Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.c www.Ebook7 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com N A T U R E I N T H E BA L A N C E www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Nature in the Balance The Economics of Biodiversity Edited by DIETER HELM AND CAMERON HEPBURN www.Ebook777.com OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/11/2013, SPi Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Oxford University Press 2014 © Chapters 2, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 Oxford Review of Economic Policy 2012 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in 2014 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2013940861 ISBN 978–0–19–967688–0 Printed in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Acknowledgements Chapters 2, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are revised articles originally published in Oxford Review of Economic Policy: volume 28, number 1, Spring 2012, ‘The Economics of Biodiversity’ Oxford Journals, Oxford University Press () In addition to thanking all the authors who have contributed, we would like to express our thanks to Vicky Hibberd and Kerry Hughes who have worked very hard behind the scenes in gathering an enormous amount of material together and helping to turn it into this book Dieter Helm and Cameron Hepburn www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Contents ix x xii xv List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations List of Contributors Introduction Dieter Helm and Cameron Hepburn The Economic Analysis of Biodiversity Dieter Helm and Cameron Hepburn Part I Concepts and Measurement Biodiversity: Its Meanings, Roles, and Status Georgina M Mace 35 Identifying and Mapping Biodiversity: Where Can We Damage? Kathy J Willis, Marc Macias-Fauria, Alexandros Gasparatos, and Peter Long 57 The UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Valuing Changes in Ecosystem Services Ian J Bateman, Grischa Perino et al 79 Part II Valuing Biodiversity Valuing Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity Giles Atkinson, Ian J Bateman, and Susana Mourato The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB): Challenges and Responses Pavan Sukhdev, Heidi Wittmer, and Dustin Miller 101 135 Part III Natural Capital and Accounting Natural Capital Edward B Barbier 153 Biodiversity and National Accounting Kirk Hamilton 177 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com viii Contents Part IV International and Development Aspects 10 Biodiversity, Poverty, and Development: A Review Charles Palmer and Salvatore Di Falco 201 11 Regulating Global Biodiversity: What is the Problem? Timothy Swanson and Ben Groom 224 Part V Policy Instruments and Incentives 12 Do Biodiversity Policies Work? The Case for Conservation Evaluation 2.0 Daniela A Miteva, Subhrendu K Pattanayak, and Paul J Ferraro 251 13 Are Investments to Promote Biodiversity Conservation and Ecosystem Services Aligned? Stephen Polasky, Kris Johnson et al 285 14 Incentives, Private Ownership, and Biodiversity Conservation Nick Hanley, Simanti Banerjee, Gareth D Lennox, and Paul R Armsworth 315 15 On the Potential for Speculation to Threaten Biodiversity Loss Joanne C Burgess, Chris J Kennedy, and Charles (Chuck) Mason 341 Bibliography Index 361 409 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com List of Figures 3.1 Schematic representation of the role of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem functions and wider societal benefits from ecosystems 48 6.1 Recreational values arising from a change in land use from farming to multi-purpose open-access woodland in Wales 118 8.1 The capital approach to sustainable development 158 8.2 Weak and strong sustainability 160 8.3 Adjusting NDP for reproducible, human, and natural capital 163 8.4 Real GDP and ANDP per-capita trends for the USA, 1970–2008 (constant 2000 US$) 165 8.5 Real GDP and ANDP per-capita trends for Thailand, 1970–2009 (constant 2000 US$) 171 9.1 PA rents per capita vs GDP per capita, 2005 187 9.2 Distribution of PA rents as a percentage of GDP, 2005 188 11.1 Global regulation of biodiversity: optimal land-use conversion 227 11.2 A bargaining game—defined by conflict point and cooperative frontier 230 13.1 Maps showing the location by sub-county unit of lands purchased for conservation under both ecosystem service and biodiversity conservation strategies for dynamic and static land-use scenarios 303 13.2 The difference in lands purchased for conservation under the biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services objective across static and dynamic land-use scenarios 304 14.1 Surplus obtained by landowner cooperatives and conservation outcomes 324 14.2 Relative change in density of four bird species on moorland sheep and beef farms under Foresight scenarios 333 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 402 Bibliography Stiglitz, J E., Sen, A K., and Fitoussi, J.-P (2009), ‘Report by the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress’, Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, Paris Stoneham G., Chaudhri V., Ha, A., and Strappazzon, L (2003), ‘Auctions for Conservation Contracts: An Empirical Examination of Victoria’s BushTender Trial’, Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 47, 477–500 Stranlund, J K (1999), ‘Sunk Capital and Resolutions of Environmental Conflicts’, Land Economics, 75(1), 142–55 Sukhdev, P (2008), ‘The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: An Interim Report’, European Communities, Brussels Sukhdev, P (2011), ‘Preface’ in ten Brink, P (ed.) 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(1988), Biodiversity, Washington DC, National Academy Press Wilson, E O (1986), ‘The Current State of Biodiversity’, in E O Wilson (ed.), Biodiversity, Washington DC, National Academy Press, 3–18 Wilson, E O (1994), The Diversity of Life, London, Penguin Wilson, J D., Evans, A D., and Grice, P V (2009), Bird Conservation and Agriculture, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Wilson, K A., McBride, M F., Bode, M., and Possingham, H P (2006), ‘Prioritizing Global Conservation Efforts’, Nature, 440, 337–40 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Bibliography 407 Windle, J., Rolfe, J., McCosker, J., and Lingard, A (2009), ‘A Conservation Auction for Landscape Linkage in the Southern Desert Uplands, Queensland’, The Rangeland Journal, 31, 127–35 Wood, D., and Lenné, J M (eds) (1999), Agrobiodiversity: Characterization, Utilization and Management, Wallingford, UK, CABI World Bank (2003), ‘Contracting for Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes’, Environment Department Paper No 96, Environmental Economics Series, World Bank World Bank (2006), Where is the Wealth of Nations?, Washington DC, The World Bank World Bank (2010), The Changing Wealth of Nations, Washington DC, The World Bank World Bank (2011), The Changing Wealth of Nations: Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium, Washington DC, The World Bank World Bank (2011), World Development Indicators, Washington DC, The World Bank World Bank (2012), ‘World Bank Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Grant from the Global Environment Facility Trust Fund in the Amount of US$3.5 Million to the Republic of Cameroon for the Conservation and Sustainable Management within the Ngoyla-Mintom Forest Project’, Report no.66391-CM, 14th March World Bank (2012), World Development Indicators 2012, Washington DC, The World Bank World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987), Our Common Future, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press World Database on Protected Areas (2011), URL: www.wdpa.org World Resources Institute (2003), ‘Annual Report’, Washington DC, World Resources Institute World Resources Institute (2008), ‘Ecosystem Services: A Guide for Decision-makers’ (available at ) World Resources Institute in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme, and World Bank (2005), World Resources 2005: The Wealth of the Poor— Managing Ecosystems to Fight Poverty, Washington DC, World Resources Institute World Resourcess Institute, World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment Programme (1992), ‘Global Biodiversity Strategy’, Washington DC, World Resources Institute Wyler, L., and Sheikh, P (2008), ‘International Illegal Treat to Wildlife: Threats and US Policy’, CRS Report for Congress Zandersen, M., Termansen, M., and Jensen, F S (2007), ‘Testing Benefits Transfer of Forest Recreation Values over a Twenty-year Time Horizon’, Land Economics, 83(3), 412–40 Zeckmeister, H., Scmitzberger, I., Steurer, B., Peterseil, J., and Wrbka, T (2003), ‘The Influence of Land Use Practices and Economics on Plant Species Richness in Meadows’, Biological Conservation, 114, 165–77 Zhu, Y., Chen, H., Fan, J., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Chen J., Fan, J., Yang, S., Hu, L., Leung, H., Mew, T W., Teng, P S., Wang, Z., and Mundt, C C (2000), ‘Genetic Diversity and Disease Control in Rice’, Nature, 406, 718–22 Zwane, A P (2007), ‘Does Poverty Constrain Deforestation? Econometric Evidence from Peru’, Journal of Development Economics, 84, 330–49 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index adjusted market prices valuation method 110 adjusted NDP 163 AES (agri-environment schemes) 316–19, 325, 327, 330–1, 332–3 aggregate stock value 160 aggregated benefit changes 91 agricultural food production 83–4, 92–4 agricultural land management 316 Aichi Biodiversity Targets see CBD: CBD targets/strategic goals alpha diversity 65 alpha-diverse sites 65 alteration of biodiversity 50 amenity value changes 91 ANDP (adjusted net domestic product) per capita (USA and Thailand) 164–71, 173 aquatic ecosystem loss 120 ARIES (Artificial Intelligence for Ecosystem Services) tool 71 asset valuation 107–8 Atkinson, Giles 3, 13, 45 BACI (Before-After-Control-Impact) 256 balance sheets see national balance sheets Bali Declaration 238 banking on extinction strategy 342–3, 349, 350, 351–6 PVNB (net present value) 351 Barbier, Edward B 3–4, 27 bargaining games 230–2, 240 Barrett, Scott 25–6 Bateman, Ian J 2, 27 benefit flow 184, 185 beta diversity 65 bioclimatic envelope 67–8 biodiversity adaptability 48–9 assets 191 asymmetries 225, 229 birds as indicators 86–8, 92–4 and CBD see CBD critical thresholds 12 definitions of 9–13, 35–9, 41–4, 58 and different disciplines 39 and economic growth/development 137, 204–8, 212 and ecoservices 18 as ecosystem regulator 180 and ecosystem services 45–8 and ecosystems, valuing 101–25 existence value of 22 extrinsic values 45 future commercial value 203 future distribution 67–8 and global economic damage 137 global regulation 224–45 and heritage 48–9 identifying and mapping 57–74 intrinsic values 45 international governance 217 knowledge gaps/challenges 71–3 and market forces 316 in national balance sheets 180–3 as source of economic benefits 177, 204 as source of value 179–80 of species 10, 37, 38 uneven distribution 204 valuation of species/landscapes 13–16, 123 see also conservation; landscape entries; species biodiversity bargaining international policies 232–9, 240 problem 229–32 strategic threats 239–42 structure 230 biodiversity baseline 11 biodiversity change 41 biodiversity conservation 49–51, 192, 212–13 conflict with poverty alleviation 217 financing 218 market conditions sensitivities 332–3 see also conservation biodiversity data points/datasets 61–2, 63–4 biodiversity database usage 74 biodiversity hotspots 63, 69, 204, 213 biodiversity indicators 80, 86–8, 203, 332 biodiversity loss causes of 20, 50, 208–11 as economic problem 7–16 and private sector 144 TEEB Report 137 and wildlife as commodities 341–58 biodiversity measurement 11, 37, 40–1 biodiversity measurement systems 40 biodiversity policy biodiversity market creation 325–7 conservation auctions 322–4 conservation easements 324–5 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 410 Index biodiversity policy (cont.) contract length 328–9 design attributes 334 design challenges 327–32 design options 320–7 dynamic considerations 328–9 paying for outcomes 327–8 regulation 320–1 spatial coordination 329–30 transactions costs 330–2 uniform payment schemes 321 and welfare impacts 213–16 biodiversity protection 211–13 biodiversity recovery rates 62 biodiversity regulation, as global problem 225–9 biodiversity resilience 48–9, 62 biodiversity science 58–9 biodiversity supply prices 319 biodiversity tools, to illustrate spatial patterns 68–71 biodiversity value 13–16, 123, 191, 229 biodiversity variables 40–1 biodiversity-related externalities 12, 19–22 biodiversity-related public goods 22–8 biodiversity/poverty trade-off 25 biofuel expansion 309 biological diversity see biodiversity bioprospecting 179–80, 182, 203 and biodiversity conservation 215–16 birds as biodiversity indicators 85–8, 92–4 black rhino case study 350–3, 357–8 Bonn Agreement 235 Brundtland Commission/Report 35, 156–7 Burgess, Jo 5, 15 capital approach to sustainable development 156–8, 172 capital depreciation, and GDP 162 capital maintenance 28 carbon prices 28 carbon sequestration 239, 309 carbon storage, and GHG emissions 84–5, 92–4 cartel-and-fringe 342, 349 CBA (cost–benefit analysis) 3, 13, 15–16, 28, 86, 101–3, 115, 276–7 CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) 2, 4, 10, 24, 41–4, 232–3, 244 benefit sharing 232–3, 235, 236–7 biodiversity definition 41–4 CBD targets/strategic goals 42–4, 51 financing 233–4 IC (incremental costs) 234–5, 239 Nagoya Protocol on Benefit Sharing 236–7 property rights solutions 235–6 strategic destruction threat 239–42 and TEEB report 137 CEA (cost-effectiveness analysis) 86 The Changing Wealth of Nations 4, 177, 178, 186, 192 character diversity 37 charitable institutions/organizations, and public goods 43 choice modelling valuation method 111 CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) 2, 24, 342, 343, 344–5, 349 citizen-scientists 72 climate change 2, 211, 217, 244 Co$ting Nature tool 71 command-and-control approach 19, 20, 21 commensurability of values 140 common stock depletion 341–2 community composition, and biodiversity change 41 conservation of biodiversity 49–51, 192, 211–13 competing approaches to 285–6 cost-effectiveness 308 ecosystem approach 286 endangered species trading 325, 341–58 of habitat 209–11 interdisciplinary studies 274–5 market conditions sensitivities 332–3 and spatial scale 61 valuation of 185–91 value of nature approach 286 see also biodiversity conservation easements 324–5 conservation evaluation 251–77 DID (differences-in-differences) designs 256 instrumental variables 256 key assumptions 254–5 local governance 255 marching designs 256 performance assessment 254–7 programme assignment 255 programme effects 255 see also decentralization of natural resource management; ICDP; PA; PES conservation investment alignment 285–310 conservation policies baseline conditions 267 duration of 268 heterogeneous impacts 267–8, 269 spatial coordination 329–30 spillovers 266 strategy trade-offs 309 types of 268 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index conservation theory coupled systems 271–2 external validity 269, 270–1 improvements 269–77 internal validity 269–70 conserved species attributes 51 contingent valuation method 111 Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro) 35 Copenhagen Accord 239 corporate externalities 146 corporate redesign 146 Corporation 20/20 146 cost–benefit analysis (CBA) 3, 13, 15–16, 28, 86, 101–3, 115, 276–7 CREP (Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program) 329 CRP (Conservation Reserve Program) 322 CSERGE (Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment) 83 cultural ecosystem services 112 datasets 63–4, 66 spatial resolution 61–2 decentralization, of natural resource management 251–3, 254, 260–3 decision making, and biodiversity 52 deforestation see REDD+ Defra Green Infrastructure Partnership 95 Defra White Paper 95, 117 depletion of natural resources 16–19 developing countries, rule of law/institutional effectiveness 252–3 Di Falco, Salvatore 4, 25 DID (differences-in-differences) designs 256 differential migration 273 discounting rate 141 diversity-rich states, GDP per capita 226 nothing approach 19 dumping strategy 349, 351–6 ecological capital 153, 154, 162 ecological features of landscape 60–1 ecological properties of landscape 59–60 ecological resilience 108 ecological safe minimum standards 123 EcoMetrix tool 71 economic assessment see NEA economic forces, and wildlife depletion 342–58 economic instruments approach 19, 20–2 economic trade-offs and policy making 140 economic uncertainty 141 economic valuation 13–16, 101 concerns over 139–43 and ecosystem services efficiency 122 411 methods 109–12 and TEEB 138–40 see also valuation economic values, as contextual 80 economics of ecosystems and biodiversity 137 economies of scale 270 ecoregions 38–9 ecoservices and biodiversity 18, 106 ecosystem assessment tools 73 ecosystem asset valuation 107–8, 125 ecosystem degradation 137, 155–6 ecosystem function protection 266–7 ecosystem goods and services production 201, 202 ecosystem management 210 ecosystem resilience 2116 ecosystem services 45–8, 72, 102 classification 105 cost-effectiveness 308 cultural ecosystem services 112 and gene pools 105 groups vulnerable to loss 119 loss 155–6 production 179–80 provision tools 71 and public benefits 211 and rural poor 212 strategy trade-offs 309 trading of 142 valuation and lessons/direction 108–18 valuation and policy 106, 142 valuations synthesis 92–4 ecosystem structure protection 266–7 ecosystem valuation in aggregate 118–21 large-scale 101, 118 ecosystems aquatic ecosystem loss 120 direct benefits 167 as economic assets 106, 125, 155–6 function and biodiversity change 41 and health valuation 113 as public goods 12 structure and biodiversity change 41 tools to illustrate spatial patterns 68–71 as wealth 160 ecotourism 181 ELS (Entry Level Stewardship) 122, 334 endangered species 2, 24, 325, 341–58 effect of trade 343–6 environment as capital asset 153 environment as capital good 155 environment-poverty trap theory 211–13, 271 environmental goods production 317 environmental non-use values 113–16 environmental organizations 23 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 412 Index ES (Environmental Stewardship) 321 European Union, and environmental goods production 317 existence value 22, 182 expert evidence 16 externalities and biodiversity 12, 19–22, 146–7, 182, 192 extinction 1, 8, 203, 216 and wildlife as commodities 341–58 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) 9, 11, 213 farmers’ compensation 122 FGM (Farm Gross Margin) 83, 84 final ecosystem services 46 financialization of nature 142 food crop demand 210 food security 210 Foresight scenarios 332, 333 fossil fuels 153–4, 164–6, 170, 238–9, 244 fragmentation and biodiversity 66 freshwater resources deterioration 210 future distribution of biodiversity 67–8 game theory 4, 24, 28, 229–32, 240 see also bargaining games GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility) 40, 65, 73, 74 GDP and ANDP 164–71 GDP of the poor 119 GEF (Global Environment Facility) 189–91 gene pools, and ecosystems 105 Generalized Dissimilarity Model 65 genetic composition and biodiversity change 41 genetic diversity 36–7, 49 GEOBON network 40 GF (Go with the Flow) scenario 2, 81, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 GHG emmissions 84–5, 92–4 GIS (geographical information system) analysis 90 global biodiversity problems 227 global biodiversity regulation 224–45 global economic damage, and biodiversity 137 Global Environment Facility 24 Global Forest Resources Assessment 213 Global Multilateral Benefit Sharing Mechanism (Nagoya Protocol) 237 global public goods 25, 26, 180 Global Sustainability scenario 332 global temperature rise Global Water Tool 69 GM biotechnology 82 GPL (Green and Pleasant Land) scenario 2, 81, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 Green Infrastructure Partnership 95 greenhouse gases 80–1, 84–5, 92–3, 117, 144, 164, 201–10, 290 Groom, Ben 4, 24 habitat association, for farmland birds 88 habitat change 210 habitat conservation 209–11 habitat integrity/patch size 60–1, 65, 66 habitat restoration/creation 82, 105 Hamilton, Kirk 3, 4, 27, 28 Hanley, Nick happiness measures 27 Hartwick-Solow (Hartwick’s) rule 18–19, 160 Hayek, Friedrich 19 health valuation 113 Helm, Dieter Hepburn, Cameron 1, 22 Herfindahl index 11 human capital 157, 160, 162, 172, 229 human health/longevity valuation 102 human preferences 124 human well-being and ecosystem services 72 and ecosystems 210 IBAT (Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool) 70, 72, 74 IC (incremental costs) 234–5 ICDP (integrated conservation and development projects) 263 identification assumptions 272 identifying biodiversity 57–74 immigration 82 impact evaluation 272 and inadequate data 274 important regions outside protected areas 58–62 INbio (National Biodiversity Institute) 216 incentive schemes 5–6, 16, 19–23, 28, 43, 212–13, 315–35 agri-environmental (AES) 316–19, 325, 327, 330–1, 332–3 auctions 322–4, 327, 331 easements 324–5 markets 325–7, 332–3 regulation 320–1, 327 uniform payment 321–3 inclusive wealth 52 methodology 162 information rents 322 institutions 23–6, 137–8 effectiveness in developing countries 252–3 insurance values 180, 182–3 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index integrated assessment tools 73 intensive valuation workshops 112 interdisciplinary studies 274–5 international agreements 23–6 invasive species 217 InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) tool 71 irreplaceability 64 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 63, 66, 73, 203, 344 KBAs (key biodiversity areas) 63 keystone species 10 knowledge gaps/challenges 71–3 knowledge values 180, 182 land conversion see REDD land cover, and bird diversity 86–8 land degradation land management 309–10 and endangered species 325–6 spatial coordination 321 land market feedbacks 309 land, privately owned 315–35 land valuation 59 land-use change 95, 210 economic/ecological model 332 optimal conversion 227 landowner cooperatives 324 landowners, and conservation auctions 322–4 landscape connectivity 60, 66–7 landscape habitat integrity/patches 60–1 landscape resilience 61, 67 Lange, Oskar 19 LEFT (Local Ecological Footprinting Tool) 70, 72, 74 Legacy Amendments 309 LETS (Local Exchange Trading Systems) 82 LMMC (Group of Like Minded Mega-Diverse Countries) 243 local biodiversity problems 227 location-specific pricing 21 LS (Local Stewardship) scenario 2, 82, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4, 332, 333 lump-sum subsidies 332 MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) 45, 46, 102, 104, 136, 138, 201–3, 210 Mace, Georgina M 1, 10, 11 man-made/natural capital 17–18 mangrove loss, Thailand 167–71 mapping biodiversity 57–74 marginal values of biodiversity (production function technique) 193 413 marine diversity hotspots/protection areas 63 market conditions sensitivities 332–3 market creation 20 market failure and biodiversity 12 market power and wildlife exploitation 346–58 market-based valuation method 110 market/planned economies debate 19–22 measuring net income 183–5 measuring net saving 183–5 measuring/valuing ecosystems and biodiversity 137 middle class consumers MIMES (Multi-Scale Integrated Models of Ecosystem Services) tool 71 missing markets 325 Miteva, Daniela 4, 22, 23 MVP (minimum viable population) 343, 348, 349, 350 Nagoya Protocol on Benefit Sharing 236–7 Nash Cooperative Bargaining Game 230–1 Nash equilibrium 24 national accounting see SNA national balance sheets 27, 178–86, 191–2 treatments of biodiversity 180–3 National Enterprise scenario 332 national income accounts 26–8 national resources 178–9 natural assets, as assets-in-perpetuity 27 natural capital 27, 28, 52, 153–73, 172 depletion 160 over-exploitation 154 and wealth accounting (Thailand and USA) 161–71 Natural Capital Committee 27, 95 The Natural Choice: Securing the Value of Nature (Defra) 95 natural production function 184 natural resource extraction 271 natural resource management, decentralization 251, 252 natural resource stock appreciation/ depreciation 154 natural science, and economic assessments 80, 102 natural wealth 155–6 nature as capital 155–6 Nature Improvement Areas 95 NBM (Normative Biodiversity Metric) 69 NDP (net domestic product) 154–5, 162–4, 173 adjustments 163 see also ANDP NEA (National Ecosystem Assessment) agricultural food production 83–4 biodiversity value 85–8 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 414 Index NEA (National Ecosystem Assessment) (cont.) ecosystem service valuations synthesis 92–4 exercise 2, 3, 27, 79–95 large-scale ecosystem evaluation 101, 118 open-access recreation 88–90 policy impact 94–6, 104–5, 125 scenarios 2, 81–3, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 terrestrial carbon storage and GHG emissions 84–5 urban greenspace amenity 90–2 and value transfer 117 net income measurement 183–5 net saving measurement 183–5 new market creation 20–1 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 26 non-market valuation 101–2, 121 non-renewable natural resources 16–19 non-use values 113–16 NPV (net present value) 155 NS (National Security) scenario 2, 82, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 NW (Nature at Work) scenario 2, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 On Biodiversity Conservation and Property Traps 212, 214 open-access recreation 88–90, 92–4 optimal depletion rate 17 optimal harvesting rate 17 optimal land-use conversion 227 optimal number of species 10 Optimal Service Provision 82 outcome-based contracts 327–8 PA (protected areas) 5, 50–1, 63–4, 178, 203, 251–3, 254, 256, 267, 268 annual land rent 186–9, 193–6 asset values per capita (by country) 193–6 and biodiversity conservation 213–15 effectiveness 265, 266 and GEF 189–91 impacts of 257–9 land values and income class 190 policies 217 in relation to GDP 186–9 see also conservation Palmer, Charles 4, 25 panel data designs 257 Parties to the CBD targets 42–4 payments for ecosystem services see PES people-environment coupling 271 per-capita welfare 157 per-household benefit changes 91 Perino, Grischa PES (payments for ecosystem services) 5, 20, 122, 217, 251–3, 254, 263, 264, 265, 266, 268, 316 see also conservation Planet Under Pressure conference 95 poaching 347–8, 349 Polasky, Stephen population growth 7, 18, 35, 49, 57, 159, 168, 201, 208–9, 218 potential human footprint 72 poverty alleviation, and biodiversity conservation 217 poverty, and biodiversity 25, 211–13 poverty traps 211–13, 271 precautionary principle 142 price/quantities fixing 21 principal agent model 319 privately owned land 315–35 pro-environment management schemes 317 production function valuation 14, 110, 184 programme evaluation techniques 214 property-price valuation method 111 provisioning services 72 proximate drivers of biodiversity loss 209–11 public benefits and ecosystems 211 public goods and biodiversity 12, 22–8, 146 PVNB (net present value) of banking/ dumping strategy 351–6 R&D reduction, as bargaining threat 240 rainforest deforestation rainforest systems 225 recreational values 118 REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) scheme 24–5, 218, 237–9, 244, 309 regional biodiversity problems 227 regulating global biodiversity 224–45 regulating services 72 renewable natural resources 16–19 revealed preference valuation method 14, 110, 111 Rio+20 conference 26 risk-averse agents 320 RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) 23, 26 safe minimum standard 142 SEEA (System of Environmental-Economic Accounting) 177–8 set-aside policy 20 Shannon index 11 shared values 114–15 Simpson’s Diversity Index (D) 11, 87 SNA (System of National Accounts) 177–96 social relevance of biodiversity 59 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index social values 115 SP (stated-preference) valuation methods 14, 110, 111–12, 114, 123 spatial modelling approaches 40 spatial variability 116–18, 121 spatially explicit environmental data 65 species endangered 2, 24, 216, 325, 341–58 and habitats 308–9 insurance values 180 invasive species 217 keystone species 10 and knowledge values 180 loss of and population growth 209 MVP (minimum viable population) 343, 348, 349 optimal number of 10 study value 180 as unit of life 10, 11 use/existence value 179 species actions 319–20 species concepts 36 species density, and Foresight scenario 333 species distribution models 68 species diversity 10, 37, 38 ecosystem change and loss 210 species elimination/loss 7, 8, 9, 14, 50, 51, 63 species envelope 67–8 species extinction black rhino case study 350–3, 357–8 and wildlife as commodities 341–58 species harvesting 341–58 species population abundance/distribution and biodiversity change 41 species richness 36, 64–5 auction 324 by country 226 and wealth 225 species trade bans 349 species traits, and biodiversity change 10, 37, 38, 41 species vulnerability 66, 216, 341–58 species-area models 71 speculation banking on extinction 342–3, 349 dumping strategy 349, 351 and wildlife exploitation 346–58 spillovers 273 SPM (site-prediction model) analysis 88–9 SSSIs (sites of special scientific interest) 22–3 stepwise approach (TEEB) 145–6 Stern Review 3, 8, 13, 104, 107, 136, 138, 141 strategic destruction threat 239–42 strong sustainability 158–61 subsidizing ecosystem services 20 415 substitution of natural resources 16–19 Sukhdev, Pavan sustainability 17, 154, 228 weak/strong 158–61 sustainable development 156–61, 172 Swanson, Tim 4, 24 targets 23–6 technological development 82 TEEB Advisory Board 144 TEEB for Business Coalition 143 TEEB in Business and Enterprise 137 TEEB community 147 TEEB Ecological and Economic Foundations 137 TEEB Interim Report 137 TEEB for Local and Regional Policy Makers 137 TEEB in National and International Policy Making 137 TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) review 3, 8, 12, 13, 104, 118, 136–48 analysis to action 143–7 capturing value 138, 139 concerns over economic valuation 139–43 Country TEEB studies 144 and decision making 140, 143, 144 demonstrating value 138, 139 discounting rate 141 and economic uncertainty 141–2 and economic valuation 138–43 five reports 137 mainstreaming objective 138, 143 market solutions 139 recognizing value 138 stepwise approach 144–5 terrestrial carbon storage, and GHG emissions 84–5, 92–4 TGF (trip-generation function) analysis 89 theories of change 269–70 time-bound change agendas 146–7 total capital stock 157 total services valuation 119 trade barriers/tariffs 82 travel cost valuation method 111 treaties 23–6 UK NEA see NEA UKCIP Low and High Emissions Scenarios 83 UN Convention on CBD 41 underlying drivers of biodiversity loss 208–9 UNESCO Man and Biosphere programme 63 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 416 Index UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change) 24–5 units of life 10, 11, 36 urban characteristic change 91 urban greenspace amenity 90–4 urbanization and biodiversity 209 valuation of biodiversity 13–16, 123, 191 of conservation 185–91 ecosystem services 81–92, 101–25 ecosystem services and biodiversity 81–92, 101–25 institution of 138 of natural capital 27 of nature 103, 140 and policy 121–4 of species/landscapes 13–16 valuation knowledge 123 valuation workshops 112 value of the aggregate stock 160 value changes 91 value transfer 116–18 value of visits, meta-analysis of 89 variation among units of life 10 WAVES partnership 28 WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) see Brundtland Commission/Report WCPA (World Commission on Protected Areas) 50–1 weak complementarity concept 110 weak sustainability 158–61 wealth accounting and natural capital 161–71 web-based tools 68–71 welfare impacts, and biodiversity policy 213–16 WHO (World Health Organization) 25 Whole of Government Accounts 27 wildlife commodities 341–58 stockpiling 341–2 wildlife exploitation market power and speculation 346–58 see also speculation Wildlife Trusts 23 Willis, Kathy J WM (World Markets) scenario 2, 82, 87, 88, 89, 90–2, 93–4 World Bank World Market scenario 332, 333 world population www.Ebook777.com ... diversity along these lines include the Shannon index11 and the Simpson index, which sums the squares of the proportion of each species in a given area So, as with the Herfindahl index in industrial... emerging and being incorporated into economic policy Mainstreaming natural capital is required—and with it the mainstreaming of biodiversity This in turn requires integrating economic analysis into... incentive to invest in the provision of the good Much biodiversity has multiple public-good characteristics This constrains the policy instrument choice For instance, the Amazon rainforest, the