Energy security and geopolitics in the arctic

Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com ENERGY SECURITY AND GEOPOLITICS IN THE ARCTIC Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.Ebook777.com b1342-R-fm ENERGY SECURITY AND GEOPOLITICS IN THE ARCTIC E ditor Hooman Peimani Energy Studies Institute, National University of Singapore World Scientific NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Published by World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The image “Northwest Passage–Northern Sea Route,” seen on the front cover, is taken from the link: http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/arctic-sea-routes-northern-sea-route-and-northwest-passage; Hugo Alhenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal ENERGY SECURITY AND GEOPOLITICS IN THE ARCTIC Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century Copyright © 2013 by World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd All rights reserved This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher ISBN-13 978-981-4401-46-3 (pbk) ISBN-10 981-4401-46-3 (pbk) In-house Editor: Ms Sandhya Venkatesh Typeset by Stallion Press Email: enquiries@stallionpress.com Printed in Singapore www.Ebook777.com Sandhya - Energy Security & Geopolitics.pmd 3/4/2013, 3:01 PM March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-R-fm DISCLAIMER The views and ideas expressed by the contributing authors of this book not necessarily represent those of the Energy Studies Institute (ESI) and the publication of their chapters does not imply that ESI subscribes to or agrees with their expressed views and ideas v March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.Ebook777.com b1342-R-fm March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-R-fm CONTENTS List of Acronyms ix List of Tables and Figures xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Contributors xix About the Energy Studies Institute xxv Introduction Hooman Peimani Section I: Is the Arctic Melting? 23 From White to Blue: The Shrinking Arctic Cryosphere Shawn J Marshall 25 Possible Changes to the Russian Arctic Environment under the Influence of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Makeev 59 Section II: What Are the Stakes for the Littoral States? 93 95 The Transnational Arctic and Russia Nadezhda Klimovna Kharlampyeva vii March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-R-fm Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com viii Contents Norway and Russia: Neighbours with Strong Interests in the Arctic Arild Moe Section III: What Are the Interests for the Non-Regional Large Economies? 127 165 The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security — A View from India Neil Gadihoke 167 The Arctic and Japan: Energy Security and Climate Security Hiroshi Ohta 191 The Arctic Governance and EU ‘‘Soft Power’’ Danila Bochkarev 221 Conclusion Hooman Peimani 249 Index 261 www.Ebook777.com March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security LIST OF ACRONYMS AC AARI ACIA ALDE AMAP AO APEC ASEAN ATF BAU BB bcm BEAC Bq BRC CAFE CBSS CCS DDT EC ECCS EEZ ENSO EP EU FPU Arctic Council Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program Arctic Ocean Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Association of Southeast Asian Nations Arctic Task Force Business As Usual Billion barrels Billion cubic meters Barents Euro-Arctic Council Becquerel, unit of measuring radionuclide content Barents Regional Council Conservational Arctic Flora and Fauna Council of the Baltic Sea States Carbon Capture and Sequestration Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane European Commission Emergency Core Cooling System Exclusive Economic Zone El Ni˜ no-Southern Oscillation European Parliament European Union Floating Production Unit ix b1342-R-fm March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index Japan’s energy consumption, 204, 205 Coal, 203, 204 Hydro-electricity, 204 Oil, 202–208 Natural gas, 202–204, 208 Renewable, 203, 204 Japan’s energy imports, 204, 214 Gas, 204 Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 204 Oil, 204 Japan’s diversification of energy sources, 203, 214 Japanese government, 201, 202, 219 Kyoto Protocol, 209 First commitment period of 2008–2012, 209 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), 201 Mr Koji Tsuruoka, 201 Ocean Division, 202 Ministry of Economics, Trade and Industry (METI), 206 Interim Report, 206–208, 215, 219 METI’s Concept of Energy Security, 206 Ministry of the Environment, 142, 157, 161, 212, 215, 220 New Energy Crisis, 191, 202, 203, 215, 218 New National Energy Strategy, 208, 219 Basic Energy Plan, 209 Nuclear power generation, 208 Nuclear power, 137, 203, 208, 209, 214, 220 b1342-r-index 279 Fukushima accident of March 2011, 203, 208, 209 Fukushima Dai-ichi (No.1) Nuclear Power Plant, 209 Tokyo Electric Power Co (TEPCO), 209 Prime Minister Masayoshi Ohira, 193 Security, 192, 193 State-centric view of security, 193 Politico/military-centric view of security, 193 Jurisdictional Issues, 144, 148 Kyoto Protocol, 209 Article 3.3, 209 First commitment period of 2008–12, 209 Lake, 25, 26, 49, 56, 64, 65, 105 Lake ice, 26 Lakes, 64, 72, 87, 89 Baykal, 105 Izmenchivoe, 64, 65 Law, 13, 20, 22, 85, 95, 103, 105, 112–116, 119–121, 123, 125, 126, 133, 143, 149, 152–154, 156–159, 161, 162, 181, 221, 222, 234, 237–239, 244, 248 Law of the Natural Monopolies, 105 Law on Mineral Resources, 133 Law on the Russian Arctic Region, 113, 125 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 144, 237 Lichtenstein, 226 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 280 Index Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA Agreement), 226 Low-lying islands, 179 Maldives, 176–179, 189 Marine, 18, 36, 42, 44, 47, 96, 103–105, 116, 119–122, 124, 126, 135, 142, 157, 162, 182, 185–187, 197, 200, 221, 222, 234 Strategy, 104, 121, 124 Doctrine, 96, 103, 120, 122, 124 Transportation, 28, 46, 82, 95, 96, 103, 104, 112, 155, 171, 172, 200, 202, 208, 230, 231, 235, 237 Maritime, 103–105, 116, 119, 145, 148, 152, 157, 158, 162, 163, 168, 170–172, 174, 177–181, 185, 223, 226, 231, 235–237, 242, 243, 245–247 Dispute, 145, 148, 178, 180, 181 Claims, 145, 148, 178, 181 Forces, 174, 179 Highway, 235 Maritime entities, 104 Maritime environment, 116 Maritime personnel training, 103 Russian Maritime Doctrine, 103 Russian maritime policy, 105 Search and rescue, 119 Agreement on cooperation on aeronautical and maritime search and rescue in the Arctic (Nuuk)., 119 Melting of, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 15, 17–20, 28, 34, 35, 64, 107, 119, 167, 168, 176, 181, 186, 199, 223, 250, 251, 254–257, 259, 260 Arctic, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 15, 16, 18, 19, 107, 119, 169, 170, 184, 188, 201, 227, 254, 255, 259 Glaciers, 2, 27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 39, 64, 175, 181 Lake ice, 26 Land ice, 34, 199 Greenland, 3, 18, 27, 34–38, 46, 52–55, 175, 199 Icebergs, 36 Ice sheets, 28, 34, 38 Permafrost, 26, 30, 34, 46, 181, 191 Metals & Minerals, 4, 18, 168 Amazonite, Alumina, Amethyst, Apatite, 4, 106 Barite, Calcite, Chromium, 168 Copper, 4, 79, 106, 112, 168 Diamonds, 4, 106, 168 Fluorite, Gold, 4, 106, 112, 168 Iron, 4, 5, 19, 21, 78, 79 Iron ore, 4, 5, 19, 21 Lead, 4, 5, 168, 202 Manganese, 106, 168 Mica, Nickel, 4, 106, 168, 234 Niobium, 4, 106 Phosphate, Phlogopite, Quartz, Rare earth and precious metals, 18, 233 Silver, 168 Tin, 4, 106 www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index Tantalite, Titanium, 4, 168 Tungsten, 106, 168 Uranium, Vermiculite, Zinc, 4, 5, 79, 168, 202 Middle East, 172–174, 178, 184, 202, 206 Chinese oil imports from, 173 Dependency on oil and gas of (China, Japan and South Korea), 172 Energy crisis (oil crises of 1973–4 and 1979–80), 202 Geopolitical importance and significance of, 184 import patterns of politically volatile region, 172 U.S and British naval and air forces in, 177 unstable political and social situations in the Middle Eastern countries, 214 Migration, 72, 176, 177, 211, 230 Environmentally-induced migration, 212 Forced Migration, 176 Illegal migration, 177 Mass migration, 211 Migration of species, 230 Migration of some plant and animal species to the North, 72 Military, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 22, 75, 82, 97, 98, 104, 105, 116, 118, 121, 124, 132, 148, 171, 174, 178, 183, 184, 192–194, 196, 216, 221, 224, 242, 248, 250–252, 255, 259 Military capabilities, 12, 14, 250, 259 Military command, 12 Military conflict, 13 b1342-r-index 281 Military control and arms race, 11 Military developments, 18, 22 Military force, 12 Military forces, 11 Canadian military, 12, 242, 248 Chinese military, 174 Danish military, 12 Norwegean military, 12 Russian military, 11, 12, 121, 124 US military, 11, 12 Military presence, 11, 12, 97, 252, 259 Military significance of the Arctic, 11 Military/security, 16, 96, 118, 251, 252 Ministry, 88, 104, 106, 120, 122, 124, 125, 142, 150, 151, 156, 157, 159, 161, 162, 180, 201, 206, 212, 215, 219, 220 Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), 201 Mr Koji Tsuruoka, 201 Ocean Division, 202 Japan’s Ministry of Economics, Trade and Industry (METI), 206 Interim Report, 215, 219 METI’s Concept of Energy Security, 206 Japan’s Ministry of the Environment, 142, 157, 161, 212, 215, 220 Ministry of Petroleum and Energy (Norway), 142, 156, 159, 161 Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation, 88 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 282 Index Transportation Ministry (of Russia), 104 National security, 12, 88, 118, 177, 182, 189, 193, 196, 215–217 Russia’s National Security Council, 12 Navigation, 3, 6, 32, 60, 73, 85, 86, 96, 104, 118, 119, 121, 124, 126, 169, 181, 185, 186, 192, 201, 214, 221, 223, 224, 227–229, 236–238, 240, 242, 250, 251 Iceless navigation period, 86 Intercontinental navigations, Limiting navigation, 85 Navigation period, 60, 86, 236 Ship navigation, 32 Unhindered navigation, Natural resources, 16, 20, 21, 83, 96, 114, 119, 122, 125, 133, 142, 150, 161, 183, 191, 192, 195, 197, 202, 204, 208, 214, 223–225, 228, 242 Non-Arctic countries, 102, 239, 242 China, 102 India, 102 Japan, 102 South Korea, 102 North America, 6, 61, 75, 77, 95, 96, 103, 136, 171, 184 North Pole, 7, 12, 148, 153, 169, 183, 240 Outer borders to the North Pole, 148 Russian planting its flag four kilometers under the North Pole, 183 Nordic, 18, 22, 38, 99, 100–102, 118, 120, 124, 187, 188, 226, 240 Nordic Council, 99–102, 120, 124, 240 Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM), 99, 240 Nordic countries/states, 118 Nordic Military Developments, 18, 22 Nordic countries (Fennoscandia), 197 Norway, 5, 8, 12, 13, 16, 49, 52, 53, 55, 58, 100, 102, 127, 128, 130, 139–143, 145, 148–152, 154, 155, 157–159, 162, 179, 180, 189, 197, 198, 203, 218, 221, 225, 226, 232, 233, 234, 240, 244, 245, 251–253 Finland, 5, 9, 17, 98, 100, 102, 122, 197, 222, 225, 229, 230, 239, 240, 254, 255 Sweden, 5, 9, 17, 100, 102, 180, 189, 197, 198, 222, 225, 229, 230, 239, 254, 255 North Atlantic, 12, 26, 38, 77, 96, 118, 170 Freshwater balance in the North Atlantic, 38 North America, 77, 96 North Atlantic region, 96, 118 North Atlantic Fisheries Commission, 235 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 99–102, 121, 123 Warm North Atlantic water, 26 Nordic Council of Ministers, 99, 240 Northern Dimension, 225, 226, 240, 244, 245 Norway, 5, 8, 12, 13, 16, 49, 52, 53, 55, 58, 100, 102, 127, 128, 130, 139–143, 145, 148–152, 154, 155, www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index 157–159, 162, 179, 180, 189, 197, 198, 203, 218, 221, 225, 226, 232, 233, 234, 240, 244, 245, 251–253 Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA Agreement), 226 Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, 145, 147, 151, 153, 158, 161, 238 Continental Shelf Convention of 1958, 148 Delimitation of Continental Shelf, 145 Barents Sea deal, 152 Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, 145, 147 Continental Shelf Convention of 1958, 148 Documentation submission in 2006, 145 Delimitation of Neighboring Continental Shelves, 148 Maritime delimitation between Russia and Norway, 152 Outer Delimitation of Continental Shelf, 145 Settlement of dispute in 2010, 148–153 Energy in Norway’s part of the Arctic, 128–131 Barents Sea gas, 128 Climate concerns, 143 Energy resources, 127 The Goliat oil field, 130 b1342-r-index 283 The Snøhvit field (Gas field Snøhvit/ ‘Snow White’), 130 Recoverable reserves, 131 Undiscovered recoverable petroleum resources, 130 Environmental debates, 141 Environmental impact assessments, 142 Greenland Sea, 145 Hydrocarbon sector, 139 LNG market, 139 Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, 142, 156, 161 North Sea, 128, 130, 134, 138, 154 Norwegian Continental Shelf, 128–131, 135, 140, 146, 157, 159, 160 Offshore development, 133, 142 Oil production, 128, 143 Petroleum policy, 127, 142 Involvement in gas development in the Russian Arctic, 133, 155 Russia’s Shtokman gas and condensate field, 134 Gazprom dobycha shel’f, 135 Gazprom neft’ shel’f, 135 “New Shtokman”, 135 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 284 Index Shtokman’s development, 139 Shtokman Development AG (SDAG), 135, 156, 160 Shtokman gas and condensate field, 134 Norwegian energy companies Norsk Hydro, 134, 138 Statoil, 130, 131, 134, 135, 155, 158–160, 172 Statoil-Skrugard, 130 StatoilHydro, 135, 172 Norwegian foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre, 149 Norwegian oil production, 128 Norwegian Polar Institute, 180, 240 Norwegian Sea, 12, 128, 130 Svalbard archipelago, 145 The Northern Dimension initiative, 226, 240 Nuclear, 11, 17, 98, 116, 137, 170, 193, 203, 204, 208–210, 214, 220 Military use of nuclear power, 11, 171, 193 Nuclear confrontation, 193 Nuclear powered submarine, 170 Nuclear submarines, 11 Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA), 209 Nuclear energy, 17, 204, 208–210, 214, 220 Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear complex, 209 Fukushima nuclear incident, 208 Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant’s incident of March 2011, 208 Nuclear option, 203, 214 Nuclear energy promotion, 210 Nuclear energy sector, 17 Nuclear incident, 208 Nuclear power, 137, 170, 203, 208, 209, 214, 220 Nuclear power generation, 208 Nuclear power plants, 203, 209, 220 Nuclear reactors, 116, 209 Oceans, 5, 11, 12, 39–41, 45, 51, 56, 72, 104, 108, 157, 158, 161, 162, 170, 171, 175, 188, 199 Atlantic Ocean, 12, 103, 108 Arctic Ocean, 7, 12, 13, 19, 20, 25, 32, 52, 54, 60, 103, 107, 108, 115, 116, 118, 126, 127, 145, 147, 148, 157, 158, 161, 162, 168, 169, 185, 197, 201, 221, 222, 227, 229, 231, 237, 244, 250 Indian Ocean, 46, 107, 171, 172, 174, 178, 183, 254 Indian Ocean Region, 172, 178, 183 Pacific Ocean, 5, 11, 107, 112, 170, 171, 236 Ocean circulation, 45, 199 Ocean warming, 36, 37, 42, 45 Oil dependency, 208 Oil spill, 201 Pakistan, 176, 178 Panama Canal, 171, 200 Southern Sea Route, 6, 7, 118, 250, 254 Peoples Republic of China, 97 www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index China, 9, 10, 13, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 168, 171–174, 182, 184, 188, 194, 204, 206–208, 221, 253, 258 Permafrost, 12, 25–27, 30, 34, 46, 49, 52–55, 58, 73, 75, 77, 86, 89, 175, 181, 191, 200, 231, 244, 246 Polar, 12, 18–21, 25, 27, 28, 38, 42, 45, 49, 50, 52–57, 61, 72, 75–77, 84, 87, 88, 90, 91, 99, 107, 120, 123, 125, 156, 157, 160, 161, 163, 168, 170, 175, 180, 182, 186, 187, 198–200, 216–218, 239, 240 Polar amplification factor, 38 Polar bears, 199, 200 Polar Game, 168, 183, 186 Polar ice, 19, 20, 28, 42, 45, 52, 56, 57, 168, 175 Polar ice sheets, 28, 42, 52, 56, 57 Polar ice fields, (Arctic ice fields/ice fields of the Arctic Ocean), 47, 72 Polar region, 12, 18, 20, 45, 88, 90, 91, 175, 187, 239 Disputed polar region, 12 Sub polar seas, 25, 38 Pollution, 6, 15, 69, 75–78, 80–83, 126, 140, 157, 161, 170, 218, 223, 238 In the Arctic, 15, 69, 75, 77, 78, 81–83, 140, 170 Air pollution, 78 Atmospheric pollution, 83 Degradation of a vegetative cover, soil-ground, 83 Human-made pollutions, 15 Environmental pollution, 81, 82 b1342-r-index 285 Increase in the frequency of certain diseases, 83 Increased human exploitation and pollution, 170 Ocean pollution, 69 Pollution and spills related to petroleum activities, 140 Pollution of natural waters, 83 Pollution of the Arctic atmospheric air, 77 Pollution of the environment in the Arctic, 77 Polluting substances in food chains, 83 Prohibition of vessel-source pollution, 238 Sources of pollution, 76, 78, 80 Transformation of the natural geochemical background, 83 Water pollution of the Arctic, Pollution of natural waters, 83 Winter pollution of the Arctic atmosphere, 78 Population, 49, 54, 59, 75, 80, 81–83, 148, 176, 177, 182, 183, 185, 193, 196, 200, 207, 223, 228, 230, 239, 249 Arctic population, 59 Decrease in the populations of polar bears, seals, caribou and other animals, 200 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 286 Index Female population of the Chukchi Autonomous District, 81 Forced relocation of population, 177 Greenlandic and the coastal Canadian population, 81 Indigenous populations, 230, 239 Large populations, 176 Massive population movements, 193 Native population, 75, 80 Population decline in Japan, 207 Population density, 185 Population health, 82 Population living in Europe’s coastal states, 223 Population living in low-lying coastal zones, 177 Population shifts, 183 Protection of autochthon populations, 223 Tropic population, 182 Vegetation populations, 81 World population, 196 Regional development, 88, 128 Renewable energy, 203, 209, 210, 214, 220 Renewable energy developer, 214 Renewable energy resources, 210, 220 Renewable energy sources, 203, 210 Russia/USSR, 6, 8, 11–14, 16, 19, 21, 59, 60, 66, 69, 80, 82–85, 87–89, 91, 95–100, 102–108, 110–112, 114–125, 127, 131, 133, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 145, 148, 149–157, 159, 160, 162, 172, 180, 183, 185, 189, 197, 207, 208, 221, 224–226, 232–234, 237, 240, 241, 251–253, 256, 258, 259 Agile Project Management (APM), 104 Delimitation of Continental Shelf, 145 Barents Sea deal, 152 Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, 145, 147, 151, 153, 158, 161, 238 Continental Shelf Convention of 1958, 148 Documentation submission in 2006, 145 Delimitation of Neighboring Continental Shelves, 148 Maritime delimitation between Russia and Norway, 152 Outer Delimitation of Continental Shelf, 145 Settlement of dispute in 2010, 148–153 Diplomacy, 97, 122, 125 East Siberian-Pacific Ocean (ESPO) oil/gas transportation system, 112 Economy, 105, 111, 113, 114, 119, 252, 258 Energy companies, 150, 233 Arcticshelfneftgas, 111, 119, 125 Gazprom, 106, 133–135, 137, 139, 151, 155, 156, 160, 246 www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index Gazprom dobycha shel’f, 135 Gazprom neft’ shel’f, 135 Rosneft, 106, 111, 119, 121, 125, 133, 138, 151, 173, 232, 246 Evgeny Primakov, 98 Geopolitical value of the Arctic, 96 Bases of a State policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic Region for the Period Till 2020 and the Further Prospect, 96 Marine Doctrine of the Russian Federation, 96, 120, 122, 124 High North, 12, 17, 97, 125, 128, 140, 156, 159, 162, 221–224, 226–230, 232–235, 237, 239–241, 243, 246 Mineral resources, 10, 19, 21, 59, 112, 118, 133, 154, 170, 221, 231, 252, 256 Military forces, 11 Moscow, 16, 66, 87–90, 117, 119–124, 126, 158, 163, 252 Moscow Meeting of Committee Heads of the Northern Regional, 117 Organizations, 16, 96, 99, 101, 102, 113, 117, 118, 122, 126, 141 Policy towards the Arctic, 16, 98, 103, 115, 224 Global governance of the Arctic, 116 Law on the Russian Arctic Region, 113 The Arctic’s International Regime, 114 b1342-r-index 287 The historical lawmaking approach and the norms of the UNCLOS, 115 The norms of the UNCLOS 1982 approach, 116 Northern Sea Route and the Sea Economic Activities (SEA), 104 The Arctic is a region of peace and cooperation, 98 The Arctic is Mankind’s Region of Bio-Energy Reserve, 95, 105 The Arctic is a region of the Earth’s ecosystem balance, 95 The Russian Arctic is a Transportation Route between Europe, Asia and North America, 95, 96, 103 Russia’s principal views on Arctic, 96 Russian Arctic, 5, 59, 61, 73, 75, 78–80, 83, 87, 90, 97, 103, 105, 106, 108–111, 113–119, 125, 203, 233, 234, 235, 251, 252 Animals, 80, 81, 105, 200 Energy resources, 8, 59, 107, 203, 207, 233, 250–252, 254, 259 Oil, 104, 106–112, 116, 118, 128, 131, 132, 135, 232, 233, 250, 252–259 Gas, 106–111, 128, 233, 251–253 Coal, 106 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 288 Index Fresh water, 105, 260 Minerals, 73, 168, 182, 252 Fossil energy, 2, 4, 10, 107, 112, 134, 144, 168, 251, 257, 260 Prirazlomnoye oil field, 137, 138 Shtokman gas and condensate field, 134 New Shtokman, 135 Shtokman’s development, 139 Shtokman Development AG (SDAG), 135, 156, 160 Shtokman gas and condensate field, 134 Provinces, 61, 62, 83, 109, 111, 125 Barentsevo-Karsky, 109 East-Siberian, 66, 73, 109, 112, 122, 125 Leno-Tungus, 111 Timano-Pechora, 83, 111 Western-Siberian, 111 Russian Arctic region, 83, 97, 105, 109, 111, 113, 114, 119, 125 Russian Continental Shelf, 106, 111, 133, 141, 151, 155 Russian Federation, 59, 82, 85, 87, 88, 91, 96, 97, 103, 112, 113, 118–126, 140, 147, 156–160, 162, 244, 245 Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, 149 Russian Maritime Doctrine, 103 Russian military, 121, 124 In the Arctic, 12 New Arctic military force, 12 Red Banner Northern Fleet in Severomorsk, 12 Russia’s National Security Council, 12 Russian Maritime Doctrine, 103 Russian navy, 104, 252 Nuclear submarine, 11 Russian Northern Fleet, 103, 118 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, 150, 152 Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, 152, 183 Saint-Petersburg, 71, 74, 84, 87, 105, 107, 109, 110, 120, 125 Siberia, 73, 78, 83, 110–112, 197 Soviet era, 16, 98, 111, 252 Soviet Union, 8, 12, 98, 111, 115, 122, 123, 128, 131, 148, 185, 194 The Northern Dimension initiative, 226, 240 “World Ocean”, 72, 104, 120, 124, 126, 187 Scandinavia, 78, 118, 199 Northern Scandinavia, 78 Scandinavian nations, 118 Scandinavian region, 199 Salinity, 45, 176, 179, 199 Changes in salinity, 45 www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index Increase salinity in surrounding coastal areas, 176 Water salinity , 45, 176 Soil salinity, 179 Salinity balance, 199 Sea, 1, 3–11, 13–22, 25–28, 30–59, 61, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74, 80, 81, 85, 86, 89, 96–98, 101–105, 108, 113, 115, 116, 118–124, 126–128, 130–138, 140–145, 148, 151–163, 168–172, 174–185, 188, 189, 191, 196, 198–201, 211–213, 221–224, 226, 230–232, 234–238, 240, 242–244, 246, 248, 250–257 Sea ice, 3, 19–21, 25–28, 30–34, 36–38, 46, 47, 49–54, 69, 70, 73, 74, 86, 169, 175, 181, 185, 188, 198–200, 231, 243, 246 Sea level rising/sea level rise/rising sea levels, 1, 8, 10, 15, 17–20, 27, 28, 34, 35, 37–51, 54, 56–58, 170, 174–179, 182, 183, 185, 188, 196, 199, 200, 211–213, 223, 250, 251, 254, 256, 257 Sea route, 4–11, 15, 17, 18–21, 59, 73, 97, 104, 118, 121, 124, 168–171, 177, 179, 185, 188, 191, 200, 201, 224, 230, 235, 242, 250, 252, 254–257 Sea lanes, 168, 171, 174, 181 Shipping Routes, 34, 46, 170, 171, 182, 221 Arctic shipping routes, 34, 46, 170 Northern Sea Route (NSR), 97, 119, 169, 250 b1342-r-index 289 North-West Passage (NWP), 169, 235, 250 Inter-continental shipping routes, 170 New shipping routes, 182, 221 Seas, 12, 15, 16, 25, 38, 46, 64, 73, 79, 84, 85, 97, 103, 104, 106, 115, 126, 140, 145, 159, 162, 181, 197, 235, 238, 252, 257 Baltic Sea, 98, 101, 102, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 136, 226, 240 Barents Sea, 8, 16, 61, 66, 127, 128, 130–133, 137, 140, 141–145, 148, 151, 152, 153–163, 180, 232, 253 Beaufort, 66, 180, 197 Bering Sea, 158, 159, 162, 200 ‘Bering Straits’ dilemma, 174 Chukchi Sea, 66 Greenland Sea, 145 East Siberian Sea, 79, 108, 197 Kara Sea, 61, 79 Laptev Sea, 73, 108 Laptevyh Sea, 66, 75, 85 North Sea, 128, 130, 134, 138, 154, 253 Norwegian Sea, 12, 128, 130 South China Sea, 171 Ship, 6, 21, 30, 32, 47, 105, 121, 124, 171, 235, 244, 247 Container ship, 171, 236 Container cargo shipments, 236 Container fleet, 236 Container traffic, 236 Container volume, 172 Intermodal container navigation, 236 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 290 Index Ship building, 105, 121, 124, 171 Shipping, 8, 32, 33, 46, 47, 103, 104, 144, 170–172, 182, 186, 187, 221, 229, 235, 236, 250, 251 Intercontinental shipping, 250 Inter-continental shipping routes, 170 International shipping, 171 Shipping activities, 144 Shipping companies, 104, 236 Shipping cost, 8, 236 Shipping the gas condensate, 235 Shipping hazards, 33 Shipping in the Arctic, 229 Shipping industry, 171 Shipping lanes, 32, 47 Shipping loads, 172 Shipping operators, 236 Shipping opportunities, 236 Shipping policy, 103 Shipping traffic, 171 Transcontinental commercial shipping, 170 Siberia, 63, 76–78, 83, 88, 90, 109–112, 121, 122, 125, 170, 197, 232 Animals, 80, 81, 105, 200 Coal, 76, 106, 168, 195, 203, 204, 219, 255, 256 Gas, 69, 72, 82, 83, 104, 106–112, 122, 125, 127, 171–173, 187, 191, 202–204, 206, 207, 213, 219, 223, 231–233 Minerals, 73, 107, 144, 168, 182, 234 Oil, 82, 83, 87, 90, 104, 106–112, 118–122, 124, 172, 173, 195, 231–233 Singapore, 45, 46, 51, 58, 100, 102, 232 Annual natural gas consumption, 232 Involvement in the Arctic geopolitical area, 100, 102 vulnerable to the impacts of rising seas, 45 Solar System, 69, 70 Earth pole, 70 Earth rotation, 70, 71 Jupiter, 70, 71, 72, 167 Moon, 72, 167 Saturn, 70, 71, 72 Solar activity, 72 Uranus, 70, 72 Snow, 25–27, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 42, 49, 51, 52–55, 58, 130, 191, 199, 231, 244, 246 Annual snow accumulation, 34 Global Snow, 25, 26, 27 Loss of snow, 29 Seasonal snow, 25, 26 Seasonal cycle of snow accumulation, 36 Snow accumulation, 34, 36, 42 World’s snow, 25 South America, 173 South China Sea, 171 South Korea , 6, 9, 10, 13, 100, 102, 172, 253, 258 Dependency on oil and gas from distant and politically volatile regions like the Middle East and Africa, 172 Distance between South Korea and the Netherlands, Major Asian economies, 258 Non-regional country with a capability to enter the Arctic, www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index Soviet Union’s fall in 1991, 111 Chernobyl incident of 1986, 209 General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, 98 Military base in the Arctic, 12 Red Banner Northern Fleet in Severomorsk, 12 Murmansk speech, 98 Soviet era, 16, 98, 111, 252 Spain, 100, 131, 145, 239 Permanent Observer States to the Arctic Council, 239 Sri Lanka, 176 large populations living in ‘at-risk’ coastal areas, 176 Strait, 6, 75, 85, 118, 173, 174, 180, 183, 187, 237, 238, 250 Bering Straits, 174 Davis Strait, 183 Hudson Strait, 183 Strait of Malacca, 118, 173, 250 Straits of, 6, 85 Dmirija Laptevyh, 85 Kara Gate, 75, 85 Long, 75, 85 Nares straits, 180 Sannikova, 85 Shokalsky, 75, 85 Vilkitsky, 85 Submarine, 11, 51, 53, 54, 116, 144, 170, 183 Nuclear submarines, 11 Nuclear powered submarines, 170 Suez Canal, 6, 118, 171, 200, 201, 236, 244, 247, 250 Southern Sea Route, 5–7, 118, 250, 254 b1342-r-index 291 Sustainable development, 88, 91, 97, 103, 110, 114, 118, 120, 125, 191, 195–198, 202, 214, 217, 226, 239 Concept of Sustainable Development, 114 Northern Sea Route for sustainable development of the Russian Federation, 97, 103 Sustainable Development of the Arctic, 110, 120, 125 Sweden, 5, 9, 17, 100, 102, 180, 189, 197, 198, 222, 225, 229, 230, 239, 254, 255 Arctic Council membership, 244, 245 Arctic state, 4, 12, 13, 16, 96, 102, 180, 197, 202, 222, 235, 239, 254, 255 Concerned land areas of the Arctic, 197 Greater Arctic country, EU enlargement round, 225 EU member state, 223, 225, 229, 234, 239, 240, 242 Treaty between Norway, the United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Svalbard, 179 Terrorism, 193, 206 Trade, 4, 6–8, 10, 14, 15, 17, 18, 45, 72, 105, 106, 111, 118, 168, 184, 189, 200, 206, 215, 219, 221, 227, 230, 235–237, 252, 254–257 Global trade, 168, 257 March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security b1342-r-index Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 292 Index International trade, 17, 18, 255 Regional trade, Tsunami, 192, 194, 209, 214 Tsunami of 11 March 2011, 194 UK, 19, 22, 31, 50, 51, 53, 56–58, 128, 187, 188, 219, 239 Diego Garcia base, 178 United Nations, 13, 20, 22, 85, 97, 99, 115, 126, 158, 161, 162, 181, 189, 220, 234, 239, 244 Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, 211 UN Commission on the Limits of the Continetal Shelf (UNCLCS), 238, 239 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 20, 22, 115, 116, 144, 149, 152–155, 181, 222, 225, 234, 237–239, 244 UN International Seabed Authority, 238 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, 211 United Nations Development Program, 239 United Nations Environment Program, 239 United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 99, 100–103, 220 UNSC permanent members, 103 United States of America (USA), 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 102, 103, 158, 162, 179, 187, 188, 189, 225 Alaska, 44, 45, 61, 76, 78, 180, 197, 232 American Arctic, Alaska, Cook Inlet Region of Alaska, 232 Undiscovered Oil and Gas, 156, 163, 172, 187, 231 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 49, 54, 183, 189 Center on Climate Change and National Security, 183, 189 Congress, 211, 220 First Session of the 110th Congress of the United States, 211 Biden-Lugar Resolution, 211, 220 Interest in the Arctic, 8, 11, 12, 154, 173, 223, 232, 254, 255, 256 Interest in the Arctic sea routes, 11 Northern Sea Route (NSR), 18 North-West Passage (MWP), Maritime boundary delimitation, 158, 162 Membership in the Arctic Council, 197, 198, 222, 225 Membership in the Arctic Five, 221 Military, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 22, 75, 82, 97, 98, 104, 105, 116, 118, 121, 124, 132, 148, 171, 174, 178, 183, 184, www.Ebook777.com March 18, 2013 19:27 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security Index 192–194, 196, 216, 221, 224, 242, 248, 250–252, 255, 259 Presence in the Arctic, 12 Arctic base, 12 Thule Air Base in Northern Greenland, 11 US military’s Unified Command Plan, 11, 19, 21 Northern Command responsibility for the Arctic, 11 Diego Garcia base, 178 Nuclear submarine, 11 US Navy, 178, 183 US Navy base in the Indian Ocean Region, 178 March 2010 Arctic summit, 181 US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, 181 North American Arctic, US Geological Survey, 108, 122, 125, 154, 172, 187, 231 Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle released in 2008, 108, 187, 231 Washington, D.C., 201, 215, 216, 218 b1342-r-index 293 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 11, 87, 89, 98, 104, 106, 128, 148, 162 Water, 2, 6, 25, 26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 36, 45, 46, 47, 52–55, 58, 69, 70, 72, 76, 78–80, 105, 114, 131, 169, 175–179, 195, 231, 235, 244, 246, 260 Fresh water, 105, 177, 260 Saline water, 176 Water drainage, 78, 79 World Bank, 28, 49, 54 Weather, 85, 88, 89, 170, 179, 200, 212 Abnormal weather events, 212 Cold snap, 61, 63, 64, 86 Extreme weather, 179 Global weather pattern, 170 Hydro weather conditions, 85 Drought, 211 Oscillation, 45, 70 Monsoon, 179 Weather conditions, 85, 200 Weather predictability, 200 World Commission on Environment and Development, 195, 216, 217 Brundtland Commission, 196 World Summit on Sustainable Development, 202 Equation of Johannesburg, 202, 204, 210 .. .ENERGY SECURITY AND GEOPOLITICS IN THE ARCTIC Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security. .. are at the intersection of energy economics, energy and the environment, and energy security xxv March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International Relations and Energy Security. .. eventually and inevitably affect other sectors, including the economic, political, and social ones Yet, in the short -and possibly March 5, 2013 11:59 9in x 6in The Arctic: Geopolitics, International