soaking a sub- stance, usually of plant origin, e.g. spices , teas or fruits, in a solvent, usually water. Solvent-soluble components, including flavour compounds and aroma compounds, leach out from the material into the solvent. Inheritance Transmission of a trait from a parent to its offspring. Injection The introduction of liquid or gas into an item using a needle and syringe or similar. Meat may be injected with brines as part of the curing process or with various enhancement solutions for quality im- 226 Injera Insoluble fibre provement. Gas injection may be used for the aera- tion of foods and also has packaging applications. Injera Flexible, spongy, pancake-like, unleavened flat bread prepared from spontaneously fermented millet flour dough. Ink jet printers Non-impact printers in which the print image is formed by minute jets of ink. The jets of ink pass through an electrical field and this directs droplets of ink precisely onto the surface. Uses include production of high quality print food labels. Ink jet technology Printing technology that involves spraying droplets of ink through computer-controlled nozzles. Ink jet printers are usually employed for production of high quality print food labels. Inn breweries Small-scale breweries, integrated with pubs, inns or restaurants where the beer is served. Inorganic acids Acids which do not contain the carboxylic acid moiety common to organic acids. Includes the mineral acids hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid. Inorganic compounds Chemical compounds that do not contain C-H bonds. Inosine Ribonucleoside formed from hypoxanthine (6-hydroxypurine) linked to a ribose molecule. Unlike other ribonucleosides, does not occur as a component of nucleic acids, but is used in synthetic oligonucleotide probes. Often found in foods as the ribonucleotide inosine monophosphate (IMP), which is associated with umami flavour. Inosine lev- els can be used as indicators of fish freshness. Inosine monophosphate Member of the ribonu- cleotides, commonly abbreviated to IMP. Occurs as a flavour compound in foods and is particularly associ- ated with umami flavour. Content in meat and fish is used as a freshness indicator. Inositol Common name for the cyclitol myo-inositol. Polyols which occur widely in foods as the free form, as inositol phosphates or as a component of phosphatidylinositol. Participates in cell signalling as a part of a membrane secondary messenger system and can also act as antinutritional factors. Inositol phosphates Antinutritional factors found in foods, especially cereals and legumes, which can compromise the absorption of minerals from the gastrointestinal tract. May be present in a range of forms, from bisphosphates up to hexaphos- phates (also known as phytates). To improve the nu- tritional values of foods, both exogenous and en- dogenous phytases can be utilized to hydrolyse the higher inositol phosphates into lower phosphates, which generally have lower capacities to bind miner- als. Insect foods Insects that are eaten as foods in many parts of the world, including China, Japan and rural areas of Africa and South America, where they can serve as a valuable and readily available source of proteins and minerals. Types of insect consumed include grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, bees and ants. Most species are roasted, fried or boiled prior to consumption, although a few are eaten live. Insect foods are generally regarded as taboo in the western world, although some insect products are available as novelty foods. Insecticides Chemical substances used to kill in- sects. Used primarily to control pests that infest crops or to eliminate potential disease-carrying in- sects in specific areas. Classified into several groups, the most important of which are carbamate insecti- cides, fumigant insecticides, organochlorine insec- ticides, organophosphorus insecticides and pyrethroid insecticides. Residues persisting in foods and the environment can represent health haz- ards. Insects Members of the class Insecta, such as flies, ants and beetles. May generally refer to any other arthropods which resemble insects, such as spiders. Typically have a segmented body with an external chitinous covering, three pairs of legs, and, in most groups, two pairs of wings. Some species may be con- sumed as insect foods, while others may act as pests of crops and stored foods. Insertion sequences Small, simple transposons (mobile units of DNA) usually ranging in size from 700 to 1500 base pairs. Possess short repeated nucleo- tide sequences at either end and carry no genetic in- formation other than that required for their transposi- tion. When inserted into bacterial DNA, insertion se- quences (often abbreviated to IS) inactivate the gene, but activity is restored upon removal. IS transfer events are important mediators of genetic polymorphisms in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and have been widely studied in both pathogens and beneficial mi- croorganisms within the food industry. Insoluble fibre Dietary fibre that does not dissolve in water and so passes through the gastrointestinal tract largely intact. Includes celluloses, hemicellu- loses and lignin. Insoluble fibre absorbs water in the colon, resulting in a larger and softer stool. This helps to promote regular bowel movement and, in turn, pre- vent constipation and reduce the risk of diverticulo- sis. It may also reduce the risk of colorectal can- cer, possibly by speeding up the movement of poten- tial carcinogens through the intestine. Good sources include cereals, vegetables and beans. 227 Instant beverages Interfacial tension Instant beverages Dried beverages formulated and processed in a manner giving rapid solubility in water or other liquids. Instant cocoa Beverage mixes containing cocoa powders that are usually reconstituted with hot milk or water to make cocoa beverages. Instant coffee Dried (generally freeze dried) coffee extracts processed to a form which dissolves rapidly in water. Instant foods Processed foods that have under- gone instantization, so that they can be easily and rapidly reconstituted by bringing them into contact with a liquid such as milk or water. Common instant foods include gravy granules, instant noodles, milk powders, instant coffee and tea powders. Instantization Processing of dried foods in a way that facilitates preparation or reconstitution of the final product. Common techniques used in instantization in- clude agglomeration of particles and lecithination. Instant noodles Noodles that have been pre-cooked and reconstitute rapidly when hot water is added to them. Instant soups Dried soup mixes that are designed to rehydrate rapidly upon addition of water. Often pre- pared by freeze drying. Typically sold as conven- ience snack foods/beverages in single serving sa- chets. Instant tea Dried (generally freeze dried) tea extracts processed to a form which dissolves rapidly in water. Insulin One of the mammalian endocrine hormones. This polypeptide is synthesized in the pancreas in re- sponse to elevated blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in secretion of insulin or physiological responses to in- sulin occur in type I (insulin-dependent) and type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus, respec- tively. Diet can be used to control type II diabetes, and information regarding postprandial blood insulin and glucose responses to foods (their insulinaemic and glycaemic index values) is useful in dietary control of this disease. Insulin-like growth factors Polypeptides that are structurally similar to insulin. Two such polypeptides have been isolated: insulin-like growth factors (IGF) 1 and 2. IGF-1 is mainly secreted by the liver and is im- portant for the regulation of normal physiology, me- diating the effects of somatotropin. IGF-2 is almost exclusively expressed in embryonic and neonatal tis- sues and is essential for the development and function of organs such as the brain, liver and kidney. Insulin resistance Condition in which fat, muscle and liver cells fail to respond correctly to insulin, re- sulting in reduced entry of glucose into the cells. The pancreas responds by producing more insulin in an ef- fort to increase absorption into the cells and control blood glucose levels. When the cells do not respond appropriately to the high insulin levels, glucose builds up in the blood (hyperglycaemia). Insulin resistance may precede the development of type 2 diabetes and is often a factor in obesity and the metabolic syn- drome. Integrated pest management Approach to control of pests on crops that uses a combination of physi- cal, chemical and biological pest control tactics in an attempt to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and hence minimize harmful residues in crops and pollution of the environment. Pest control tactics em- ployed include biological control, use of conventional plant breeding or genetic engineering to improve crop resistance to pests, use of agricultural practices that lessen the degree of pest damage (e.g. mixed crop- ping, time of planting), and selective use of insecti- cides or other chemical agents (e.g. insect growth regulators). Integrins Mammalian cell surface proteins that play a role in signal transduction and binding between cells and the extracellular matrix, e.g. in the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract. Consist of 2 trans- membrane glycoprotein subunits. Some food patho- gens (e.g. rotaviruses) bind to integrins during the infection process, promoting their infectivity. In- tegrins may also be involved in the development of food allergies in susceptible individuals. Integrin degradation in pork tissue is believed to contribute to post-mortem drip loss, and integrins may influence meat toughness. Intelligent packaging Packaging that senses changing external or internal conditions, and can then communicate these to the customer or end user. The packaging can potentially carry out different intelligent functions (e.g. tracing, sensing, recording, detecting, communicating and applying scientific logic) then fa- cilitate decision making to achieve specific effects (e.g. enhancing food safety or quality, extending shelf life, providing information or warning of potential problems). Interesterification The process by which fatty acyl residues are interchanged between triglycerides in a mixture of lipids. Can be catalysed by lipases, and may be used to modify the composition and properties of fats and oils. Interfacial properties Physical properties relat- ing to the interaction between molecules at an inter- face. Interfacial tension Attractive force between mole- cules at an interface. 228 Interferometry Inulin Interferometry Analytical techniques based on differences in refractive index between the sample under investigation and a standard. Measurements are made on an interferometer, an optical instrument in which a beam of light is split and subsequently re- united after traversing different paths, producing inter- ference. Intermediate moisture foods Semi-moist foods, which do not require refrigeration and can be eaten without further preparation. Foods are preserved by limiting water activity to a level unable to support microbial growth, e.g. by addition of humectants. Examples include dried fruits, beef jerky and semi- dried sausages. Intermediate moisture pet foods Pet foods with a moisture content intermediate between those of dried pet foods and canned pet foods. Include soft-moist foods (moisture content 23 to 40%), which are soft in texture, easy to chew, contain similar in- gredients to dried pet foods and are often made from extruded kibble or pellets. Also include specialized, usually meat-based products, with a moisture content of 45 to 55%, which are similar to canned pet foods in many ways, but are shelf-stable. Intermittent warming Warming of commodities, such as fruits and vegetables, to room temperature at intervals during storage to prevent chilling injury symptoms from developing. Chilling injury is a prob- lem in most crops of tropical or subtropical origin. Symptoms of chilling injury, such as pitting, discol- oration, internal breakdown and decay, can result in large postharvest losses during marketing. Intermittent warming may, however, cause undesirable softening, increase decay, and cause condensation to form on the product. International Dairy Federation Organization com- prising 53 member countries throughout the world which aims to form a centre for collection and dis- semination of information for the dairy sector, and to serve as a link between the dairy sector and organiza- tions representing other sectors. Each member country has a national International Dairy Federation (IDF) committee representing the dairy sector in that country, covering the full range of dairy activities. As well as organizing events at which experts can report progress in various areas of research, the IDF also publishes technical and scientific findings and works closely with the Codex Alimentarius in many areas, includ- ing the provision of draft standards for milk and dairy products. International Organization for Standardization The world's largest developer and publisher of Interna- tional Standards. A non-governmental organization comprising a network of the national standards insti- tutes of some 157 countries, with a central office in Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system and publishes finished standards. Commonly abbreviated to ISO. Intestines The portion of the gastrointestinal tract which extends from the lower opening of the stomach to the cloaca or anus. Intestines of slaughtered animals form a part of edible offal ; after cleaning they may be used as casings for the production of meat products, e.g. sausages. Intimins Virulence factors (adhesins) produced by enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic Es- cherichia coli species, which assist in the adher- ence of bacteria to intestinal cells. This mediation molecule is secreted by the type III system along with the host receptor for intimin (Tir - translocated intimin receptor). Tir is embedded in the target cell's plasma membrane, so facilitating bacterial attachment to the host. The translocated Tir triggers additional host sig- nalling events and actin nucleation, which are essential for lesion formation. Intolerance Group of diseases in which there is inabil- ity to digest a particular dietary constituent properly, often resulting in malabsorption syndromes. Exam- ples include lactose intolerance, resulting from lack of a gastrointestinal tract brush border en- zyme, and coeliac disease, in which an immune response to wheat gluten results in histopathologi- cal changes to the intestinal mucosa. Exclusion of the relevant component from the diet can result in elimi- nation of the symptoms of the disease, and also, in cases such as coeliac disease, reversal of intestinal pa- thology. Intramuscular fat Fat bound between muscle fibre bundles in meat. Important factor influencing meat quality. Responsible for marbling of meats such as beef and pork. Enhances flavour, tenderness, juiciness and palatability. Amounts present are strongly influenced by genotype. Animal feeding re- gimes can be used to alter its fatty acids composition. Introns Sequences of nucleotides interrupting the coding sequences of genes . These are transcribed into RNA but are removed by splicing before transla- tion of the RNA into the protein product. The remain- ing sequences, which together code for the product, are called exons. Inulases Alternative term for inulinases. Inulases II Alternative term for inulin fructotrans- ferases (DFA-III-forming) . Inulin Polysaccharide composed mainly of fructofu- ranose residues ( fructose in the ring conformation) although it also contains a glucopyranose residue. Inu- lin occurs naturally in some plants, e.g. Jerusalem 229 Inulinases Ion chromatography artichokes and chicory, where it replaces starch as an energy store. Inulinases EC 3.2.1.7. Glycosidases which cata- lyse the endohydrolysis of 2,1-ȕ- D -fructosidic linkages in inulin, a linear, ȕ-2,1-linked polymer of fructose which serves as an energy reserve in some plants. In- termediary products are fructooligosaccharides and the end product is fructose. Fructose has a high degree of sweetness and is important in dietetic foods and beverages. Fructooligosaccharides are useful functional ingredients in prebiotic foods. En- zymic hydrolysis of inulin using inulinases offers an alternative to the standard procedure for production of fructose which uses starch as the source material. Inulin fructotransferases (depolymerizing) For- mer accepted name for inulin fructotransferases (DFA-III-forming). Inulin fructotransferases (DFA-III-forming) EC 4.2.2.18 (formerly EC 2.4.1.93; inulin fructotrans- ferases (depolymerizing)). Lyases which remove the terminal disaccharide from inulin resulting in for- mation of a shorter inulin chain and Į- D -fructofuranose ȕ- D -fructofuranose 1,2c:2,3c-dianhydride (DFA III), a non-digestible saccharide shown to enhance absorption of certain minerals, including calcium. EC 4.2.2.17, inulin fructotransferase (DFA-I-forming), catalyses a similar reaction but produces Į- D -fructofuranose ȕ- D - fructofuranose 1,2c:2,1c-dianhydride (DFA I). Both DFA I and DFA III are non-digestible and have ap- proximately 50% the sweetness of sucrose, thus, they have been suggested to have potential as low- calorie sweeteners. Invasins Virulence factors produced by some bac- teria which aid invasion of intestinal epithelial cells. Entry of invasin into cells is mediated by binding sev- eral ȕ-1 chain integrins. Interaction of invasin with multiple integrins establishes tight adherence and receptor clustering, thus providing a signal for inter- nalization. Producers include Yersinia entercolitica, Y. pseudotuberculosis and some Aeromonas spp. Invertases Alternative term for ȕ- fructofuranosidases. Invert sugar Syrups with a fine crystal structure that contain equal amounts of glucose and fructose. Manufactured from sucrose by acid hydrolysis or the reaction of ȕ-fructofuranosidases (invertases), a process called inversion. Inversion can be full or par- tial. Known as ‘invert’ as the mixture of glucose and fructose inverts the plane of polarized light compared to pure sucrose. The fine crystal structure allows manufacture of smoother products, such as fondants. Invert sugar is sweeter than white sugar, and has a lower water activity, which imparts more powerful preservation qualities. Commercial liquid invert sugars are prepared as different mixtures of sucrose and invert sugar, and are used to retard the crystalli- zation of sugar and to retain moisture in packaged foods, particularly bakery products. Iodates Salts containing an IO 3 anion. Include potas- sium iodate oxidizing agents, which are added to wheat dough during breadmaking. Iodates are also added to table salt (NaCl; sodium chloride) and infant formulas for iodine fortification of the diet. Iodides Salts that contain an I anion or other com- pounds containing iodine with an oxidation state of -1. Potassium iodide (KI) is added to table salt (NaCl; sodium chloride) and infant formulas for iodine for- tification of the diet. Iodine One of the halogens, chemical symbol I. Oc- curs naturally in the diatomic form I 2 , and is a bluish- black solid which sublimes to form a bluish irritant gas. An essential dietary mineral which is accumulated in the thyroid gland and used to synthesize the thyroid hormones, including thyroxine, which are important for normal growth and development. Foods particu- larly rich in iodine include seaweeds and marine fish. Low dietary intakes of iodine can cause hypothy- roidism and associated iodine deficiency diseases such as goitre. Fortification of the diet with iodine in the form of iodates or iodides is common. Iodine values Measure of the unsaturation of fats or oils, based on the amount of iodine absorbed in a given time. Also known as iodine number. Iodized salt Ordinary salt (NaCl) fortified with inor- ganic iodides or iodates, commonly potassium io- dide. Iodate is preferred in humid regions, owing to its greater stability. Used to prevent iodine deficiency diseases, such as goitre. Although these disorders are preventable by use of iodized salt, they continue to occur due to socioeconomic, cultural and political limi- tations of adequate iodine supplementation pro- grammes. Iodometry Redox analysis technique based on reac- tion with iodine/iodides. Strong reducing agents are determined by titration with iodine while strong oxidizing agents react with iodide to form iodine. Iodine is titrated with a standard solution of thiosulfate, using a starch solution as an indicator. Iodophors Complexes of iodine and certain high molecular weight surfactants (e.g. polyvinylpyr- rolidone and quaternary ammonium com- pounds). Used in the food industry as disinfectants and detergents. Ion chromatography Chromatography technique allowing simultaneous determination of anions and cations in a sample by using a sequence of a cation 230 Ion exchange IR radiation exchange resin column, a detector, an anion exchange column and another detector. Ion exchange Reversible process in which substitu- tion of ions for others of the same charge occurs. So- lution containing ions is passed through a molecular network containing groups that can be ionized. Ions in the solution attach to the network, releasing free or mobile ions from the network. The reaction is classi- fied according to the nature of the substituent groups in the network, i.e. cation exchange or anion ex- change. Substances acting as ion exchangers or ion exchange resins include aluminosilicates, cross- linked polymers and celluloses. This process is the basis of separation by ion exchange chromatog- raphy. Ion exchange chromatography Chromatogra- phy technique in which separation is carried out on ion exchange resins. Ions from the sample solu- tion that pass into the exchangers are displaced by varying the pH, concentration or ionic strength of the eluting liquid, usually using a gradient. Separa- tion is based on anion exchange or cation exchange depending on the type of resin used. Ionic strength Parameter which is a function of the charge and concentration of ions in a solution. Ionization Process by which a neutral substance be- comes charged, forming ions. The conversion is due to the addition or removal of electrons induced by various means, including heating, chemical reaction, exposure to ionizing radiation or passage of an electric current. Ionol Alternative term for the antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene. Ionones Volatile aroma compounds found particu- larly in fruits, wines and tea. One of the major io- nones, ȕ-ionone, has a violet-like aroma. Ions Electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms. Positively charged cations result from the loss of electrons and negatively charged anions from their acquisition. Ion selective electrodes Electrodes used to de- termine concentrations of specific ions , including metal ions and salts, e.g. nitrates, in aqueous solu- tions. Ioobai Fruits produced by Myrica nagi. Kernels are eaten traditionally in China and the surrounding area. Ipomeamarone One of the toxic phytoalexins formed in sweet potatoes as a result of mechanical injury or fungal infection. Iprodione Contact dicarboximide fungicide with pro- tective and curative action; used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases on fruits, vegetables, ce- reals and oilseeds. Sometimes used as a postharvest dip or as a seed treatment. Classified by WHO as unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use. Also known as rovral. IR Abbreviation for infrared. IR analysis Alternative term for IR spectroscopy. IR drying A drying technique that uses infrared radiation (IR radiation) to bring about heat trans- fer. Process time is shorter than when convective heating is used, energy costs are lower and the impact upon the structure of the product is reduced. IR drying may be used for the preservation of various foods, particularly fruits, vegetables and grain. Iridaea Genus of red seaweeds occurring on rocky shores around many parts of the world. Commercially important source of carrageenans used to make thickeners, gels and stabilizers for the food indus- try. Some species are cultivated commercially. IR irradiation Application of infrared radiation (IR radiation) to products such as foods. Uses include in microbial decontamination, thermal processing and drying procedures, and for extending shelf life. Al- ternative term for infrared irradiation. Iron Group 8 metal, chemical symbol Fe. Forms salts in either the ferric (iron(II)) or ferrous (iron(III)) oxi- dation states. One of the essential minerals, iron is required to synthesize ferritin, lactoferrin, haemo- globin, cytochromes and other haemoproteins. Good dietary sources of iron include meat and meat products, cereals and green vegetables. Bioavailability of iron in the diet is influenced by the presence of other chemicals such as calcium and phytates. Iron deficiency in the diet can lead to anaemia, and to prevent this, compounds such as fer- rous sulfate, ferrous glycinate and sodium iron EDTA are used for fortification purposes. Irpex Genus of fungi of the class Agaricomycetes. Occur on felled timber and living trees. Used in the production of a variety of enzymes, such as lac- cases and cellulases. Proteinases produced by Irpex lacteus are used as milk clotting enzymes in cheesemaking. Irradiated foods Foods subjected to irradiation to delay ripening or sprouting, improve shelf life and eliminate harmful bacteria, insects and other pests. Types of food that can be successfully irradi- ated include poultry meat and red meat, fruits, vegetables and cereals. Regulations vary between countries as to which (if any) foods may be irradiated. Irradiated spices and herbs are currently the only irradiated foods licensed for sale in the UK. IR radiation Electromagnetic infrared radiation having a wavelength just greater than that of red light [...]... their inability to attack pullulan and their limited action on -limit dextrins Isoamylases are widely distributed in nature, and used industrially to produce modified starches Isoascorbic acid Isomer of L-ascorbic acid Exhibits antioxidative activity and antimicrobial activity and thus has uses in food preservatives Added to processed fruits to prevent browning and to meat and meat products to stabilize... can be used in species identification in meat and cultivar differentiation in fruits and vegetables Other applications of the enzyme include determination of isocitrate levels in fruit juices and vegetable juices Isocitric acid One of the organic acids, produced as an intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles Found in many fruits and fruit products, including fruit juices Also formed... antihypertensive activity and antioxidative activity Isorhamnetin glucosides offer protection against chemically induced hepatotoxicity in animal studies Isospora Genus of protozoan parasites of the family Eimeriidae and class Coccidia Occur in the intestines of birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals, including man Can cause intestinal disease in humans after ingestion of contaminated water or foods,... Isoniazid Common name for isonicotinic acid hydrazide, one of the antibiotics used for treatment of tuberculosis in humans and animals Administered in combination with other antimicrobial compounds as antibiotics resistance develops readily in bacteria Use in food animals is prohibited as residues in animal foods have the potential to compromise human health Isopentyl alcohol Synonym for isoamyl alcohol Flammable,... during microbial fermentation to produce its isomer, citric acid Isoelectric focusing Electrophoresis in which a pH gradient is incorporated into the gel diffusion medium Sample components migrate through the gel until they reach the point where the pH is equal to their isoelectric points Commonly abbreviated to IEF Isoelectric points The pH at which the net charge on a molecule is zero At their isoelectric... calorie sweeteners Effective in stimulating the growth of Bifidobacterium spp and also beneficial in preventing dental caries, improving intestinal function and enhancing immune response in humans Used as ingredients in some functional foods Isomaltose Isomer of maltose with 2 molecules of glucose linked by an -1,6-glycosidic bond rather than an -1,4- bond as in maltose Isomaltulose Disaccharide with...Irradiation 231 Isobutyric acid but less than that of microwaves, emitted particularly by heated objects ISO Abbreviation for International Organization for Standardization Irradiation Application of various forms of radiation In food processing, this can be exposure of items to low doses of high-frequency energy from gamma rays, X-rays or accelerated electrons with the aim of delaying ripening... preparation of isomerized hop extracts Important bitter compounds in beer Isoleucine One of the essential amino acids A common protein constituent and free amino acid in many foods -Isolupanine Cis,cis-lupanine Alkaloid occurring in lupin seeds (Lupinus spp.) Isomalt Trade name (of BENEO-Palatinit) for a range of sugar substitutes consisting of disaccharide alcohols derived from sucrose Has approximately... nourishing plants Irritable bowel syndrome One of a range of diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract Characterized most commonly by bloating, abdominal pain, cramping, constipation and/or diarrhoea Possible contributory factors include infection, stress and diet In the latter case, identification and elimination of foods contributing to disease symptoms may offer a diet therapy approach to managing... produced during fermentation in alcoholic beverages including wines, beer and cider Isobutyric acid One of the short-chain fatty acids, with four carbon atoms Has a pungent aroma and has Isocaproic acid 232 been identified in carob, wines and beer Synonymous with 2-methylpropanoic acid Isocaproic acid Member of the short-chain fatty acids Identified as one of the aroma compounds present in meat and fish Synonymous . roidism and associated iodine deficiency diseases such as goitre. Fortification of the diet with iodine in the form of iodates or iodides is common. Iodine. Strong reducing agents are determined by titration with iodine while strong oxidizing agents react with iodide to form iodine. Iodine is titrated with a standard