Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com c WOMEN WITHOUT MEN www.Ebook777.com WOMEN WITHOUT MEN f f S I NGLE M OT H E R S A N D FAMI LY CH A NGE I N TH E N E W R US S I A Jennifer Utrata CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS Ithaca and London Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Copyright © 2015 by Cornell University All rights reserved Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850 First published 2015 by Cornell University Press First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2015 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Utrata, Jennifer, 1970- author Women without men : single mothers and family change in the new Russia / Jennifer Utrata —1st Edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8014-5302-1 (cloth : alk paper)—ISBN 978-0-8014-7957-1 (pbk : alk paper) Single mothers—Russia (Federation) Families— Russia (Federation) Sex role—Russia (Federation) Post-communism—Social aspects—Russia (Federation) I Title HQ759.915.U87 2015 306.874'320947—dc23 2014029091 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers For further information, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu Cloth printing 10 Paperback printing 10 Cover photograph courtesy of Jennifer Utrata www.Ebook777.com For my family c Co nte nts Acknowledgments ix Note on Transliteration and Subjects xiii Introduction: A Quiet Revolution 1 From State Protections to Post-Socialist “Freedoms”: The Changed Context of Single Motherhood 19 Diminishing Material Difficulties: Single Motherhood beyond Survival Strategies 54 “Where the Women Are Strong”: Navigating Practical Realism 92 It Takes a Babushka: Single Mothers’ Youth Privilege and Grandmother Support 123 Blurred Boundaries: Married Mothers and the Specter of Single Motherhood 151 Marginalized Men: Settling for the Status Quo 179 Conclusion: Normalized Gender Crisis Notes 231 Bibliography Index 263 251 214 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com c A c k n o w l e d g m e nts The long journey toward a book is oftentimes circuitous; I am very grateful for several sources of encouragement and support at critical junctures along the way This book would not be possible without the generosity of so many Russians who took the time to share their lives and even their homes with me, including mothers, fathers, and grandmothers from all walks of life More than anything else, it is the moving stories of ordinary Russians that captivated me and compelled me to write this book The friendship and kindness shown to me by Russian women, especially Aleftina, Tatyana, Nina, Vika, Yuliya, Svetlana, and Inessa, kept me grounded while dealing with the serendipity of fieldwork, and they offered a wonderful sense of perspective The warmth, persistence, and stubborn optimism of the Russians I met remain with me as a source of inspiration I have also benefited from many sources of institutional and scholarly support Special thanks are owed to the faculty and graduate students in the sociology department at UC Berkeley, for this project began in conversation with others Although several faculty members provided excellent feedback and advice, I am especially grateful for my mentors—Victoria Bonnell, Arlie Russell Hochschild, and Claude Fischer—who believed in this project from the beginning and shaped my thinking at key moments along my intellectual trajectory Each of them has continued to provide support when needed in spite of their multiple commitments At Berkeley, my passion for sociology was nurtured in myriad ways Self-doubt seems endemic to the graduate school experience, but I was nevertheless encouraged to be as ambitious as possible in framing Russia as a case study important not only for area studies but for sociology as a whole The insights of graduate school colleagues and friends such as Jane Zavisca, Tamara Kay, Amy Hanser, Michele Rossi, Allison Pugh, Cinzia Solari, Sarah Gilman, Jennifer Sherman, Jeremy Schulz, Suzanne Wertheim, and many, many more also contributed toward improving the ideas in this book The supportive friendship of Jill, Jenya, and Becca also made the last years of graduate study more enjoyable ix www.Ebook777.com BI BL I O G R A P HY 255 Hays, Sharon The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996 Heineman, Elizabeth D What Difference Does a Husband Make? 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in Soviet era, 26, 27, 28, 30, 34–35, 65, 235n35, 236n45 adaptability and flexibility, as tenets of practical realism, 114–18 African American culture, 2, 126, 186, 215, 216, 222, 223, 226, 237n7, 248n5, 248n17 age bias: “the Balzac age” and, 247–48n2; in employment, 132–33, 243n32; youth privilege and grandmother support, 124, 125, 131, 132–38, 146, 148, 149 alcohol abuse See drunkenness and domestic abuse Anderson, Elijah, 222 Anna Karenina (Tolstoy, 1873–77), 172, 245n20 Ashwin, Sarah, 24, 185 babushki See grandmother support “The Balzac Age, or All Men Are Bast ” (Bal´zakovskii vozrast, ili vse muzhiki svo ; TV show), 214, 247–48n2 Baranskaia, Natalia, A Week Like Any Other (Nedelia kak Nedelia; 1969), 103 Bengtson, Vern L., 148 binge drinking See drunkenness and domestic abuse blat, 42, 43, 44, 47, 160 Bourdieu, Pierre, 96, 110–11, 221, 239n11 Bukhara, Uzbekistan, 10 Burawoy, Michael, 161 byt, 11, 21, 233n2 Caldwell, Melissa, 160–61 capitalism See market capitalism, transition to Carlbäck, Helene, 27 Carnegie, Andrew, 97 Cherlin, Andrew J., 244n4 child allowance for mothers, 28, 61, 110 child care: age of children allowed in state nurseries, 143–44; low expectations regarding male contribution to, 75–77, 107–8, 135, 142, 148–49, 168, 244n9; male involvement in, 8, 20, 23; in Soviet era, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 41, 43–44; state support, lack of, 62 See also grandmother support; “second shift” childlessness, attitudes toward, 29, 31, 35, 64–65, 74 child support: contemporary difficulties in collecting, 7, 8, 20, 62–63, 109–10, 184; grandmother support and, 147; men’s views on, 196–200; overstatement of contributions by fathers, 186; in Soviet era, 19, 21, 26, 29, 40–43 cohabitation: ambiguity in status of, 59, 237n7; modern statistics, 6, 232–33n24; preference of some single mothers for, 115; in Soviet era, 35 Collier, Jane, 97 crisis talk, 105 Cubbins, Lisa, 51 culture of single motherhood See practical realism as cultural code of single mothers dangerousness and mischief, male tropes of, 188, 246n21 day care See child care detached/disengaged fatherhood, as norm, 181–86, 200–205 DeVault, Marjorie L., 75, 89 division of household labor See “second shift” divorce, 67–77; combined high divorce and high marriage rates, 155, 225, 244n4; contribution of husband to household and, 75–77; drunkenness and domestic abuse leading to, 68, 69–73; estrangement of fathers from children following, 8, 43, 128, 184–85; happily married mothers 263 www.Ebook777.com 264 I NDE X divorce (continued ) shaped by culture of, 153, 170–71, 173; housing issues and, 70–72; infidelity and, 73–75; involved fatherhood, men’s views on, 205–6; level of family support affecting, 72–73; married mothers contemplating, 152, 154–55, 161–70; material difficulties of married life prior to, 69–70; modern statistics, 6, 68, 232n17; reasons for, 39, 68, 235n52; in Soviet era, 29, 37–39; women generally initiating, 68 doing gendered age, 125, 132, 136, 146–49 domestic abuse See drunkenness and domestic abuse domestic work, unequal division of See “second shift” drunkenness and domestic abuse: business, drinking as aspect of, 192–93; divorce due to, 68, 69–73; gender gap in male/female drinking, 48–49, 192, 236n66; married mothers dealing with, 151–53, 164, 169; masculine ritual, drinking as, 48–49, 190; men’s views on, 190–94, 193; modern statistics, 47–50, 51; sobering-up stations, 48; in Soviet era, 38, 39, 47, 50–51 Duneier, Mitchell, 12 dusha, 11 economy of gratitude and grandmother support, 124–25 Edin, Kathryn, 223 employment: age bias in, 132–33, 243n32; grandmother support crucial to, 132–35; issues and problems faced by women in, 62, 101–2, 103, 132–34, 240n22; practical realism and focus on improvement of material situation, 97–99, 110–14; self-realization, desire for job providing, 131 exceptionalism, moving beyond rhetoric of, 222–26 extended mothering and extended families, 126–28, 148 family law in Russia: 1968 Family Code, 27, 28, 30; 1996 Family Code, 62; 1944 Family Law, 25–27, 233n6 family size See number of children fathers See marginalized men/fathers feminine ethos of self-sacrifice, 138–44, 148 feminism, attitudes of Russian women toward, 16, 76, 78, 116, 217, 220, 241n47 flexibility and adaptability, as tenets of practical realism, 114–18 gendered age, doing, 125, 132, 136, 146–49 gendered nature of single mothers’ neoliberal practical realism, 96–97 gender gap: in drinking, 48–49, 192, 236n66; in life expectancy, 49–50, 128 gender relations: contribution of husband to household, low expectations regarding, 75–77, 107–8, 135, 142, 148–49, 168, 244n9; critical role of women in Russian families generally, 10–11; feminism, attitudes of Russian women toward, 16, 76, 78, 116, 217, 220, 241n47; grandmother support and, 148–49; matrifocality versus matriarchy, 5–6, 45–46, 155, 232n16; negative discourse on men and, 2, 4–5, 64, 104–10, 162, 180–83, 229; responsible women/irresponsible men trope, 4, 6, 17, 106, 184, 190, 192, 204, 210, 222, 246–47n30; single parenthood as largely gendered phenomenon, 25, 231n3; in Soviet era, 22–24, 234n21 See also divorce; drunkenness and domestic abuse; infidelity; marginalized men/ fathers; patriarchy; “real man” fantasy; “second shift”; strong Russian woman discourse gender skepticism, 51 Gerson, Kathleen, 213, 217 Gillespie, David C., 32 Goode, William J., 212 grandmother support, 16–17, 123–50; absence of, 140–44, 175, 243n43; capitalism, transition to, 124, 126–28, 129, 138, 139–40, 144, 148, 150; doing gendered age and, 125, 132, 136, 146–49; employed grandmothers, 132, 134; employment of mothers and, 132–35; extended mothering and extended families, 126–28, 148; feminine self-sacrifice, ethos of, 138–44, 148; gender relations, implications for, 148–49; Labor Code (2001) and, 242n20; “leisure gap” between older and younger women, 131, 135–38, 145–46; for married mothers, 126, 135, 150, 152, 174–77, 244n9; nannies versus, 139; paternal versus maternal, 242n23; photos of, 39, 139, 216; practical realism intersecting with, 123–26, 139–40; research issues, 125–27, 242n27–28; INDEX “second shift” work and, 124, 135, 144, 146, 148–49, 175; in Soviet era, 39, 45–47; the state and, 125, 127, 136, 140, 142, 144, 148, 149, 242n20; statistics regarding, 128; tensions and conflicts associated with, 125–26, 144–48; undervaluation of unpaid labor of, 123–26, 138–40, 149; youth privilege and, 124, 125, 131, 132–38, 146, 148, 149 Gray, Francine du Plessix, 32, 38, 127, 245n1 grazhdanskii brak, 35, 59, 235n47 habitus, concept of, 96, 118, 239n11 Hackstaff, Karla B., 145, 241n50 Hansen, Karen V., 216 hardship, Russian valuation of, 57, 79, 85 Heldt, Barbara, Hochschild, Arlie Russell, 66, 76, 238n35 homelessness or destitution, 101, 118, 119, 240n21, 241n2 household labor, unequal division of See “second shift” housing: in contemporary Russia, 125, 160, 202, 218; divorce and, 70–72; in Soviet era, 29, 32–35, 44, 51 independence: as neoliberal value, 139–40; preference for/simplicity of single over partnered life, 1, 54–55, 57, 66–67, 69–70, 76, 84–85, 87–90, 217–18; self-reliance, single mothers adopting neoliberal ideology of, 94–96, 215 infidelity: double standard for, 74, 194, 195; married mothers and, 165–66, 171–72; as material difficulty for single women, 73–75; men’s views on, 182, 194–96; in Soviet era, 24 involved fatherhood, as growing ideal, 181, 183, 184, 185, 205–10, 211–12, 213 irresponsible men/responsible women trope, 4, 6, 17, 106, 184, 190, 192, 204, 210, 222, 246–47n30 Johnson, Janet Elise, 51 Kaluga, as research area, 11–12, 235n25 Kanji, Shireen, 27, 161, 245n15, 245n21 Kefalas, Maria, 223 Kiblitskaya, Marina, 61 Klugman, Jeni, 60 Krotov, Pavel, 161 Kukhterin, Sergei, 45 265 Labor Code (2001), 242n20 life expectancy, gender gap in, 49–50, 128 Lissyutkina, Larissa, 116 living together See cohabitation Lonely Woman Seeks Life Companion (Odinokaia zhenshchina zhelaet poznakomit’sia; film, 1987), 31 Lytkina, Tatyana, 161, 185 Macdonald, Cameron, 224, 233n29 maloobespechenost´, 41 marginalized men/fathers, 17, 179–213, 229–30; agreement with/acceptance of marginal status and negative discourse, 180–83, 185, 189–90; closeness of mother-child bond and, 45; contribution to household and child care, low expectations regarding, 75–77, 107–8, 135, 142, 148–49, 168, 244n9; dangerousness and mischief, male tropes of, 188, 246n21; detached/disengaged fatherhood, as norm, 181–86, 200–205; estrangement from children following divorce, 8, 43, 128, 184–85; Family Law (1944) contributing to, 26; financial contributions of, 152, 162, 169–70, 203–5; involved fatherhood, as growing ideal, 181, 183, 184, 185, 205–10, 211–12, 213; mothers viewed as more significant than fathers by, 180, 181, 185–86, 204, 209, 211; negative discourse on men and, 2, 4–5, 64, 104–10, 162, 180–83, 229; nonresident fatherhood viewed as substandard by, 182–83, 205–10; reasons for persistence of, 210–13; research issues, 186–89, 246n28; responsible women/irresponsible men trope, 4, 6, 17, 106, 184, 190, 192, 204, 210, 222, 246–47n30; “second children,” husbands regarded as, 45, 54, 104, 151; Second World War and, 45; single motherhood blamed on, 2, 4–5, 64, 104–10, 217; in Soviet era, 183–84; state policy and, 160, 183–84, 212 See also child support; drunkenness and domestic abuse; infidelity Marie Claire (magazine), 111–12 market capitalism, transition to: attitudes and adaptations of single mothers regarding, 37, 56, 58, 93–94, 113–14, 121, 218, 219, 220–22, 225; grandmother support and, 126–28, 129, 138, 139–40, 144, 148, 150; implications of Russian 266 I NDE X market capitalism (continued ) single motherhood and, 228, 229, 230; marginalized men/fathers and, 183, 191, 202, 212, 213; married mothers and, 152, 154, 155, 167; men and, 4, 74; practical realism and, 93–94, 96, 100, 101, 102, 111, 113–14, 121; preference for single versus married life under, 217; social and familial structures affected by, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 17, 21, 40, 52, 67, 221 See also neoliberalism marriage: combined high divorce and high marriage rates, 155, 225, 244n4; instability of, in modern Russia, 6, 158; rates of, in Russia, 237n9; social status conveyed by, 168–69, 172, 220; Soviet era, compulsory nature of marriage for women in, 31–37; valuation of, 225; viewed as “solution” for single mothers, 227; youth privilege in marriage market, 137–38, 171 See also divorce married mothers, 17, 151–78; blurred boundaries between single mothers and, 150, 155–56, 158–61; contemplating divorce and single motherhood, 152, 154–55, 161–70; drunkenness and domestic abuse, 151–53, 164, 169; feeling single while married, 153, 158–59, 161–62, 163, 164; financial contributions of husbands, 152, 162, 169–70; grandmother support for, 126, 135, 150, 152, 174–77, 244n9; happily married women, 153, 170–73; male contribution to household, low expectations regarding, 168, 244n9; research issues, 156–58; resignation as chief emotion of, 153–54, 172; “second children,” husbands regarded as, 45, 54, 104, 151; single mothers as viewed by, 173–74; social status of, 168–69, 172, 220; the state and marital status, 159–61 mat, 103, 240n23 material difficulties, single mothers’ assessment of, 16, 54–91; child support issues, 7, 62–63; compulsory/compensatory nature of motherhood and, 64–65, 77–83, 81, 90, 166, 219–20; divorce, single motherhood via, 67–77; employment issues, 62, 101–2, 103, 132–33, 240n22; hardship, valuation of, 57, 79, 85; nonmarital birth, single motherhood via, 77–83; ordinariness of single motherhood and, 58–61; preference for/simplicity of single over partnered life, 1, 54–55, 57, 66–67, 69–70, 76, 84–85, 87–90, 217–18; “real man” fantasy, 16, 65–66; “second children,” husbands regarded as, 45, 54, 104, 151; significance of diminishing, 55–58, 69, 84–91, 225–26; social status and support, 63–67; state support, lack of, 61–63; widowhood, single motherhood via, 83 maternity leave, 28, 30, 62, 116, 133 mat´-odinochka, 36–37 matrifocality: African American and Russian culture compared, 222; defined, 232n16; diversity of Russian single motherhood and, 58, 215; ideal nuclear two-parent family versus, 221; marginalized men and, 184, 222; married and single mothers, blurred boundaries between, 17, 154–55, 178; matriarchy versus, 5–6; reasonableness of single motherhood as option and, 217; in Soviet era, 45–46 Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 76 McKinney, Judith Record, 47, 234n22 men See marginalized men/fathers micropolitics, 144, 243n44 mischief and dangerousness, male tropes of, 188, 246n21 Moscow, as research area, 12, 238n25 Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears (Moskva slezam ne verit; film, 1979), 31–32 motherhood: compulsory nature of marriage and, in Soviet-era Russia, 31–37; compulsory/compensatory nature of, in post-Soviet Russia, 64–65, 77–83, 81, 90, 166, 219–20; strength of mother-child bond in Russian society, 5, 45, 83, 166; viewed as more significant than fatherhood by marginalized men, 180, 181, 185–86, 204, 209, 211 See also married mothers; matrifocality; single mothers in Russia Motivans, Albert, 60 Moynihan Report, 248n17 Murphy, Joseph, 97 Nakachi, Mie, 26 nannies, Russian use of, 139 negative discourse on men, 2, 4–5, 64, 104–10, 162, 180–83, 229 See also marginalized men/fathers; strong Russian woman discourse Nekrasov, Nikolay Alexeyevich, 92 Nelson, Margaret K., 224, 243–44n3, 244n5 INDEX neoliberalism: autonomy and independence, values of, 139–40; defined, 239n3; ideology of self-reliance, single mothers adopting, 94–96 See also market capitalism, transition to nepolnye or nepolnotsennye sem´i, 36 networks, social or personal, importance in Russia of, 12–13, 15, 42, 43, 44, 47, 160–61, 233n33 New Russians, concept of, 107, 118, 147, 240n31 nonmarital births: compulsory/compensatory nature of motherhood and, 64–65, 77–83, 81; modern statistics, 6, 77, 232n19, 233n52; partnership/marital plans and, 77–78; in Soviet era, 26, 28, 31, 35, 238n37 nonmarital conceptions leading to marriage, 33–34 nonresident fathers See marginalized men/fathers norm, detached/disengaged fatherhood as, 181–86, 200–205 normalized gender crisis in Russia, 1–4, 17, 25, 217, 225, 230 normalized versus problematized view of single motherhood, 1–4, 215, 216–17, 225 nuclear two-parent families, as cultural ideal, 2, 4, 6, 9, 28, 57, 63–64, 80, 106, 123, 180, 217, 218, 224, 225, 227 number of children: “mothers of many children” (three or more), 237n18; Soviet women limiting, 41; state incentivization of second and third births (since 2007), 160, 225, 232n12 odinokaia mat´, 25, 36, 59 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 232n1 Orthodox Christianity, 5, 94, 97, 98 Patico, Jennifer, 106 patriarchy: division of household labor and, 76; married mothers and, 166; matrifocality versus matriarchy, in Russian society, 5–6; preference for single versus married life under, 217; rise of single motherhood and, 66–67, 219, 221, 226; of Russian society generally, 5, 229; Soviet gender relations and, 23; as term, 232n15; traumatization of, 226, 229 perestroika, 34, 67, 127, 237n21 po-blatu, 43 267 po-Russki, 85 positive thinking and practical realism, 100–104 post-Soviet state See the state and single motherhood practical realism as cultural code of single mothers, 16, 92–122, 219; falling short of, 118–21, 222; fatalism regarding men and the state, 104–10; “feeling rules” of, 99–100, 102; flexibility and adaptability, importance of, 114–18; gendered nature of, 96–97; grandmother support intersecting with, 123–26, 139–40; habitus, concept of, 96, 118, 239n11; improvement of material situation, focus on, 97–99, 110–14; neoliberal ideology of self-reliance, 94–96, 215; positive thinking and, 97, 100–104; “real man” fantasy and, 95, 97–99, 106, 114–18, 122; strong Russian woman, as adaptation of stereotype of, 92–94, 100–102, 103 problematized versus normalized view of single motherhood, 1–4, 215, 216–17, 225 Putin, Vladimir, 60, 106, 237n8, 244n12 Randall, Amy E., 28 razvedenka, 37 “real man” fantasy: ambiguity and flexibility regarding, 114–18; material difficulties, single mothers’ assessment of, 16, 65–66; practical realism and, 95, 97–99, 106, 114–18, 122; Russian single mothers not counting on, 219; Western men, meeting and marrying, 95, 106, 239n7 responsible women/irresponsible men trope, 4, 6, 17, 106, 184, 190, 192, 204, 210, 222, 246–47n30 Ries, Nancy, 57, 246n21 Rooms for Singles (Odinokim predostavliaetsia obshchezhitie; film, 1983), 31 Rotkirch, Anna, 38, 73–74, 126–27 Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey, 76 Russian Orthodoxy, 5, 94, 97, 98 Russian single mothers See single mothers in Russia Russian state See Soviet-era single motherhood; the state and single motherhood samorealizatsiia, 131, 243n30 Santa Barbara (TV show), 19, 233n1 268 I NDE X “second shift” (of housework and child care): divorce and, 75–77; grandmother support and, 124, 135, 144, 146, 148–49; low expectations regarding male contributions to, 75–77, 107–8, 135, 142, 148–49, 168, 244n9; married mothers, contemplation of divorce by, 167, 168; practical realism and, 107–8, 117; in Soviet era, 23, 238n35, 241n47 Second World War and single motherhood, 4–5, 6, 25, 45, 126, 184 self-realization (samorealizatsiia), 131, 243n30 self-reliance, single mothers adopting neoliberal ideology of, 94–96, 215 self-sacrifice, feminine ethos of, 138–44, 148 Sex and the City (TV show), 214 sexual revolution in Russia, 30 Shevchenko, Olga, 95–96 shopping: in contemporary Russia, 89–90; in Soviet era, 44–45 shotgun weddings, 33–34 single mothers in Russia, 1–18, 214–30; ambiguity of category for Russians, 7–9, 59–60; comparative value of studying, 214–18, 226; defined, 8–9; exceptionalism, moving beyond rhetoric of, 222–26; gender relations and, 16; grandmother support, reliance on, 16–17, 123–50; historical tradition of, 4–5, 6; implications of, 226–30; increasing numbers of, 2, 60, 231nn1–2; lack of support defining, 7, 7–9; marginalized men/fathers and, 17, 179–213, 229–30; married mothers and, 17, 151–78; material difficulties, perceptions of, 16, 54–91; normalized gender crisis, as reasonable response to, 1–4, 17, 25, 217, 225, 230; parental support for decision to become, 64; practical realism as cultural code of, 16, 92–122, 219; preference for/simplicity of single over partnered life, 1, 54–55, 57, 66–67, 69–70, 76, 84–85, 87–90, 217–18; problematized versus normalized view of, 1–4, 215, 216–17, 225; reasons for studying, 2–4; relative success of, 218–19, 228–29, 230; research methodology, 10–15; scholarly/public discourse on single motherhood and, 1, 2–3, 56, 231n10; semantic invisibility of, 6–10, 58–60; social networks, importance of, 12–13, 15, 42, 43, 44, 47, 160–61, 233n33; Soviet era compared, 16, 19–53; statistical normalcy of, 3, 4–6 See also cohabitation; divorce; nonmarital births; widows; subentries, above, as main entries, e.g grandmother support “single-night mothers,” 37 size of family See number of children social networks in Russia, importance of, 12–13, 15, 42, 43, 44, 47, 160–61, 233n33 social status: childlessness, attitudes toward, 29, 31, 35, 64–65, 74; compensatory/ compulsory nature of motherhood in post-Soviet Russia, 64–65, 77–83, 81, 90, 166, 219–20; compulsory nature of marriage and motherhood in Soviet era, 31–37; of married mothers, 168–69, 172, 220; of modern single mothers, 63–67; of Soviet-era single mothers, 19–20, 26–27, 36–37, 38; spinsterhood, Soviet stigmatization of, 31 Soviet-era single motherhood, 16, 19–53; childlessness, stigmatization of, 29, 31, 35; closeness of mother-child bond, 45; compared to post-Soviet conditions, 19–22, 51–53, 66, 84; compulsory nature of marriage and motherhood, state and social reinforcement of, 31–37; divorce, 29, 37–39; drunkenness and domestic abuse, 38, 39, 47, 50–51; “equality in poverty” in Soviet society and, 20–21; gender relations and women’s status, 22–24, 234n21; grandmother support for, 39, 45–47; as legal category, in postwar period (1944–67), 25–27; lived experience of, 30–31; marginalized fathers and, 183–84; public policy, in late Soviet period (1968–91), 27–30; Second World War and, 4–5, 6, 25, 45; shopping, 44–45; social stigma regarding, 19–20, 26–27, 36–37, 38; spinsterhood, stigmatization of, 31; state protection and support, 19, 21–22, 39–45; war widows, 25–26 sozhitel´, 35 spinsterhood, Soviet stigmatization of, 31 Stack, Carol, 223 Stakhanovite stereotype, 234–35n34 starukha or staraia deva, 31 the state and single motherhood: comparison of Soviet and post-Soviet conditions, 19–22, 51–53, 66, 84; grandmother support and, 125, 127, 136, 140, 142, 144, 148, 149, 242n20; incentivization of second and third births (since 2007), 160, Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com INDEX 225, 232n12; Labor Code (2001), 242n20; lack of state support for single mothers, 61–63; marginalized men/fathers and, 160, 183–84, 212; married and single status, blurred lines between, 159–61; population decline and encouragement of motherhood, 60, 237n8; weak state, single motherhood blamed on, 2, 4–5, 104–10, 217 See also family law in Russia; market capitalism, transition to; Soviet-era single motherhood strong Russian woman discourse: negative discourse on men generally, 2, 4–5, 64, 104–10, 162, 180–83, 229; practical realism of single mothers adapting stereotype of, 92–94, 100–102, 103; responsible women/irresponsible men trope, 4, 6, 17, 106, 184, 190, 192, 204, 210, 222, 246–47n30; “second children,” husbands regarded as, 45, 54, 104, 151; self-sacrifice, feminine ethos of, 138–44, 148; superwoman stereotype, 75, 85, 92–93, 121, 122, 148, 222, 230 Szalai, Alexander, 238n35 Tartakovskaya, Irina, 125 Tashkent, 10 Tikhonova Pustyn´ monastery (outside Kaluga), 97, 98 Tolstoy, Leo, Anna Karenina (1873–77), 172, 245n20 Townsend, Nicholas W., 211 two-parent nuclear families, as cultural ideal, 2, 4, 6, 9, 28, 57, 63–64, 80, 106, 123, 180, 217, 218, 224, 225, 227 United States (compared to Russia): African American culture, 2, 126, 186, 215, 216, 269 222, 223, 226, 237n7, 248n5, 248n17; divorce culture in, 6, 68, 145; domestic violence in, 51; exceptionalism, moving beyond rhetoric of, 222–24; grandmother support in, 218; marriage, valuation of, 225; nonresident/detached fathers in, 185, 186, 211; problematization of single motherhood in, 2, 3, 4, 5, 56, 215, 225; rates of single motherhood in, 60, 215; “second shift” in, 26; single mothers in Russia, comparative value of studying, 214–18, 226; social/state support, lack of, 2, 61; unpaid work, undervaluation of, 120; voluntarism in, 96 unpaid labor, undervaluation of, 123–26, 138–40, 167–68 Vannoy, Dana, 51 violence, domestic See drunkenness and domestic abuse vtoraia smena, 167 vytrezviteli, 48 A Week Like Any Other (Nedelia kak Nedelia; Baranskaia, 1969), 103 Western men, meeting and marrying, 95, 106, 239n7 WHO (World Health Organization), 49 widows: similarities to divorced and unmarried mothers, 83; Soviet-era war widows, 25–26 A Woman of Thirty (Balzac, 1844), 248n2 World Health Organization (WHO), 49 youth privilege and grandmother support, 124, 125, 131, 132–38, 146, 148, 149 zastoi, 28 Zdravomyslova, Elena, 132 www.Ebook777.com ...Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com c WOMEN WITHOUT MEN www.Ebook777.com WOMEN WITHOUT MEN f f S I NGLE M OT H E R S A N D FAMI LY CH A NGE I N TH E N E W R US... women Men ultimately reinforce a status quo whereby women bear primary responsibility for children and family and not much can really be expected of men in the near future Broader patterns of men? ??s... least not as it was before Women are no longer protected as mothers.” Besides the retrenchment of state support for women and families, women’s feelings of entitlement to a set of social protections