Religion and American Law GARLAND REFERENCE LIBRARY OF THE HUMANITIES (VOL 1548) Religion and American Law: An Encyclopedia Editor Paul Finkelman Chapman Distinguished Professor University of Tulsa College of Law GARLAND PUBLISHING, INC A MEMBER OF THE TAYLOR & FRANCIS GROUP New York & London 2000 Published in 2000 by Garland Publishing Inc A Member of the Taylor & Francis Group 19 Union Square West NewYork, NY 10003 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Copyright © 2000 by Paul Finkelman All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-203-42822-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-44116-8 (Adobe eReader Format) I dedicate this book to the memory of Rose Sobel Finkelman and Hyman Finkelman and Mashah Yourkowsky Dobbis and Isadore Dobbis who came to the United States seeking religious liberty and found it Contents Introduction vi Contributors x The Encyclopedia Index of Cases 836 Subject Index 852 Introduction “We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being.” So wrote Justice William O.Douglas in Zorach v Clausen in 1952 He was, of course, right We announce our trust in God on our money We proclaim our allegience to our flag and our Republic, in the same sentence that we declare our nation is “under God.” Our Supreme Court begins each term with a plea that “God save the United States and this honorable Court.” Almost every president has invoked God in his inaugural address as well as in moments of national crisis or celebration We are equally a diverse people, who worship in different ways, to different cadences, and indeed to different Gods Our holy texts—the Gospels, the Pentateuch, the Koran, the Book of Mormon, the Granth Sahib, the Bhagavad Giti, and Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures—tell different stories, proclaim different values, and reflect the cultures of the world Our holy languages are varied, and we pray in the German of Luthei; the English of King James I, Paul of Tarsus’s Greek, the Latin of Constantine, the Hebrew of Moses, the Aramaic of the Sages of the Talmud as well as Jesus of Nazareth, the Arabic of Muhammad, and the Sanskrit of Sri Ramakrishna We pray to the sounds of music and we pray in silence Our sounds of worship include the organ, the piano, guitar, the horn of a ram, the jazz band, and most often, that most elegant and divine of all instruments, the human voice We pray with heads covered and uncovered, knees bent and straight, standing, sitting, kneeling, and prostrate on a prayer rug We pray next to our families and separated by age and gender We attend synagogues, mosques, churches, temples, Kingdom Halls, cathedrals, meeting houses, and gurdwaras A holy place may be a building consecrated by an ordained member of the clergy or for Native Americans a mountain, waterfall, or volcano We are led in prayers by imams, priests, ministers, preachers, shamans, rabbis, santeros, bishops, and yogis Scattered throughout the nation are many who believe in no supreme being, and actively reject religion in any form or context Our rituals and our beliefs are as varied as our faiths Some faiths abstain from alcohol while others require it Catholicism believes that wine has been transformed by ritual into the blood of Christ through the incantations of a priest Some faiths protect the lives of animals while others require the sacrifice of vii animals Some Americans are pacifists, others are required by their faith to symbolically carry a weapon Some declare abortion under any circumstances to be a sin; others not; and some declare that it is a sin not to have an abortion if the mother’s life is at risk Some faiths and churches have endowed and supported important hospitals and medical schools, but some of faiths reject intervention by modern medical science, refusing medical aid even at the cost of lives A religious people of many faiths and practices, we are also a democractic people, governed by the will of the majority and the rule of law But we are also a people governed by a Constitution and a body of laws that protect individual liberty, including the right to worship our religion as we please Central to our Constitution is the First Amendment, which begins: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” There are, of course, great tensions between these aspects of the United States When our institutions “presuppose a Supreme Being,” they also threaten to establish the majority’s view of what that Supreme Being might be or how that Supreme Being should be honored or even worshiped Thus, any governmental institutionalization of the Supreme Being—any governmental establishment of religion—threatens to undermine the protection for religious minorities On the other hand, to respect or protect the unique and unusual practices of minority faiths may lead to a kind of establishment for those religions by exempting their members from the rules the rest of society must follow The problem of church and state remains vibrant and meaningful in our culture The Supreme Court has heard more than three hundred cases that touch on these issues State and lower federal courts have heard thousands more The jurisprudence of religion in complicated and often confusing It highlights the tensions of our political culture and our democratic society Two examples illustrate this complex relationship: In Engle v Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington v Schempp (1963) the Supreme Court unambiguously held that schools could not sponsor prayer or Bible readings and that teachers, principals, and other school officials and employees could not lead prayers To so, according to the Court, was to establish religion in a government institution Despite these cases, state legislatures have passed numerous acts to circumvent the Supreme Court ruling State lawmakers pass such laws because they are popular with constitutents and are often excellent campaign issues Time after time the federal courts have struck down such laws, but legislatures never seem to get the message Meanwhile, we know that in numerous school districts teachers lead prayers and students say them every day, simply ignoring the law of the land Parents and students who object to such prayers are often afraid to complain because of social pressure The issue of school prayer illustrates the tension beween democracy and constitutional government The continuations of school prayers in some schools—and the intimidation of those who object to such prayers—is a modern- viii day example of the “tyranny of the majority” that the French scholar Alexis de Tocqueville identified in the 1830s The flip side of the tyranny of the majority can be seen in the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) In Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon v Smith (1990) the Supreme Court ruled that states did not need to justify burdens on religious exercise with a compelling state interest Instead, the Court ruled that religious exemptions to generally applicable laws are not constitutionally required In 1993 Congress tried to reverse this ruling and bring back the compelling state interest test in cases involving the free exercise of religion In passing this act Congress did not try to impose a “tyranny of the majority,” but rather tried to get all majorities to protect minority religions The law was passed “to restore the compelling interest test” as it had exised before Oregon v Smith, and “to provide a cause of action to persons whose religious exercise is burdened by government.” The law declared that “Government shall not burden a person’s exercise of religion even if the burden results from a rule of law of general applicability” except “if it demonstrates that the application of the burden to the person… (1) is essential to further a compelling state interest; and (2) is the least restrictive means of furthering that compelling governmental interest.” Rarely has Congress tried to reign in its own powers, and that of other branches of government, to protect minorities But, this admirable goal could not pass constitutional scrutiny In City of Boerne v Flores (1997) the Supreme Court overturned RFRA on the ground it violated the separation of powers Congress cannot dictate to the Supreme Court what theory of law the Court must adopt in its jurisprudence These examples show the complexity of the intersection between law and religion in our Constitutional democracy This encyclopedia examines the issues surrounding religion and American law The questions are in part historical and in part very modern The entries cover a wide range of issues, events, and people Some deal with individuals who had a profound affect on the development of religion and law, such as Roger Williams, James Madison, and a number of Supreme Court justices Other entries focus on certain faiths and sects, particularly those that have often had confrontations with the American legal system There are also discussions of various legal theories and historical developments of the law of church and state The entries focus on the adoption of the U.S Constitution and the Bill of Rights and the way the people of the new nation struggled to define the relationship between church and state Finally, there are entries of all the major legal decisions that touch on religions and American law This book was possible only because of the hard work and patience of the contributors I began this project in 1990, while teaching a course in Church and State at Brooklyn Law School Colleagues there, and at Virginia Tech, ChicagoKent College of Law, Hamline Law School, and the University of Akron School of Law encouraged the project and contributed to it All of the contributors have worked hard in this difficult collaborative enterprise However, I owe special 850 INDEX Updegraph Case, 11 Serg and R 394 (Penn., 1824) 44 V Valley Forge College v Americans United for Separation of Church and State, 454 U.S 464 (1982) 407, 465, 466 Vandiver v Hardin County Bd of Educ., 925 F 2d 927 (6th Cir 1991) 397 Vidal v Girard’s Executors, 43 U.S 127 (1844) 74, 226, 550–552 W Wagner v Salvation Army, 660 F Supp 466 (E.D Tenn 1986) 535 Wagner v Wagner, 165 N.J Super 553, 398 A 2d 888 (1983) Walker v Blackwell, 411 F 2d 23 (5th Cir 1969) 374 Walker v First Presbyterian Church, 22 Fair Empl.Prac.Cas (BNA) 762 (Cal.Super.Ct.1980) 296 Walker v Mintzes, 771 F 2d 920 (6th Cir 1985) 374 Walker v Sauvinet, 92 U.S 90 (1876) 40 Walker v Superior Court, 763 P 2d 852 (Cal 1988) 112 Wallace v Jaffree, 472 U.S 38 (1985) 178, 225, 238, 259, 408, 434, 440, 444, 515, 555–556 Walz v Tax Commission, 397 U.S 664 (1970) 57, 61, 141, 170, 214, 275, 434, 478, 500, 525 Ward v Conner, 453 F 2d 45 (4th Cir 1981) 116 Ware v Valley Stream High School, 550 N.E 2d 420 (N.Y 1989) 395 Washington v Harper, 494 U.S 210 (1990) 241 Watson v Jones, 80 U.S 679 (1871) 133 Webster v Reproductive Health Services, 492 U.S 490 (1989) 380 Weiss v Patrick, 453 F Supp 717 (D.R.I 1978) 116 Welsh v United States, 398 U.S 333 (1970) 104, 170, 214, 242, 454, 458 West Virginia Board of Education v Barnette, 319 U.S 628 (1943) 38, 67, 87, 141, 183, 242, 247, 273, 354, 366, 371, 396, 516 Westchester Reform Temple v Brown, 239 N.E 2d 891 (NY 1968) 571 Western Presbyterian Church v Board of Zoning Adjustment, 862 F Supp 538 (D.D.C 1994) 573 Wheeler v Barrera, 417 U.S 402 (1974) 141 Whitney v Greater New York Corp of Seventh-Day Adventists, 401 F Supp 1363 (S.D.N.Y 1975) 531 Widmar v Vincent, 454 U.S 263 (1981) 48,170, 443, 551, 556–558 Wilkerson v Rome, 152 Ga Rep 762 (1922) 124 Williamson v Williamson, 479 S.W 2d 163 (Mo Ct App 1972) Willson v Black Bird Creek Marsh Co., 27 U.S (2 Pet.) 251 (1829) 359 Wilson v Block, 708 F 2d 735 (D.C Cir 1983), cert denied, 464 U.S 1056 (1984) 334 Wisconsin v Yoder, 406 U.S 216 (1972) 1, 2, 33, 53, 60, 84, 104, 141, 147, 170, 206, 314, 364, 396, 420, 458, 471, 478, 543, 547, 561–565 Witters v Washington Department of Services for the Blind, 474 U.S 481 (1986) 6, 384, 390, 409, 425, 476, 565 Wolffv McDonnell, 418 U.S 539 (1974) 374 Wolman v Walter, 433 U.S 229 (1977) 47, 58, 100, 309, 383, 425, 566–568 Wood v State, 16 Tex App 574 (1884) 139 Wooley v Maynard, 430 U.S 705 (1977) 249, 367, 568–569 Worcester v Georgia, 31 U.S (6 Pet.) 515 (1832) 331 Worley v State, 79 Ga 594 (1949) 494 Wright v Houston Indep Sch Dist., 366 F Supp 1208 (S.D Tex 1972), aff’d per curiam, 486 F 2d 137 (5th Cir 1973), cert denied, 417 U.S 969 (1974) 395 Wright v State, 76 Tenn 563 (1881) 139 INDEX 851 Y Yates v People, Johns 229 (N.Y 1810) 357 Yoder v Wisconsin, 406 U.S 205 (1972) 143 Yoder v Wisconsin, 49 Wis 2d 430, 182 N.W 539 (1971) 561 You Vang Yang v Sturner, 728 F Supp 845, opinion with drawn and case dismissed, 750 F Supp 558 (D.R.I 1990) 11 Young v Lane, 922 F 2d 370 (7th Cir 1991) 375 Younger v Harris, 401 U.S 37 (1971) 349 Z Zablocki v Redhail, 434 U.S 374 (1978) 379 Zellers v Huff, 236 P 2d 949 (N.M 1951) 414 Zobrest v Catalina Foothills School District, 509 U.S (1993) 6, 309, 409 Zorach v Clauson, 343 U.S 306 (1952) 38, 75, 140, 152, 179, 285, 367, 576–579 Subject Index A Abortion 32, 71, 215, 216, 273, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 496, 508, 523, 562 Accommodationists 163, 167 Adams, Judge Arlin 123, 129, 130, 375 Adams, John 165, 168, 294, 329, 331, 561 Adoption 1–3, 334 Adultery 31, 71, 119, 304, 321, 356 African Americans 4, 5, 35, 36, 37, 50–53, 84, 237, 256, 276, 507, 541 African Methodist Episcopal Church 4, 5, 35, 36 Agnosticism 9, 45, 502 agunah 13–15 Alabama 90, 131, 139, 186, 259, 393, 449, 455, 490, 555, 556 Alaska 333, 469, 470 American Civil Liberties Union 173, 185, 255, 306, 363, 365, 431, 524, 566 American Indian Religious Freedom Act 150, 217, 219, 221, 334 American Jewish Congress 449, 524, 549 American Revolution 23, 82, 165, 166, 192, 197, 253, 403, 489, 499, 500 Amish 1, 33, 53, 61, 63, 64, 136, 143, 161, 232, 313, 314, 396, 420, 547, 548, 561, 562, 563, 564 Anglican 20, 22, 23, 31, 76, 82, 136, 137, 155, 156, 164, 165, 166, 168, 196, 203, 243, 292, 301, 302, 303, 552 Animal sacrifice 77, 78, 79, 80, 114, 433, 518 antebellum South 4, 36, 490 Anti-Defamation League 255 Anti-Semitism 211, 363 Aquarian Brotherhood Church 143 Arizona 143, 186, 235 Arkansas 33, 91, 176, 177, 186 Armageddon 248, 392 Arminianism 21 Arthur, Chester A 318 Articles of Confederation 331 atheism 9–11, 43, 44, 45, 101, 367, 500, 502 Autopsy 11, 12 B Bankruptcy 18, 19, 33, 34 Baptist church 90, 475 Baptists 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 35, 37, 58, 116, 136, 156, 163, 165, 198, 235, 243, 273, 274, 292, 293, 302, 311, 369, 407, 418, 496, 524, 536, 552 Benjamin, Judah P 256 Bestiality 27, 28, 31, 304 BethDin 13 Bible 29, 30, 33, 34, 41, 42, 49, 50, 56, 57, 69, 72, 87, 101, 153, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 183, 245, 252, 254, 255, 272, 289, 304, 374, 387, 388, 399, 400, 427, 437, 438, 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 449, 453, 455, 461, 463, 471, 478, 479, 496, 497, 507, 531, 551, 557 Bill For Establishing Religious Freedom 23, 102, 136, 137, 165 Bill of Rights 25, 26, 27, 35, 40, 41, 43, 45, 65, 66, 68, 112, 122, 132, 149, 162, 164, 166, 167, 169, 176, 181, 182, 188, 194, 227, 236, 237, 238, 282, 291, 294, 298, 303, 313, 315, 330, 333, 338, 354, 367, 379, 410, 416, 441, 458, 466, 536 852 SUBJECT INDEX 853 Bingham, John 26 Birth control 32, 70, 71, 381 Black Churches Black, Justice Hugo L 36–39, 46, 72, 73, 92, 141, 153, 173, 174, 175, 177, 179, 186, 227, 228, 277, 281, 305, 366, 385, 388, 441, 442, 447, 454, 496, 536, 577 Blackmun, JusticeHarry 52, 53, 80, 100, 148, 150, 151, 171, 207, 208, 228, 257, 266, 268, 271, 272, 277, 279, 286, 287, 288, 290, 314, 327, 335, 336, 337, 349, 381, 385, 409, 423, 424, 425, 438, 476, 503, 504, 514, 515, 566, 568 Blaine Amendment 39–41, 70, 237, 384 blasphemy 41–46, 100, 101, 102, 119, 304, 356 blood transfusions 2, 249 Blue Laws 227, 247, 254, 274, 493 brainwashing 115, 116 Brandeis, Louis D 256, 353, 495, 496 Brennan, Justice William 6, 8, 48, 53, 55–60, 71, 75, 100, 110, 141, 150, 159, 170, 171, 178, 182, 207, 208, 225, 228, 255, 263, 264, 266, 268, 269, 271, 277, 278, 279, 286, 287, 288, 298, 299, 309, 327, 335, 336, 337, 349, 379, 385, 401, 414, 415, 423, 424, 437, 438, 439, 442, 444, 456, 457, 475, 476, 477, 481, 495, 496, 514, 515, 536 Brewer, Justice David 75, 76, 77, 241 Breyer, Justice Steven G 7, 85, 95, 256, 411, 495, 503 Buchanan, Alexander M Buddhism 45, 253, 454, 536 Buddhists 64, 143, 373, 374 Bunyan, John 22 Burger, Chief Justice Warren 9, 51, 52, 53, 57, 60–64, 97, 100, 182, 207, 225, 257, 263, 265, 266, 268, 270, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 298, 335, 349, 367, 380, 383, 423, 424, 501, 502, 508, 547, 548, 556, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568 Burton, Justice Harold 175, 477, 546 Butler, Justice Pierce 353, 496 Bush, George 434, 451 C Califoraia 32, 33, 34, 90, 332, 336, 337, 380, 506, 513, 515, 545 Calvert, Sir George, Lord Baltimore 67, 299, 300, 301 Calvinism 243, 245, 399, 427, 429 Cardozo, Justice Benjamin 65, 256, 495 Carroll, John 67, 68 Carter, Jimmy 23, 334, 549 Catholic Church 2, 31, 49, 55, 67, 68, 69, 125, 205, 265, 287, 350, 358, 359, 378, 381, 401, 403, 453, 508, 537, 542, 550 Catholicism 2, 32, 45, 66, 67–72, 71, 77, 106, 277, 357 Catholics 37, 43, 55, 66, 67–72, 80, 86, 132, 136, 156, 160, 189, 193, 234, 245, 246, 281, 292, 300, 301, 305, 317, 345, 355, 359, 360, 372, 373, 374, 384, 400, 411, 448, 471, 494, 496, 513, 519 Charles I 21, 300, 422, 479 Charles II 21, 154, 421, 489 “Christian Nation” 74–76, 77 Christian Science 107, 108, 111, 113, 295, 372 Christianity 1, 24, 35, 37, 45, 75, 77, 92, 102, 124, 131, 136, 161, 193, 202, 243, 244, 250, 253, 254, 289, 291, 292, 293, 302, 310, 311, 317, 330, 357, 358, 384, 388, 407, 419, 427, 494, 522, 551, 559, 560, 561 Christians 42, 43, 48, 76, 103, 136, 142, 156, 164, 167, 175, 189, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 203, 233, 235, 236, 246, 249, 253, 292, 300, 303, 330, 331, 334, 345, 348, 355, 361, 399, 406, 421, 452, 454, 471, 472, 473, 474, 479, 483, 485, 486, 489, 490, 494, 497, 500, 507, 521, 530, 534, 538, 556, 560, 565, 572 Christmas 59, 62, 64, 67, 87, 96, 119, 121, 122, 201, 284, 285, 286, 288, 289, 380, 450 Christmas tree 59, 87, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289 Church and State 6, 7, 8, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 56, 57, 59, 71, 74, 94, 136, 137, 141, 163, 168, 174, 214, 225, 254, 259, 265, 275, 282, 285, 291, 306, 307, 309, 326, 350, 363, 369, 378, 385, 386, 388, 389, 420, 854 SUBJECT INDEX 421, 423, 424, 425, 439, 440, 442, 445, 450, 451, 452, 469, 470, 478, 479, 484, 501, 502, 503, 521, 524, 536, 552, 559, 566, 567 Church of England 558, 559, 560 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 110, 266, 318, 323, 417, 495, 509 Church of Scientology 108, 114, 509, 512 Church of the New Song 80, 81, 376 Church Property 4, 82, 133, 134, 135, 138, 224, 256, 257, 319, 323, 369, 435, 436 Civil Liberties 312, 315, 342, 524 Civil Religion 85–87, 239, 364–368 Civil Rights 32, 179, 181, 198, 199, 205, 359, 368, 574 Civil Rights Act of 1964 109, 110, 159, 160, 263, 264, 267, 412, 414, 527 Civil War 25, 36, 68, 70, 185, 237, 329, 368, 430, 492 Clark, Justice Tom 153, 225 classical legal thought 87, 88, 89 Clergy Privilege 89, 90, 91 Clinton, William Jefferson 23, 83, 337, 452, 550 Cocaine 114 coercion test 94, 95, 96, 273 Colorado 90 Commerce Clause 412 compelling interest 11, 12, 33, 34, 52, 53, 56, 84, 105, 148, 149, 150, 151, 172, 208, 219, 250, 396, 468, 473, 481, 543 Compulsory education 1, 46, 161, 170, 313, 372, 385, 473, 562, 563 Congregationalists 136, 165, 243 Connecticut 32, 42, 44, 66, 68, 137, 156, 163, 170, 196, 243, 253, 274, 305, 340, 343, 345, 346, 347, 379, 384, 387, 418, 422, 450, 480, 486 conscientious objection 103–106, 113, 127, 128, 141, 161, 170, 214, 234, 235, 248, 353, 354, 362, 453, 459, 510 Constitution, United States 25, 26, 29, 33, 36, 39, 40, 43, 46, 48, 49, 50, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 68, 69, 72, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87, 97, 103, 106, 112, 118, 121, 122, 134, 140, 142, 144, 148, 157, 162, 163, 177, 181, 182, 183, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 200, 202, 213, 221, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234, 235, 236, 253, 254, 274, 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 284, 293, 294, 296, 299, 300, 303, 306, 313, 314, 319, 326, 330, 331, 333, 338, 345, 346, 348, 353, 354, 358, 362, 365, 366, 367, 371, 377, 378, 379, 384, 386, 387, 405, 406, 407, 408, 410, 411, 412, 413, 422, 423, 425, 431, 432, 433, 447, 448, 449, 458, 460, 464, 465, 466, 467, 469, 470, 474, 477, 478, 481, 485, 496, 500, 501, 507, 517, 518, 519, 527, 529, 530, 535, 542, 543, 545, 550, 557 Constitutional Convention 10, 23, 136, 191, 193, 194, 345 Consumer protection and Religion 106– 107 contributions to religious organizations 18, 19 Controlled Substances Act 143, 161 Copyright 107, 108, 109 Cotton, Rev John 537, 538 creationism 33, 176, 177, 388 CrËche 87, 95, 96, 121, 201, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 380 Ë Cromwell, Oliver 21, 301, 560 Cults 45, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 372 D Dale, Sir Thomas 119 Dale’s Laws 119 Declaration of Independence 68, 86, 171, 243, 405, 485 Delaware 45, 68, 137, 164, 192, 195, 196, 197, 347, 535 Denmark Vesey conspiracy 35 Deprogramming 113, 115, 116 Discrimination 63, 160 disestablishment 22, 23, 24, 136, 228, 243, 274, 293, 302, 310–311, 552–553 District of Columbia 139, 270 divorce 13, 14, 31, 316 Douglas, Justice William O 32, 46, 72, 75, 92, 93, 191, 226, 228, 235, 277, 278, 279, 285, 104, 121, 125, 140–142, 153, 170, 186, 309, 354, 366, 379, 419, 420, SUBJECT INDEX 855 437, 438, 441, 460, 462, 475, 485, 486, 545, 564, 577, 578 Drugs and Religion 114, 142–146, 147– 152, 161, 462 Due Process clause 1, 3, 26, 27, 38, 66, 88, 106, 118, 175, 215, 237, 238, 245, 281, 358, 379, 380, 382, 384, 466, 549, 572 E Eighteenth amendment 142 Eisenhower, Dwight D 213, 549 Elizabeth I 41, 154 endorsement test 110, 111, 286, 287, 289, 290, 522 English Common Law 1, 30, 33, 427 English Toleration Act 154–157 Enlightenment 9, 10, 22, 43, 166, 200, 244, 291, 552 Episcopal Church 73, 76, 82, 222, 231, 292, 294, 310, 399, 495, 553 Equal Access Act 47, 157, 158 Equal Protection 112, 142, 145, 160, 161, 222, 395, 480, 481, 482, 537, 541, 543, 573, 574 establishment 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 86, 87, 145, 225, 228, 238, 259, 260, 266, 293, 298, 308, 342, 346, 357, 386, 395, 437, 441, 442, 443, 453, 454, 455, 456, 483, 484, 500, 507, 531, 536, 556, 564, 576 Establishment of Religion Clause 31, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 68, 71, 73, 75, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 96, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 108, 110, 112, 113, 115, 121, 123, 127, 128, 130, 131, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 190, 191, 194, 201, 202, 213, 216, 225, 228, 238, 239, 253, 254, 255, 256, 259, 260, 261, 265, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 275, 276, 278, 280, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 298, 299, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 326, 327, 330, 331, 333, 334, 357, 367, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 391, 393, 397, 401, 407, 408, 411, 415, 423, 424, 425, 432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 452, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 464, 465, 469, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 483, 485, 486, 488, 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 509, 515, 516, 517, 519, 521, 522, 523, 525, 527, 532, 536, 548, 549, 552, 555, 556, 557, 558, 563, 565, 566, 567, 572, 574, 576, 578 Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church 142, 144, 145, 161 Evangelism 22 Eve, Rev George 136 Evolution 33, 175–180 F Faith Healing 111–112 Falwell, Jerry 23 Federal Trade Commission Act 106 Federalists 68, 69, 162, 163, 198, 243, 345, 346, 407, 435 Field, Justice Stephen J 117, 226, 323 Fifth amendment 25, 40 Fifteenth amendment 40, 541, 542 First African Church 36 First Amendment 5, 12, 15, 18, 19, 24, 25, 29, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 54, 55, 56, 61, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72, 73, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 95, 96, 97, 102, 104, 108, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 133, 134, 135, 141, 148, 149, 152, 158, 159, 163, 166, 167, 171, 174, 175, 181, 183, 185, 186, 190, 196, 199, 206, 207, 213, 214, 216, 217, 220, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 243, 245, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 257, 259, 260, 263, 265, 266, 267, 268, 275, 276, 279, 281, 285, 293, 294, 296, 298, 300, 306, 311, 313, 314, 319, 324, 326, 329, 330, 331, 349, 354, 358, 362, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 374, 375, 376, 377, 381, 386, 387, 391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 400, 401, 409, 412, 416, 417, 418, 423, 425, 432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 442, 443, 444, 445, 449, 452, 453, 455, 459, 460, 462, 464, 465, 466, 467, 469, 471, 475, 478, 481, 482, 483, 856 SUBJECT INDEX 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 500, 501, 502, 507, 510, 511, 512, 514, 515, 516, 527, 529, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 542, 543, 544, 545, 547, 549, 552, 553, 556, 557, 566, 567, 568, 569, 576, 577 First Congress 23, 26, 95, 163, 164, 167, 168, 181, 182, 183, 197, 198, 227, 236, 283, 284, 285, 298, 299, 303, 329, 387, 408, 444 Flag Salute Cases 183–190 Florida 78, 91, 463 Fortas, Justice Abe 47, 191, 225, 256, 495, 497 Founders 56, 57, 59, 60, 136, 168, 192, 193, 194, 226, 451 Fourteenth Amendment 26, 27, 40, 41, 45, 73, 84, 93, 94, 106, 112, 118, 142, 144, 151, 168, 174, 226, 227, 228, 237, 238, 239, 251, 276, 306, 312, 313, 331, 333, 349, 374, 379, 392, 410, 411, 412, 447, 448, 454, 457, 468, 471, 480, 482, 537, 541, 542, 550, 555 Fourth Amendment 40, 543, 544 Framers of Constitution 29, 30, 37, 39, 63, 167, 174, 191, 197, 236, 238, 279, 283, 298, 299, 306, 408 Frankfurter, Justice Felix 45, 75, 153, 174, 175, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 225, 256, 306, 307, 364, 365, 366, 367, 371, 420, 484, 485, 496, 536, 546, 577 Franklin, Benjamin 191, 192 Free Exercise Clause 3, 11, 12, 17, 18, 40, 45, 53, 56, 59, 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 73, 79, 80, 84, 93, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104, 105, 108, 110, 113, 114, 115, 123, 124, 127, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 148, 149, 160, 162, 167, 169, 171, 172, 173, 179, 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 205, 206, 213, 214, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 226, 253, 254, 255, 256, 270, 271, 276, 281, 282, 313, 315, 319, 326, 333, 335, 336, 345, 359, 362, 367, 375, 379, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 407, 410, 411, 417, 420, 432, 433, 434, 441, 442, 446, 447, 448, 449, 457, 458, 459, 461, 462, 467, 468, 469, 477, 479, 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 515, 516, 517, 518, 527, 528, 529, 530, 532, 537, 545, 547, 551, 561, 566, 572, 573, 574 Free exercise of religion 35, 46, 52, 53, 55, 56, 66, 72, 73, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 90, 105, 110, 123, 126, 131, 132, 141, 143, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 161, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 181, 186, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 236, 237, 245, 249, 251, 259, 260, 263, 268, 269, 282, 295, 296, 300, 302, 312, 313, 314, 317, 319, 324, 326, 332, 334, 336, 346, 359, 364, 365, 371, 376, 378, 386, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 407, 408, 410, 415, 416, 419, 420, 432, 433, 442, 443, 445, 446, 448, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 463, 467, 468, 469, 478, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 488, 490, 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 507, 508, 509, 516, 517, 518, 523, 531, 536, 542, 547, 548, 551, 553, 557, 563, 571, 572, 573 Freedom of Conscience 20, 21, 38, 274, 291, 292, 294, 346, 371, 406, 445 Freedom of Religion 21, 36, 190, 196, 198, 235, 237, 238, 245, 249, 251, 252, 312, 313, 354, 392, 393, 431, 486 Freedom of Speech 65, 66, 101, 122, 149, 181, 186, 188, 190, 206, 237, 238, 247, 251, 252, 370, 371, 391, 392, 393, 410, 433, 443, 505, 507, 551, 571 Freedom of Press 101, 102, 149, 181, 186, 188, 237, 251, 252, 370, 371, 391, 392 Fundamentalists 92 G George III 68 Georgia 68, 134, 135, 163, 196, 197, 250, 256, 331, 347, 365, 368, 369, 370, 380, 452, 535 get 13 Ginsburg, Justice Ruth Bader 7, 95, 256, 270, 411, 495, 497, 503 Goldberg, Justice Arthur 379, 438, 495 Good Samaritan 208, 209, 210 Government aid 7, 47, 309, 384 SUBJECT INDEX 857 Grant, Ulysses S 40, 210, 211, 254, 331, 384, 387, 400 H Hamilton, Alexander 162, 405 Hare Krishna 115, 116, 252, 283 Harlan, John Marshall 46, 170, 191, 213, 214, 241, 242, 277, 332, 437, 438, 458, 459, 484, 536 Hawaii 159, 217–222, 350, 376 Hebrew 2, 106, 125, 233, 377 Helways, Thomas 21 Henry VIII 27, 41, 67, 427 Henry, Patrick 310 Hinduism 45 Historic preservation 222, 223, 224, 571– 575 Hmongfaith 11 Holiness Church 463 Holmes, Oliver Wendell 312, 353 Hubbard, L.Ron 108, 461, 513 Hughes, Chief Justice Charles E 73, 94, 126, 251, 353 Hutchinson, Anne 42, 195, 340, 537, 538 Hyde Amendment 215, 381 I Idaho 322, 324 Illinois 44, 73, 173, 289, 317, 398, 400, 417, 431, 562 “InGodWeTrust” 239 Immigration 70, 76, 196, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 293, 360, 543 Immigration and Nationality Act 231, 232, 233, 234, 361, 542 incorporation doctrine 25–27, 45, 66, 174, 236–239, 358 Indiana 140, 173, 562 interracial relationships 2, 34, 50, 507 Iowa 311, 312, 468 Islam/Islamic 45, 106, 161, 253 J Jackson, Andrew 274, 329, 331 Jackson, Justice Robert 92, 125, 174, 175, 186, 188, 189, 213, 227, 307, 366, 371, 388, 398, 460, 461, 462, 546, 577 James I 154, 428 James II 22, 67, 156 Jefferson, Thomas 9, 10, 23, 61, 102, 136, 137, 138, 200, 225, 226, 227, 228, 242, 243, 244, 245, 274, 285, 291, 292, 293, 306, 307, 311, 329, 331, 345, 385, 387, 388, 407, 417, 418, 419, 442, 536, 552, 553, 561 Jehovah’s Witness 2, 3, 38, 61, 65, 72, 73, 114, 116, 141, 143, 160, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 234, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 362, 365, 370, 371, 372, 392, 393, 396, 408, 431, 568, 572 Jesuits 205, 223, 250, 300, 301, 501, 528 Jewish 30, 31, 32, 56, 59, 70, 79, 106, 125, 152, 172, 185, 189, 209, 211, 233, 253, 254, 255, 256, 260–262, 305, 333, 361, 372, 373, 374, 399, 449, 451, 464, 472, 481, 496, 513, 517, 519, 524, 528, 549, 573, 574 Jews 13–15, 37, 39, 71, 103, 105, 136, 160, 185, 193, 194, 203, 207, 210, 211, 213, 231, 232, 246, 253, 254, 255, 256, 260– 262, 334, 348, 357, 361, 363, 375, 388, 398, 399, 406, 481, 490, 494, 495, 496, 497, 535, 541, 560, 574 Judaism 13–15, 45, 71, 90, 106, 124, 256, 288, 496 K Kansas 289, 431, 494 Kennedy, Justice Anthony 6, 79, 95, 96, 121, 171, 228, 261, 262, 272, 273, 279, 287, 289, 290, 330, 391, 396, 411, 434, 444, 445, 451, 495, 496, 503, 504, 514, 521, 549, 574 Ketubah 13, 14 Kentucky 36, 91, 106, 133, 464, 468, 478, 486 Kosher 79, 106, 107, 481, 482 Ku Klux Klan 37, 70, 363, 471 L Labor law and Religion 109–111, 263– 267 Land, Justice John R 94 legal formalism 87 858 SUBJECT INDEX Leland, John 23, 24, 136, 273, 274, 293, 407 Lemon Test 6, 7, 57, 58, 59, 62, 94, 98, 110, 178, 179, 201, 202, 260, 267, 269, 272, 275, 279, 280, 283, 284, 285, 287, 290, 308, 380, 383, 388, 389, 390, 391, 408, 409, 423, 424, 439, 440, 443, 474, 475, 476, 503, 504, 505, 525, 526, 532 Lincoln, Abraham 86, 171, 185, 189, 211, 254, 329 Locke, John 517 Long, Huey P 93, 94 Louisiana 4, 5, 33, 36, 58, 93, 94, 106, 173, 177, 178, 360, 385, 434, 455 LSD 114, 462 Lutherans 20, 90, 136, 312, 399, 495 M Madison, James 23, 26, 124, 136, 137, 154, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 169, 174, 181, 194, 198, 199, 200, 236, 242, 274, 291, 292, 293, 294, 299, 302, 303, 310, 311, 329, 342, 387, 405, 407, 417, 419, 518, 536, 552, 553, 561 Maine 186, 400, 468, 469 MannAct 92, 93, 141, 419 Marijuana 114, 142, 143, 144, 145 Marshall, Justice John 25 Marshall, Justice Thurgood 48, 53, 100, 104, 110, 150, 170, 182, 207, 225, 236, 263, 264, 266, 268, 271, 277, 286, 287, 288, 298, 309, 327, 331, 333, 335, 336, 337, 349, 385, 423, 438, 475, 476, 514, 536, 547, 565, 566, 567 Maryland 36, 39, 43, 67, 68, 96, 106, 124, 137, 156, 166, 186, 193, 195, 196, 197, 224, 300, 301, 347, 424, 430, 437, 438, 475, 476, 482, 483, 484, 493, 516, 535, 536 Maryland Toleration Act 299–302 Mason, George 136, 292, 293, 302, 303 Masonry 69 Massachusetts 32, 42, 43, 44, 67, 68, 101, 102, 136, 137, 138, 139, 156, 163, 165, 173, 181, 195, 196, 197, 199, 210, 223, 241, 243, 273, 274, 295, 296, 304, 330, 340, 342, 343, 347, 365, 367, 370, 400, 405, 406, 421, 422, 428, 429, 430, 431, 435, 436, 449, 468, 469, 480, 481, 482, 486, 487, 490, 491, 492, 537, 538, 559, 574 Massachusetts Body of Liberties 304– 305 Mather, Cotton 428, 429 Medical decisions/treatment 3, 111, 241– 242, 372, 380 Mennonites 21, 90, 232, 292, 361, 562 Menorah 59, 87, 95, 96, 287, 288, 289 Methodists 35, 90, 136, 302, 495 Michigan 58, 106, 173, 363, 431, 438, 469, 562 Minnesota 113, 267, 270, 283, 313, 314, 315, 325, 326, 327, 383, 393, 468 Mishnah 13, 32 Mississippi 50, 91, 161, 468, 572 Missouri 36, 114, 117, 118, 281, 282, 380, 382, 443, 444, 551, 556, 557 Monkey Trial 176 Montana 143, 501 Monnonism/Mormons 45, 75, 92, 109– 111, 114, 124, 141, 143, 159, 226, 266, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 459, 495, 516, 532 Morton, Justice Marcus 102, 431 Murphy, Justice Frank 71, 72, 73, 92, 93, 186, 366, 371, 419, 496 Muslims 59, 105, 161, 372, 373, 374, 375, 414, 528, 573 N National Association of Evangelicals 51 National Day of Prayer 329–330 National Labor Relations Act 63, 265, 266 National Labor Relations Board 265, 266 Native American Church 114, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 150, 161, 333, 410, 432, 462 Native Americans 12, 17, 18, 52, 59, 63, 125, 127, 171, 219, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 373, 375, 376, 377, 416, 432 Native Hawaiians 217, 218, 219, 221 SUBJECT INDEX 859 Nativity scene 59, 64, 121, 285, 287, 288, 521, 523 Nebraska 62, 64, 182, 186, 272, 284, 285, 297, 298, 299, 311, 312, 415, 444, 451, 470, 535 Neo-American Church 143 Neutral Principles doctrine 14, 38, 256, 257, 369 New Deal 70, 242, 365, 371 NewEngland 27, 30, 67, 133, 164, 165, 167, 195, 196, 342, 387, 428, 430, 492, 559 New Hampshire 68, 70, 72, 73, 138, 165, 166, 196, 197, 199, 209, 347, 367, 395, 436, 568, 569 New Jersey 38, 46, 68, 70, 106, 137, 156, 164, 173, 174, 192, 195, 196, 197, 259, 260, 282, 347, 365, 382, 388, 449, 488 New Mexico 201, 414 New Orleans New Testament 20, 29, 30, 192, 246, 270, 347, 348, 421, 427, 460, 461, 551 New York 43, 45, 46, 47, 61, 67, 68, 70, 75, 76, 90, 94, 97, 99, 100, 102, 106, 107, 137, 152, 156, 162, 165, 173, 195, 196, 197, 210, 215, 228, 239, 245, 248, 253, 255, 260, 261, 262, 272, 280, 309, 317, 327, 341, 345, 347, 356, 358, 365, 383, 385, 395, 399, 400, 417, 429, 440, 441, 442, 449, 477, 491, 492, 494, 503, 504, 535, 541, 542, 551 New York Ministry Act 341 Ninth Amendment 379 Nixon, Richard 97, 202, 549 North Carolina 137, 139, 143, 163, 164, 192, 195, 196, 237, 253, 289, 346, 347, 348, 406, 464 North Dakota 415 Northwest Ordinance 342, 387, 563 O O’Connor, Justice Sandra Day 6, 8, 48, 53, 74, 80, 85, 95, 110, 111, 147, 149, 150, 151, 172, 178, 201, 202, 207, 208, 257, 261, 262, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 335, 336, 337, 349, 380, 391, 411, 414, 433, 444, 451, 476, 477, 486, 503, 504, 509, 514, 522, 556, 565 Ohio 49, 50, 100, 112, 309, 311, 312, 317, 343, 348, 349, 468, 562, 566, 567, 568 Oklahoma 143, 331 Old Testament 29, 30, 32, 41, 192, 208, 209, 347, 348, 420, 427, 560 Ordered liberty 64 Oregon 91, 147, 148, 149, 150, 336, 363, 379, 414, 415, 432, 468 P Pantheism 43, 101 parens patriae 3, 372, 473 parental rights/obligations 1, 112 parochial schools 6, 8, 40, 49, 70, 71, 93, 97, 98, 99, 213, 237, 255, 276, 277, 282, 307, 311, 327, 363, 380, 382, 383, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 398, 399, 400, 412, 413, 414, 423, 424, 438, 439, 440, 457, 470, 472, 478, 479, 496, 506 Peckham, Justice Rufus 54, 241 Pennsylvania 27, 43, 52, 56, 57, 67, 68, 98, 99, 129, 137, 156, 166, 184, 193, 195, 196, 213, 226, 245, 253, 255, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 292, 300, 307, 308, 309, 347, 355, 365, 374, 383, 389, 406, 413, 415, 448, 449, 477, 480, 481, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 503, 549, 562 Peyote 12, 83, 114, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 314, 332, 333, 337, 407, 410, 432, 433, 462 Pledgeof Allegiance 364–368 Polygamy 30, 31, 44, 92, 93, 103, 114, 124, 141, 143, 187, 226, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 331, 417, 418, 419, 420, 459, 460, 467 Powell, Justice Lewis 8, 53, 98, 100, 178, 207, 225, 257, 268, 270, 279, 280, 284, 335, 349, 383, 423, 424, 443, 536, 556, 557, 565, 566, 567, 568 Presbyterian Church 90, 133, 135, 368, 542 Presbyterians 136, 156, 182, 195, 213, 243, 256, 291, 302, 311, 399, 495, 496, 497, 524, 552, 553 Privacy 379, 381, 382 860 SUBJECT INDEX Private schools 39, 46, 47, 51, 61, 94, 97, 99, 100, 173, 238, 260, 276, 281, 282, 311, 325, 326, 363, 382, 383, 388, 394, 409, 423, 439, 471, 472, 473, 503 Prohibition 70 Proselytization 250, 391–394 Protestants 31, 32, 37, 39, 55, 67, 68, 69, 71, 77, 80, 86, 87, 88, 90, 96, 137, 138, 139, 154, 157, 160, 167, 192, 193, 195, 197, 198, 203, 245, 246, 254, 300, 301, 305, 313, 317, 324, 341, 345, 347, 348, 357, 358, 373, 374, 384, 388, 398, 399, 400, 416, 427, 449, 471, 491, 491, 492, 494, 495, 496, 497, 513, 522, 528, 535, 549, 550, 559 Public schools 33, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 56, 57, 58, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 152, 153, 154, 173, 179, 182, 213, 228, 259, 260, 261, 276, 281, 289, 290, 305, 306, 308, 311, 319, 325, 326, 363, 364, 367, 380, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 412, 413, 414, 415, 438, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 447, 448, 451, 452, 455, 465, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 477, 478, 497, 527, 555, 566, 576, 577, 578 Puerto Rico 350, 400, 401 Puritan Revolution 154, 155 Puritans 22, 27, 30, 59, 67, 119, 164, 192, 195, 300, 301, 304, 305, 330, 340, 356, 422, 427, 428, 429, 430, 489, 537, 538, 558, 559, 560 Q Quakers 23, 27, 42, 43, 68, 136, 154, 156, 161, 165, 184, 195, 203, 232, 250, 292, 355, 356, 361, 372, 421, 560 R racial discrimination 51, 508 Rastifarians 142, 143, 373 Reagan, Ronald 238, 431, 449, 450, 453, 496, 549 Reed, Justice Stanley 227, 386 Refugee Act of 1980 232, 233 Rehnquist, Chief Justice William 6, 53, 57, 79, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 171, 207, 225, 262, 263, 264, 265, 268, 271, 272, 279, 284, 287, 289, 290, 309, 326, 335, 349, 377, 391, 407, 409, 411, 423, 424, 432, 434, 435, 440, 476, 495, 496, 503, 514, 536, 555, 556, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 574 Religion, definition of 122–133 Religious beliefs 34, 53, 61, 77, 79, 83, 88, 129, 131, 141, 142, 149, 161, 199, 207, 208, 213, 218, 219, 224, 225, 234, 241, 263, 271, 291, 313, 345, 349, 366, 378, 396, 397, 410, 413, 417, 418, 420, 421, 432, 433, 435, 439, 447, 454, 455, 456, 459, 460, 463, 464, 472, 481, 485, 488, 495, 502, 503, 505, 508, 510, 515, 516, 518, 523, 528, 529, 536, 537, 538, 543, 545, 546, 563 Religious Garb 412–415 Religious freedom 11, 12, 17, 24, 25, 29, 34, 39, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 64, 66, 72, 77, 78, 103, 104, 119, 136, 138, 139, 154, 160, 161, 185, 186, 187, 194, 195, 219, 220, 226, 228, 235, 243, 253, 254, 270, 301, 314, 338, 342, 347, 354, 357, 368, 369, 370, 371, 374, 392, 406, 407, 408, 412, 413, 422, 454, 459, 461, 480, 481, 484, 486, 488, 490, 493, 501, 511, 544, 547, 550, 553, 558, 562, 564, 577, 578 Religious Freedom Restoration Act 12, 83, 84, 85, 142, 145, 151, 216, 224, 376, 377, 409, 410, 411, 412, 468, 469, 520, 573 religious liberty 8, 35, 36, 38, 50, 51, 68, 77, 79, 84, 96, 101, 122, 124, 140, 143, 163, 166, 167, 181, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 198, 214, 259, 310, 342, 347, 348, 359, 371, 405, 406, 407, 410, 411, 431, 458, 471, 477, 478, 479, 483, 487, 499, 518, 519, 520, 548, 552, 553, 558, 560 religious minorities 55 religious schools 51, 238, 261, 275, 278, 279, 280, 281, 309, 384, 385, 386, 388, 439, 465, 470, 474, 523, 524, 525, 531 Restoration 21, 164 Rhode Island 22, 32, 42, 43, 57, 59, 67, 136, 156, 164, 165, 166, 195, 196, 197, 203, 210, 253, 271, 275, 277, 278, 284, SUBJECT INDEX 861 300, 347, 389, 421, 422, 450, 451, 492, 503, 538, 558 Roberts, Justice Owen J 66, 226, 371, 460, 546 Roman Catholic Church 41, 90, 154, 167, 168, 216, 223, 255, 359, 384, 388, 401, 403, 404, 495, 549 Roman Catholics 20, 22, 67, 155, 184, 195, 333, 346, 358, 387, 398, 399, 400, 412, 413, 414, 416, 424, 449, 495, 496, 503, 550, 560 Roosevelt, Franklin 70, 71, 185, 332, 371, 549 Rutledge, Justice Wiley Blount 92, 123, 175, 187, 227, 370, 371, 385 S Sacrilege 41, 45, 119 SalemWitch Trials 427–430 Sales tax 33, 34, 514, 515 Salvation Army 140, 430, 431, 529, 535 Santa Claus 87, 284, 285, 288, 461 Santeria faith 77, 78, 79, 114, 435 Scalia, Justice Antonin 6, 10, 12, 33, 71, 79, 85, 95, 148, 149, 151, 169, 178, 179, 225, 259, 262, 272, 279, 287, 289, 290, 336, 380, 391, 397, 410, 411, 420, 431– 435, 444, 445, 451, 456, 496, 503, 514 School Prayer 87, 147, 153, 238, 260, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 447, 449, 450, 453, 478, 525 Scientology 461, 509 Scottish Common Sense Philosophy 88, 291 Secular humanism 453, 455, 456 Separationist 99, 100, 163, 168, 272, 273 Separatists 21 Seventh Day Adventists 39, 56, 143, 213, 235, 353, 372, 457, 478, 490, 529, 531 Shaw, Chief Justice Lemuel 43, 100, 101, 102 Shunning 116, 249 Sikhism 45, 414 Slavery 24, 26, 30, 36, 37, 373, 417 Smyth, John 21 Snake Handling 463, 464 Social security 170, 172, 501 Social Security numbers 52, 53, 63, 105, 172, 270, 271, 335 Social Security taxes 63, 547, 548 Sodomy 27, 28, 31, 71, 119, 304, 356, 380, 381 Solicitation 65, 115, 170, 247, 250, 391, 392, 393, 394, 504, 505 Souter, Justice David 7, 79, 85, 95, 151, 272, 273, 290, 411, 503, 504 South Carolina 39, 56, 58, 68, 91, 139, 143, 192, 195, 196, 197, 213, 214, 329, 345, 346, 347, 348, 457, 458, 478, 490 SouthDakota 546 Stevens, Justice John Paul 7, 48, 53, 85, 95, 100, 170, 182, 207, 264, 268, 269, 272, 286, 287, 288, 290, 299, 327, 335, 349, 382, 385, 411, 424, 438, 444, 451, 503, 504, 514, 536, 548, 555, 556, 558, 566 Stewart, Justice Potter 100, 153, 191, 225, 254, 277, 279, 308, 424, 437, 438, 441, 442, 444, 447, 448, 457, 458, 459, 477, 478, 479, 537, 564, 566 Stone, Chief Justice Harlan Fiske 65, 73, 160, 185, 186, 251, 353, 354, 365, 370, 460, 545 Story Justice Joseph 82, 226, 550, 551 Stuyvesant, Peter 253 Sunday Closing laws 39, 56, 75, 121, 172, 213, 214, 227, 228, 254, 255, 284, 380, 464, 477–495 Sunday Mails 274, 487, 488 Sutherland, Justice George 312, 353 T taking 5, 94 Talmud 13, 523 Taney, Justice Roger B 71, 451, 495 Taoism 454, 536 Tax laws and Religion 50, 57, 58, 61, 63, 113, 114, 214, 499–516, 547 Tennessee 63, 139, 176, 177, 254, 347, 395, 396, 463, 464, 468, 535, 536, 537, 551 Tenth Amendment 238 Test Oaths 117–118, 154–157, 342–348, 535–537 862 SUBJECT INDEX Texas 62, 64, 139, 170, 186, 239, 251, 289, 334, 365, 373, 434, 515 Thirteenth amendment 40, 237 Thomas, Justice Clarence 6, 95, 262, 391, 434, 445, 503 Time, manner, place regulations 2, 115 Tithing 19 Title VII 109, 159, 160, 170, 179, 264, 265, 266, 267, 412, 414, 415, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532 Torah 107 Traditionalism 288, 289 Truman, Harry S 23, 329, 549 Turner, Nat 36 Twenty-first amendment 142 U Unification Church 113, 252, 268, 269, 283, 393, 512 Unitarians 45, 101, 136, 138, 155, 244, 435, 436, 437, 495, 542, 549 United Methodist Church 542 United Prebyterian Church 51 Universalist Church 43, 101 Utah 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 418, 419, 420, 451 V Vatican 549–550 See also Catholics Vermont 68, 83, 196, 210, 317, 318, 469 Vinson, Chief Justice Fred 546 Virginia 31, 42, 68, 96, 119, 136, 156, 157, 163, 166, 192, 194, 195, 196, 227, 242, 243, 250, 273, 274, 292, 293, 294, 300, 301, 302, 303, 310, 311, 329, 345, 346, 347, 387, 405, 417, 464, 480, 494, 552, 553 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom 10, 292, 293, 311, 331, 345, 348, 552 W Waite, Chief Justice Morrison 225, 226, 319, 417, 418 Warren, Chief Justice Earl 32, 55, 56, 57, 97, 190, 315, 379, 437, 465, 478, 480 Washington 223, 565, 566 Washington, George 10, 23, 68, 182, 292, 303, 329, 331, 480 Welfare 52, 57, 262 West Virginia 186, 187, 190, 365 White, Justice Byron 46, 53, 98, 100, 110, 153, 178, 207, 260, 263, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 277, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 287, 289, 290, 309, 349, 386, 391, 434, 444, 445, 458, 459, 476, 496, 514, 515, 532, 534, 537, 542, 556, 558, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568 Williams, Roger 22, 42, 136, 138, 195, 558–561 Wisconsin 61, 332, 400, 562, 563, 564 Witchcraft 33, 41, 45, 304, 427, 428, 429, 430 Worldwide Church of God 263, 264 Wyoming 91, 186 Y Yiddish 260 Z Zionism 246, 315, 316 Zoning 83–85, 222–224, 571–575 REVELATION [...]... the state then not merely tolerate agnosticism and atheism but instead treat them as equally valid as ardent faith, thereby maintaining a posture of neutrality among theism, atheism, and agnosticism? 14 RELIGION AND AMERICAN LAW: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA These questions commanded the attention of eighteenth-century philosophers, and they remain relevant today Thomas Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia... There the Court stated the qualifying principle that, although the “custody, care and nurture of the child reside first in the parents,” “it does not follow [that parents] are free…to make martyrs of their children before they have reached the age of full and legal discretion when they can make that choice for themselves.” The further question arises concerning whether parental rights continue in the. .. of Law John R.Wunder University of Nebraska-Lincoln Barry L.Zaretsky Brooklyn Law School A Abington v Schempp See SCHOOL DISTRICT OF ABINGTON TOWNSHIP V SCHEMPP Adoption, Custody, and Visitation: Religion in the Context of Broken and Blended Families At early English common law, feudalism and the patriarchal orientation of Christianity and antiquity firmly established the father as the legal head of. .. pronouncements on the American law of child custody echoed the rules of patriae potestas and religio sequitur patrem, U.S courts never applied the rules as rigorously as English courts had During the latter part of the nineteenth century, states began adopting legislative standards for deciding adoption, custody, and care issues in favor of the general welfare of the child or the child’s best interest Nonetheless,... threatened merely by the unorthodoxy of the parent’s religious beliefs, however, the due process and free exercise rights of the parent should prevail In Quiner v Quiner (Calif., 1967), for example, the court of appeals—refusing to open the Pandora’s box of choosing between religions— reversed when the trial court awarded custody to the father on the speculative grounds that the mother’s membership in a separatist... called the “Exclusive Brethren” was not in the best interest of the child Other courts, however, have been willing to open that Pandora’s box For example, the court in In re Marriage of Hadeen (Wash., 1980) held that a lesser “requirement of a reasonable and substantial likelihood of immediate or future impairment best accommodates the general welfare of the child and free exercise of religion by the. .. Religious Beliefs and Parental Disputes An examination of the historical, sociological, and constitutional factors involved in determining the role of religion in child custody, adoption, and visitation cases suggests the following points First, the religious preferences of the respective parents as well as of the child may be considered in custody, visitation, and adoption cases In the case of adoption,... regardless of the religious beliefs of those to whom the law was applied the fact that the law profoundly impaired the Yang’s religious freedom was constitutionally irrelevant 18 RELIGION AND AMERICAN LAW: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA The Smith decision, as Judge Pettine ultimately concluded, does seem quite clearly to remove any Free Exercise Clause infirmity from the operation of generally applicable, mandatory... exceptions, when they separate Without a “get” the wife becomes an “agunah”—a woman neither mar ried nor unmarried, enjoying none of the normal benefits of the married state but unable toA marry again The Avitzur decision rested on the contention of the court’s majority that the right of the Beth Din to summon the respondent was civilly enforceable because of the contractual obligations under which the respondent... violation of that clause, it had no clear or consistent idea of what constituted a law respecting establishment of religion Leonard W.Levy Case Cited Aguilar v Felton, 473 U.S 402 (1985) Allegheny v American Civil Liberties Union See LYNCH AND ALLEGHENY RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS CASES AND THE DECLINE OF THE LEMON TEST Allen See BOARD OF EDUCATION V ALLEN Amos See CORPORATION OF THE PRESIDING BISHOP OF THE CHURCH OF ... Religion and American Law GARLAND REFERENCE LIBRARY OF THE HUMANITIES (VOL 1548) Religion and American Law: An Encyclopedia Editor Paul Finkelman Chapman Distinguished Professor University of. .. discussions of various legal theories and historical developments of the law of church and state The entries focus on the adoption of the U.S Constitution and the Bill of Rights and the way the people of. .. the Hebrew of Moses, the Aramaic of the Sages of the Talmud as well as Jesus of Nazareth, the Arabic of Muhammad, and the Sanskrit of Sri Ramakrishna We pray to the sounds of music and we pray