Enemies to Allies Enemies to Allies Cold War Germany and American Memory Brian C Etheridge Due to variations in the technical specifications of different electronic reading devices, some elements of this ebook may not appear as they in the print edition Readers are encouraged to experiment with user settings for optimum results Copyright © 2016 by The University Press of Kentucky Scholarly publisher for the Commonwealth, serving Bellarmine University, Berea College, Centre College of Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University, The Filson Historical Society, Georgetown College, Kentucky Historical Society, Kentucky State University, Morehead State University, Murray State University, Northern Kentucky University, Transylvania University, University of Kentucky, University of Louisville, and Western Kentucky University All rights reserved Editorial and Sales Offices: The University Press of Kentucky 663 South Limestone Street, Lexington, Kentucky 40508-4008 www.kentuckypress.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Etheridge, Brian Craig, 1973– author Title: Enemies to allies : Cold War Germany and American memory / Brian C Etheridge Description: Lexington, Kentucky : University Press of Kentucky, 2016 | Series: Studies in conflict, diplomacy, and peace | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2015035924| ISBN 9780813166407 (hardcover : alk paper) | ISBN 9780813166414 (pdf) | ISBN 9780813166421 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: United States—Foreign relations—Germany | Germany—Foreign relations—United States | United States—Foreign relations—1945–1989 | Germany—Foreign relations—1945– | Germany—Foreign public opinion, American | Cold War Classification: LCC E183.8.G3 E84 2016 | DDC 327.7304309/045—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015035924 This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence in Paper for Printed Library Materials Manufactured in the United States of America Member of the Association of American University Presses For Erica Contents Introduction: Answering the German Question 1 “Tomorrow the World”: Images of Germany before the Cold War 15 “Germany Belongs in the Western World”: Germany and Consensus Politics in America, 1945–1959 55 “Your Post on the Frontier”: Germany in an Age of Consensus, 1945–1959 113 “The Anti-German Wave”: Maintaining and Challenging Consensus in an Age of Chaos, 1959–1969 161 “We Refuse to Be ‘Good Germans’”: Germany in a Divided Decade, 1959–1969 203 “The Hero Is Us”: Representations of Germany since the 1960s 255 Conclusion: The Significance of the German Question in the Twenty-First Century 279 Acknowledgments 283 Notes 287 Bibliography 321 Index 349 Introduction Answering the German Question In the United States today, visitors can find almost as many memorials dedicated to the two most visible symbols of recent German history—the Holocaust and the Berlin Wall—as in Germany itself Although both events happened thousands of miles away and neither directly involved the United States, American public and private officials have dedicated museums to the Holocaust and memorialized sections of the Berlin Wall in places throughout the country Major Holocaust sites can be found in several cities, including Los Angeles, Albuquerque, Buffalo, and Miami The Berlin Wall has been enshrined in locales ranging from the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, to the men’s bathroom at the Main Street Station Casino in Las Vegas In many of these memorials, the Holocaust and the Berlin Wall reflect a positive narrative of the United States that affirms America’s mission, ideals, and values in the world These American monuments to the Berlin Wall and the Holocaust suggest the visibility and importance of German history to American society For much of the second half of the twentieth century, the “German Question” was a widely debated issue in the United States Often framed in terms of how Americans should assess and address Germany’s past, and thus its present and future, manifestations of the German Question saturated America’s mass media, appearing in newspapers, magazines, journals, history books, novels, films, and television shows At a basic level, then, the answers offered through these numerous monuments to 360 Index Information Please (radio show), 108 Informed Heart, The (Bettleheim), 225 Inter Nationes, 74, 77, 90 Irving, Washington, 25 “I Was Not a Nazi Polka (Sieg Heil!)” (song), 232 Jackson, C D., 84 Jackson, Claiborne Fox, 27 Jackson, Lt Gen Thomas “Stonewall,” 15 Jandl, Ivan, 130 Javits, Jacob, 83, 183, 198, 240 Jewish Daily Forward, 66 Jewish War Veterans (JWV), 97, 198, 199–200 See also American Jewish organizations John, Otto, 145–46 John Birch Society, 238, 242, 249 Johnson, Lyndon: Goldwater’s criticism of, 239; use of Nazi imagery to reinforce U.S foreign policy, 166– 68; use of the Cold War narrative to legitimize U.S foreign policy, 165– 68, 170–72; use of the totalitarian narrative to justify domestic policy, 173 Johnson, Nunnally, 55, 81 Joseph, Richard, 127 journalists: reports on the destruction in postwar Germany, 126; screening by the U.S military in occupied Germany, 66–67; visits to Germany coordinated by the Roy Bernard Company, 78; West Berlin’s efforts at cultivating relationships with, 92 Judgment at Nuremberg (film): American Council on Germany’s criticism of, 188; anti-German wave and, 177, 185, 188; conflict in American collective memory over the meaning of Germany and, 161–63; as a critique of West Germany and America, 227–29; German concerns about, 161–62, 177; premiere of, 161–62; reactions to highlighting erosion of the Cold War consensus, 203–5 “Just for the Record” (Combat! episode), 218 Kahn, Marcia, 83 Kam, Moshe, 263 Kaskell, Joseph, 187 Katzenberg, Jeffrey, 272 Keith, William, 18 Kellermann, Henry, 55, 71, 87 Kelly, Gene, 142 Kelly, John T., 263 Kelpius, Johannes, 18 Kemp, Jack, 260 Kennan, George, 83–85 Kennedy, John F.: Berlin Wall and, 252; criticism of Eisenhower’s Cold War policies, 165; initial attitude toward Germany, 165–66; symbolic use of Berlin in foreign policy, 168– 69; use of Nazi imagery to reinforce U.S foreign policy, 166–67; use of the Cold War narrative to legitimize U.S foreign policy, 166–67, 168– 69, 171–72; use of the totalitarian narrative to justify domestic policy, 172–73 Kerr, Clark, 234 Khrushchev, Nikita, 88–89, 253 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 163, 164, 189, 200, 208 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 206, 249 Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (film), 282 Kinsky, Leonid, 221 Kissinger, Henry, 92, 257–58, 266 Klein, Julius, 199 Klutznick, Philip, 194, 199–200 Knappstein, Karl Heinrich, 199 Know-Nothing Party, 28 Index 361 Know Your Enemy (Tetens), 110 Koerner, Gustav, 31 Koettgen, Julius, 37–38 Kohl, Helmut, 256, 277 Korean War, 63, 64, 103 Kortner, Fritz, 65 Kossuth, Louis, 26 Kramer, Stanley, 161, 203, 227, 228 Krekeler, Heinz, 74, 80 Krims, Milton, 46 Krinsky, Joseph, 157 Kristallnacht, 256 Krock, Arthur, 183 Krupp, Alfried, 70–71 Kuchel, Thomas, 240 Kuhn, Fritz, 45–46 Ku Klux Klan, 247 Ladies’ Home Journal, 126 La Follette, Charles, 101 Landsberg, Alison, Landsberg prison controversy, 70–71 Langer, Elinor, 235 Laugh-In (television show), 180 Lawrence, William, 167 Lears, T J Jackson, 57–58 Lehrer, Tom, 232 Lerner, Max, 94 Lewis, Geoffrey, 159 liberal progressives: the world war narrative and divided perspectives on Germany, 93–96 Liberty Loan posters, 38 Life magazine, 96, 123, 126; coverage of Free German Youth of East Germany, 151, 152; depictions of East and West Berlin in, 149–53; opinions opposed to the whitewashing of Berlin, 157 Lincoln, Abraham, 28 Lipschutz, Isidore, 109 Lipsitz, George, Lipton, Lawrence, 235 Lischka, Karl, 46 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 171 Loeb, James, 95 Long, Huey, 43 “Long Walk, The” (Combat! episode), 213–14 “Long Way Home, The” (Combat! episode), 213, 214 Look magazine, 78, 79 Lorentz, Pare, 67, 68 Los Angeles Free Press, 235 Los Angeles Times, 139, 140, 261–62 Lovestone, Jay, 103 Lowenthal, Richard, 175 Luce, Henry, 96 Lund, John, 136 Luns, Joseph, 253 Lusitania (British ship), 35 Luxembourg Agreements, 104 Lyons, Eugene, 122 Maass, John, 157 MacArthur, Douglas, 248 Madole, James, 247 Mai Lai massacre, 227 Mann, Abby, 227–30 Mann, Thomas, 49 Mansfield, Mike, 183 March of Time (film), 80 Marshall, George, 47 Marshall Plan, 63, 68–69, 118, 144 Marton, Andrew, 141 Mason, James, 57 “Masquerade” (Combat! episode), 212–13 “Masquers, The” (Combat! episode), 211 mass media: American Jewish concerns about German representations in, 105–7; anti-German wave in, 162–63, 175–80; influence on George Rockwell, 248; influence on neo-Nazism in the United States, 245–46, 247; trends in the early 362 Index mass media (cont.) Cold War period, 59–60; U.S government propaganda supporting the Cold War narrative and, 71–72 See also film industry; print media; television May Day celebrations, 88 McCarthy, Joseph, 248 McCloy, John J., 69–70, 87 McGovern, George, 235 McNamara, Robert, 234 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 248 memory: collective, 3–4, 5; integration of international history in memory study, 4; modern concepts of, 3–4; prosthetic, 4–6 memory diplomacy: Cold War narrative, 6; communities of memory, 7; concept and theoretical basis of, 3–6; key themes associated with Germany during the Cold War, 7–9; world war narrative, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 81, 113 Middleton, Drew, 58–59 Milgram, Stanley, 226–27 Millis, Arthur, 126 Milton Berle Show, The (television show), 101 Milwaukee Journal, 119 Mintz, Alan, 267 Minutemen, 238 Miss Germany, 77–78 Mitchell Trio, 232 Moment magazine, 269 Mondale, Walter, 205 Monroe Doctrine, 31 Morgenthau, Henry, 61–62, 111 Morgenthau Plan, 61–62, 117 Morrow, Vic, 211 Moskowitz, Moses, 98 Motion Picture Committee, 105 Motion Pictures Association of America (MPAA), 179 Mowrer, Edgar, 44–45 Moynihan, Daniel, 224–25 Muhammad, Elijah, 249 Muhammed, Khalil, 273 Muhlen, Norbert, 185, 186, 187, 188 Munich-Cincinnati “sister city” controversy, 158–59 Murphy, Robert, 86 National Community Relations Advisory Council (NCRAC), 56, 100, 102, 103, 105, 191, 199 National Democratic Party (NPD), 163, 200, 208 National Geographic, 78 National Jewish Monthly, 50 National Renaissance Party, 247 National Review, 238 National Socialist White People’s Party, 251 National States Rights Party, 197, 249 Nation of Islam, 249 Nazi Germany: American entertainment’s renewed interest in the 1960s, 208–23; American Jewish perceptions of during the war, 50; American postwar separation of Berlin from, 86–87; in American propaganda supporting the Cold War narrative, 68–69; American public opinion of in the postwar period, 116–17; American understandings and views of during the war, 40, 47–53; American views of in the 1930s, 44–47; Cold War consensus regarding Nazism and World War II as aberrations, 114– 15; the German American Bund and, 45–46; Nazism and Soviet communism linked in the Cold War narrative, 64, 121–25, 147– 49; Roosevelt’s ambiguous views of, 43–44; totalitarian narrative Index 363 and the absolution of Germans from Nazism, 115, 124–25; white supremacists of the 1960s and, 208; in the world war narrative, Nazi imagery: George Rockwell and, 248; used as a metaphor to critique American society, 223–41; used by Kennedy and Johnson to legitimize U.S foreign policy, 166–68 Nazi war crimes trials: Eichmann trial and controversy, 194–97; Nuremberg trials, 67–68, 116; statute of limitations controversy, 198–200 See also Judgment at Nuremberg NCRAC See National Community Relations Advisory Council “Negro Family: The Case for National Action” (Moynihan), 225 neo-Nazism: characteristics of neoNazi clubs in the United States, 244–45; influence of television and mass media on, 245–46, 247; response of the American Jewish Committee to, 197–98; response to the Eichmann trial, 197; swastika outbreak of 1959–1960, 189–94, 242–47 See also National Democratic Party Netherlands, 253 New Germany and the Old Nazis, The (Tetens), 188 New Left, 206, 207, 232–37 New Republic, 49, 153 newspapers: articles placed by the Roy Bernard Company, 78; influence during the early Cold War period, 59 Newsweek, 127, 144, 145, 151, 152, 153, 259 Newton, Huey, 237 New York Daily Tribune, 26–27 New Yorker, 151, 195 New York Star, 140 New York State: German immigrants in the colonial period, 19–21, 22 New York Times, 118, 187, 256, 261– 62, 265–66 New York Times Magazine, 175 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 95–96, 102, 103, 147–48 1984 (Orwell), 123 Ninkovich, Frank, 63 Nixon, Richard, 257–60, 266 Nizer, Louis, 110 Nock, Albert Jay, 238 Nordhoff, Heinz, 145, 146 Norstad, Gen Lauris, 174 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 64 “No Time for Pity” (Combat! episode), 217 Novick, Peter, 123–24 NPD See National Democratic Party Nuremberg (film), 67–68 Nuremberg trials, 67–68, 116 See also Judgment at Nuremberg Obama, Barack, 282 obedience experiments, 226–27 Occupy Wall Street movement, 281 O’Donnell, James P., 127, 147, 185 “Odyssey” (Combat! episode), 215–16, 219 Office of Public Opinion Studies, 116, 117 Office of War Information (OWI), 47 Oglethorpe, James, 21–22 Olympic Games (1936), 44 Open Mind (television news show), 190 “Operation Briefcase” (Hogan’s Heroes episode), 222–23 Origins of Totalitarianism, The (Arendt), 123 Orwell, George, 123 Ostpolitik, 257–58 364 Index Otterness, Phil, 20 Our Secret Weapon (radio show), 108 Overseas News Service, 66 Page, Edward, 152 Palatines, 20–21 Pan-Germans, 6, 109–10 Paramount, 81 Pastorius, Francis Daniel, 18 Paterson, Thomas, 69 “Peace without Conquest” (Johnson speech), 167 Pearson, Drew, 80 Peck, Seymour, 140 Pell, Claiborne, 183–84 Pennsylvania: German immigrants in the colonial period, 18–19 Pennsylvania State University, 233–34 People-to-People Program, 159 periodicals See print media Perlman, David, 152 Petergorsky, David, 101 Petrit, Gus, 156 Philips, Joseph, 118 Pirosh, Robert, 210 Playboy, 251 Podhoretz, Norman, 197 Polier, Shad, 191–92, 193–94 popular songs: satirization of Germany and America in, 231–32 Port Huron Statement, 206 postwar Germany: American public opinion of, 116–17; American public opinion of the occupation, 117–18; conceived as needing masculine American protection, 115, 125–43; U.S foreign policy toward, 60–64; U.S military screening of journalists and censorship in, 66–68 Powell, Richard, 221 Praeger, Robert, 39 “Praise the Führer and Pass the Ammunition” (Hogan’s Heroes episode), 222 Prevent World War III, 111 Prince, John, 33 print media: articles placed by the Roy Bernard Company, 78–79, 80; depictions of East and West Berlin, 149–53; influence during the early Cold War period, 59 Prinz, Joachim, 99, 196, 200 Progressive Citizens for America (PCA), 96 propaganda: Smith-Mundt Act and, 72–73; Rex Stout and the Writer’s War Board, 108–9; by the U.S government in support of the Cold War narrative, 68–72 Proskauer, Joseph, 195 prosthetic memory, 4–6 Proxmire, William, 270–71 public diplomacy: meanings of, 5; prosthetic memory and, 5–6; by the U.S government in support of the Cold War narrative, 64–72; by West Germany in support of the Cold War narrative, 74–81 public education: American response to German innovations, 32–33 public relations firms: for West Berlin, 90–91; for West Germany in promoting the Cold War narrative, 74–81 See also Roy Bernard Company Quadripartite Agreement, 258–59 Quick, 78 Quick, Herbert, 24–25 radical Right, 241–42 radio, 59 Ramparts, 204–5 Rand, Ayn, 125 “Rare Vintage, A” (Combat! episode), 211 Index 365 Rat Patrol (television show), 177, 180 Reader’s Digest, 96 Reagan, Ronald, 239, 261, 262, 266–67 Reeves, Richard, 262 Reith Lectures, 83 Republican Party, 28, 238–41 Reuter, Ernst, 143; American responses to as the mayor of West Berlin, 154, 155, 156; American rhetorical support for West Berlin in the 1950s and, 87; Detroit visit controversy in 1951, 158; visit to the United States in 1949, 90, 91 Revolt in Berlin (documentary film), 91 revolutions of 1848, 26 Rhodes, John, 238 Ribicoff, Abraham, 198, 235 Riesel, Victor, 90–91 Riesser, Hans, 77 Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, The (Shirer), 162, 176, 185, 187–88 Road to Serfdom (Hayek), 125 Robbins, Terry, 233 Robinson, Jackie, 241 Rockefeller, Nelson, 240 Rockwell, George Lincoln, 197–98, 242, 247–51 Roijen, J H van, 253 Rommel, Erwin, 55–57 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano: ambiguous views of Nazi Germany, 43–44, 47; German occupation policy, 61–62, 64; Rex Stout and, 111 Root, Waverley, 127 Rope of Sand (film), 81 Roy Bernard Company: American Jewish owners, 76, 104; antiGerman wave and the reduced role of, 178; promotion of the Cold War narrative on behalf of West Germany, 58, 75–81, 82, 90–91; selling of the Quadripartite Agreement, 258–59 rubble women, 143 See also German women Rubin, Jerry, 236 Rusk, Dean, 182 Russell, Francis, 70 Russell, Richard B., 242 Salat, Rudolf, 74 San Diego Union-Tribune, 261 Saturday Evening Post, 80, 143, 145–46 Savio, Mario, 234 Schindler’s List (film), 271–74, 277 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 144 Schorr, Daniel, 240–41 Schroeder, Gerhard, 256 Schütz, Klaus, 259 Schwartz, Thomas, 63, 165 Schweinitz, Graf, 180 Science Digest, 227 Seale, Bobby, 236–37 Search, The (film), 113–14, 127–35, 136 Seaton, George, 136, 139 Segal, Simon, 188–89 segregation: Berlin Wall as a symbol of, 252 Seidel, Henry, 109 Seize the Time (Seale), 236–37 Selma, Ala., 204–5, 253 Senate Resolution 125, 100–101, 102 Senate Resolution 260, 102, 103 “Seven Needles, The” (film script), 71–72 Seventeen, 78 Shafir, Shlomo, 194 Sheinberg, Monroe, 200 Ship of Fools (film), 229–30 Shirer, William, 44–45, 67, 162, 176, 185, 187–88 Shuster, George, 187 Sigel, Franz, 28 Sihanouk, Prince, 253 Silver Shirts, 247 Simon, Sylvan, 71 366 Index Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Elkins), 224–25 Slawson, John, 195 “smear” films, 80 Smith-Mundt Act (1948), 72–73 Society for the Prevention of World War III (SPWWIII): challenge to the Cold War narrative and, 58; The Desert Fox debate and, 56; history and activities of, 107–11; Nuremberg film controversy and, 67; role in shaping narratives of Germany in the United States, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 206 Soviet Union: American depictions of Stalin, 153–54; American dual containment strategy, 63–64; American responses to the fall of, 265–66; Berlin and, 86–87, 88–89, 119; Cold War narrative and, 118, 119–20, 121–25, 147– 49; development of the U.S Cold War policy toward, 62–63; divided perspectives of U.S liberal progressives on, 93–96 See also détente Spielberg, Steven, 270 Springer, Axel, 258 SPWWIII See Society for the Prevention of World War III Stalin, Joseph, 62, 153–54 “State of the Poor Palatinates, The,” 20–21 statism, 238 Steeper Cliff, The (film), 105 Stein, Mary Beth, 263 Stephen Goerl and Associates, 92 Stern, Susan, 235 Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von (Baron von Steuben), 22 Stimson, Henry, 61 Stone, John, 56, 105, 106 Stout, Rex, 108–9, 110–11, 190 Students for a Democratic Society, 206, 233–34, 237, 240 Sturken, Marita, submarine warfare: in World War I, 35–36 Suhr, Otto, 92 Sulzberger, Arthur, 67 SUNY-Buffalo, 234 “Survival” (Combat! episode), 214–15 Sussex (British ship), 36 swastika outbreak of 1959–1960, 189– 94, 242–47 See also anti-Semitism Taft, Charles P., 159 Tatlock, John, 38 Taylor, Maxwell, 87, 170–71 television: anti-German wave, 175–76, 177; Combat! and reinforcement of the Cold War consensus, 210–19; early growth and impact of, 59–60; fragmentation of the Cold War consensus in the 1960s and, 204–5, 206; Hogan’s Heroes and the promotion of American values, 220–23; images of “Bloody Sunday,” 204–5; influence on neoNazism in the United States, 245– 46; prevalence in the United States by 1965, 164; renewed interest in Germany’s role in World War II during the 1960s, 208–9, 210–23; Roy Bernard Company’s attempt to influence, 80–81; U.S government propaganda supporting the Cold War narrative and, 71 temperance movement, 27–28 Tetens, T H., 110, 111, 188 Tet Offensive, 172 Tevlin, Eda, 157 Third Reich See Nazi Germany Thomas, Joseph, 77, 176, 178, 180 Index 367 Thomas, Norman, 82 Thompson, Dorothy, 44–45, 49, 67, 108, 126 Tillinger, Eugene, 50 “Time for Choosing, A” (Reagan speech), 239 Time magazine: absolution of the German people from Nazism, 124–25; depiction of East German youth, 152; on Abby Mann, 227; Niebuhr’s “The Fight for Germany” essay in, 96; on Heinz Nordhoff and Volkswagen, 146; on the Quadripartite Agreement, 259; review of Berlin Express, 135; review of The Big Lift, 138; Roy Bernard Company and, 76; on unifying occupied Germany, 118 Time to Love and a Time to Die, A (film), 107 Tomorrow, the World! (film), 50–52 totalitarianism: Churchill’s use of the term, 68; Cold War narrative and, 6, 10, 11, 57, 115, 121–25, 147–49; U.S postwar foreign policy and, 68–69; world war narrative and, 6, 57 totalitarian narrative: absolution of the Germans from Nazism and, 115, 124–25; Nazism and Soviet communism linked in, 64, 121– 25, 147–49; U.S Cold War policy toward the Soviet Union and, 62–63, 64; used as a metaphor by American conservatives, 237–41; used as a metaphor by the New Left to critique American society, 233–37; used by Johnson to defend the Vietnam War, 172; used by Kennedy and Johnson to justify U.S domestic policy, 172–73 Tragedy of American Diplomacy, The (Williams), 207 Treaty of Versailles, 41, 42, 61, 62 Trommler, Frank, 34 Truemmerfrauen (rubble women), 143 Truman, Harry: on Berlin in 1945, 126; conservative criticism of, 125; liberal criticism of, 93–94; shaping of the Cold War narrative by, 60, 62–63, 64 Truman Doctrine, 63, 68 TV Guide, 210 Twentieth Century-Fox, 56 Twisted Cross, The (film), 246 Union for Democratic Action (UDA), 95, 96 United Artists, 81, 161 United States: Berlin Wall used as a rhetorical device to support and criticize American policies and ideals, 251–53; collaboration with West Germany to promote the Cold War narrative in America, 73–74; conceptions of postwar Germany as needing masculine American protection, 115, 125– 43; conservative movement’s appropriation of the Cold War narrative to critique, 237–41; fragmentation of the Cold War consensus in the 1960s, 205–7; framing of the Cold War narrative, 57–58, 60, 62–64; impact of the fall of the Berlin Wall on understandings of Germany and the Cold War, 263–66; influence of Germany on attitudes toward the Cold War, 121–25; influence of the Cold War on attitudes toward Germany, 114–21; New Left’s appropriation of the Cold War narrative to critique, 232–37; proAmerican ideological framework of the Cold War narrative, 115; 368 Index United States (cont.) public diplomacy and propaganda in support of the Cold War narrative, 64–72; reactions to Holocaust narratives since the 1960s, 266–77; relationship with and policies toward Berlin, 85–89; response of anti-Semitic groups to the Eichmann trial, 197; swastika outbreak of 1959–1960, 191–94, 242–47; use of wartime Germany as a metaphor to critique and criticize, 223–32; views of totalitarianism in Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, 121–25; West German promotion of the Cold War narrative in, 72–81 See also U.S foreign policy United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 275, 276–77 “United States Quartered—Democracy in Peril” (brochure), 77 U.S Department of State Bulletin, 68, 70, 87 U.S foreign policy: contentions among American Jewish organizations over, 97, 98, 100–104; divided perspectives of liberal progressives on, 93–96; dual containment strategy, 63–64; early Cold War positions toward the German people, 60–64; framing of American identity and Germany during the Cold War period, 7; naturalization of the Cold War narrative and, 58; Nixon’s and Carter’s attempts to remake the symbolism of Berlin, 257–61; use of the Cold War narrative by Kennedy and Johnson to legitimize, 165, 166–72; viability projects for West Berlin of the 1960s, 174 U.S military: fraternization with German women, 126; perspectives on Germans in postwar Germany and, 127–35; screening of journalists and censorship in occupied Germany, 66–68 U.S News and World Report, 118, 144, 145, 146 U.S State Department: Cold War policy in the 1950s, 63; collaboration with West Germany to promote the Cold War narrative in America, 73; The Desert Fox debate and, 55; public diplomacy and propaganda in support of the Cold War narrative, 65–66, 68–72 Utley, Freda, 91, 92 Vanderlip, Frank, 32 Vanishing Swastika, The (pamphlet), 186, 188–89 Varon, Jeremy, 237 Viertel, Peter, 114, 128–33 Vietnam War: fragmentation of the Cold War consensus and, 206–7; Johnson’s use of Nazi imagery to legitimize, 167–68; Kennedy and Johnson’s symbolic use of Berlin in the framing of, 169–72; Mai Lai massacre, 227; New Left’s appropriation of Nazi imagery to oppose, 233, 234 Volkswagen, 145, 146 Wallace, George, 205, 250 Wallace, Henry, 94–95, 96 Wall Street Journal, 118, 119 Warner Brothers, 46–47, 53 Watson, Maj Gen Albert, 161 Wattenberg, Ben, 255–56 Weathermen, 237 Wechsberg, Joseph, 151 Wechsler, Lazar, 114, 128, 133 Index 369 Weedman, Krista, 262 Weimar Republic, 40, 41–43 Wells, William, 132 Welsh, David, 204–5 “Wernher von Braun” (song), 232 West Berlin: Americanization and, 147; Berlin Blockade and, 148– 49; city efforts to influence U.S public opinion regarding, 90–92; crises at Checkpoint Charlie in the 1960s, 173–74; depicted in American media, 149, 150–51; Christopher Emmet and the American Council on Germany’s belief in the importance of, 185; importance to the Cold War narrative, 6, 146–57; premiere of Judgment at Nuremberg, 161–62; publicity trips to the United States by city officials, 91–92; symbolic use of by Kennedy and Johnson in the pursuit of U.S domestic policy, 172–73; symbolic use of by Kennedy and Johnson in the pursuit of U.S foreign policy, 168– 72; viability projects of the 1960s, 174 See also Berlin West Germany See Federal Republic of Germany West New Guinea, 253 White, William Allen, 82 White Power movement, 251 white supremacists: conservatives and, 241–42; criticism of the civil rights movement, 242; fragmentation of the Cold War narrative in the 1960s and, 207–8; historical overview in the United States, 247; George Rockwell and the American Nazi Party, 247–51; use of Nazi imagery, 241 “Why America Fights Germany” (Tatlock), 38 Why We Fight (film series), 47–48 Wiener, Jon, 282 Wiesel, Elie, 266, 269 Wilder, Billy, 135, 137, 139 William II, 30, 33, 34 Williams, William Appleman, 207 Wilson, Woodrow, 35–37 Winchell, Walter, 80 Wolfe, Henry C., 48–49 Woman’s Day, 78 Workman, William D., 242 World Jewish Congress, 97 World Union of National Socialists, 250 World War I, 34–40 World War II: American understandings and views of Germans and Germanness during, 40, 47–53, 60; Cold War consensus regarding Nazism and World War II as aberrations in German history, 114–15; in the Cold War narrative, 6; continued relevancy of in the twenty-first century, 281– 82; renewed interest in Germany’s role in by 1960s American entertainment, 208–23; use of wartime Germany as a metaphor to critique American society, 223–32 world war narrative: American Jewish organizations and, 97, 101, 103– 4; concept and overview of, 6, 57; difficulties of challenging the state-sanctioned Cold War narrative, 93; disarray during the early Cold War period, 58; efforts to influence the reports of Drew Middleton and, 58–59; height of with Henry Morgenthau and the Morgenthau Plan, 60–62; Judgment at Nuremberg and, 162; liberal progressives and their divided perspectives on Germany, 93–96; 370 Index world war narrative (cont.) Society for the Prevention of World War III and, 107–11; totalitarianism and, 6, 57 “Wounded Don’t Cry, The” (Combat! episode), 216, 217, 219 Writers’ War Board (WWB), 108–9, 110–11 Young, Andrew, 204 Young, Desmond, 55 Young Americans for Freedom, 240 Young Lions, The (film), 105–7, 246 Zimmerman, Robert, 261 Zimmermann telegram, 36 Zinnemann, Fred, 114, 128–34 Studies in Conflict, Diplomacy, and Peace Series Editors: George C Herring, Andrew L Johns, and Kathryn C Statler This series focuses on key moments of conflict, diplomacy, and peace from the eighteenth century to the present to explore their wider significance in the development of U.S foreign relations The series editors welcome new research in the form of original monographs, interpretive studies, biographies, and anthologies from historians, political scientists, journalists, and policymakers A primary goal of the series is to examine the United States’ engagement with the world, its evolving role in the international arena, and the ways in which the state, nonstate actors, individuals, and ideas have shaped and continue to influence history, both at home and abroad Advisory Board Members David Anderson, California State University, Monterey Bay Laura Belmonte, Oklahoma State University Robert Brigham, Vassar College Paul Chamberlin, University of Kentucky Jessica Chapman, Williams College Frank Costigliola, University of Connecticut Michael C Desch, University of Notre Dame Kurk Dorsey, University of New Hampshire John Ernst, Morehead State University Joseph A Fry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Ann Heiss, Kent State University Sheyda Jahanbani, University of Kansas Mark Lawrence, University of Texas Mitchell Lerner, Ohio State University Kyle Longley, Arizona State University Robert McMahon, Ohio State University Michaela Hoenicke Moore, University of Iowa Lien-Hang T Nguyen, University of Kentucky Jason Parker, Texas A&M University Andrew Preston, Cambridge University Thomas Schwartz, Vanderbilt University Salim Yaqub, University of California, Santa Barbara Books in the Series Truman, Congress, and Korea: The Politics of America’s First Undeclared War Larry Blomstedt The Gulf: The Bush Presidencies and the Middle East Michael F Cairo American Justice in Taiwan: The 1957 Riots and Cold War Foreign Policy Stephen G Craft Diplomatic Games: Sport, Statecraft, and International Relations since 1945 Edited by Heather L Dichter and Andrew L Johns Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America’s Entry into World War I Justus D Doenecke Enemies to Allies: Cold War Germany and American Memory Brian C Etheridge Grounded: The Case for Abolishing the United States Air Force Robert M Farley The American South and the Vietnam War: Belligerence, Protest, and Agony in Dixie Joseph A Fry Obama at War: Congress and the Imperial Presidency Ryan C Hendrickson The Conversion of Senator Arthur H Vandenberg: From Isolation to International Engagement Lawrence S Kaplan The Currents of War: A New History of American-Japanese Relations, 1899–1941 Sidney Pash So Much to Lose: John F Kennedy and American Policy in Laos William J Rust Lincoln Gordon: Architect of Cold War Foreign Policy Bruce L R Smith ... allies Most liberals and revisionists, however, focused their ire at British propagandists and American munition makers and bankers Americans blamed British propaganda for inflaming American emotions... upon whom Americans projected both their fears about and their aspirations for themselves and their society For the first half of American history, Americans largely interpreted Germany and Germanness... understanding Germany and its meaning for Americans continued to shape how Americans made sense of themselves and the world around them In the long history of America’s encounter with Germany,