THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK Revised Edition THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK Revised Edition THE DIAGRAM GROUP The Facts On File Physics Handbook, Revised Edition Copyright © 2006, 2000 by Diagram Visual Information Ltd Diagram Visual Information Ltd Editorial directors David Harding, Moira Johnston Science editor Eleanora von Dehsen Editors Nancy Bailey, Jean Brady, Paul Copperwaite, Eve Daintith, Bridget Giles, Jane Johnson, Reet Nelis, Jamie Stokes Design Richard Hummerstone, Edward Kinsey, Design production Anthony Atherton, Carole Dease, Oscar Lobban, Lee Lawrence Artists Susan Kinsey, Lee Lawrence, Kathleen McDougall Research Peter Dease, Catherine & Neil McKenna Contributors Michael Allaby, Martyn Bramwell, John Daintith, Trevor Day, John Haywood, Jim Henderson, David Lambert, Catherine Riches, Dr Robert Youngson All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 For Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, please contact Facts On File, Inc ISBN 0-8160-5880-6 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at 212/967-8800 or 800/322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Cover design by Cathy Rincon Printed in the United States of America VB DIAG 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper INTRODUCTION THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK, Revised Edition offers students a full view of this vital branch of science, in the form of a one-stop reference The Revised Edition expands greatly on the information available in the previous edition, with the inclusion of four new sections—an A–Z of key advances in the field of physics; a list of Nobel Prize winners in physics; listings of important science and physics associations; and key science and physics Web sites The biography and chronology sections have been updated and the glossary expanded to include charts and graphs illustrating important concepts Finally, the index has been extended and completely revised to make searching even easier THE PHYSICS HANDBOOK, Revised Edition features the following components: GLOSSARY More than 1,300 entries, many accompanied by illustrations and now including 21 new large diagrams and charts, are provided in this section, to aids students’ understanding of specialized terminology BIOGRAPHIES Biographies of more than 275 people—not only the giants of physics, such as Sir Isaac Newton, but also many of those whose achievements may have gone unnoticed, yet whose discoveries have pushed forward the world’s understanding of physics Now updated to 2005 CHRONOLOGY Covering nearly 8,000 years of events in the history of physics that have influenced our lives more than wars, political changes, and world rulers Updated through 2005 KEY ADVANCES An entirely new A–Z list of over 150 important advances in physics, enabling students to find quick information on who invented or discovered what and when NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS This entirely new list of Nobel Prize winners in physics is complete to 2005 Each entry includes the award citation as well as the nationality and the birth and death dates of the winners CHARTS & TABLES This section brings together important charts and tables in key areas of physics Two new pages have been added in the Revised Edition ASSOCIATIONS An entirely new section, providing the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and Web addresses of 30 important associations in the field of physics, and in general science WEB SITES Another entirely new guide, to 50 selected Web sites for students, teachers, and library patrons CONTENTS SECTION ONE Glossary SECTION TWO Biographies 155 SECTION THREE Chronology 207 SECTION FOUR Key advances 227 SECTION FIVE Nobel Prize winners 237 SECTION SIX Charts & Tables 249 SECTION SEVEN Associations 257 SECTION EIGHT Web sites 261 INDEX 265 SECTION ONE GLOSSARY GLOSSARY A(r) – AC A(r) The symbol for relative atomic mass ab- An abbreviation for the word absolute and a prefix applied to practical electrical units, such as volt (abvolt), ampere (abampere), or coulomb (abcoulomb), to convert them to units in the absolute electromagnetic system of units aberration A defect in the image produced by a lens or mirror caused when rays not converge accurately to the focus It is technically difficult to produce a lens or mirror without aberration See also chromatic aberration, spherical aberration absolute code Computer program code in a form that can be used directly by the central processing unit More commonly known as machine code Metal disc secured with wax Blackened metal surface Heat source Absorption factor Silvered metal surface Metal disc absolute zero The lowest possible temperature Zero on the Kelvin scale or –460°F (–273°C) Absolute zero is unattainable, but temperatures within one millionth of a degree have been reached At temperatures approaching absolute zero matter exhibits some unexpected properties Electrical conductors become superconducting and some fluids lose their viscosity (superfluidity) In the Kelvin scale, which has no negative figures, the symbol for degrees in not used after the number So the freezing point of water is 273K, not 273°K absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) The energy absorbed in body tissue by ionizing radiation; unit of measurement, the gray (joule per gram) absorption (1) The assimilation of radiation into a body with its partial or complete conversion into another form of energy (such as heat, light, sound, etc.) (2) The way in which certain wavelengths in a beam of radiation are removed when passing through a substance The resulting spectrum of radiation can be used in spectroscopy to analyze the substance (3) The process by which one material, e.g., water, is taken up by another, e.g., a sponge absorption factor Energy absorbed by a body depends on the nature of its surface Shiny, light-colored surfaces absorb less than dark, matte surfaces absorption spectrum The spectrum that forms when radiation with a range of wavelengths passes through a sample Some wavelengths are absorbed by the sample, leaving gaps in the spectrum AC GLOSSARY Abbreviation for alternating current A(r) – AC acceleration – access time GLOSSARY acceleration A measure of how the velocity of a body changes with time It occurs if there is a change in the body’s speed or direction of motion; a force is required to effect such a change A falling body whose motion is solely governed by the downward force of gravity is said to be in free fall The body moves with constant acceleration In SI units, acceleration is expressed in meters per second per second It can be calculated by subtracting the final velocity from the initial velocity and dividing the result by the time Acceleration is a vector quantity If velocity is plotted against time on a graph, the acceleration at any moment is given by the slope of the graph at that moment acceptors Atoms of an element such as boron added to a silicon lattice to affect the conducting properties of semiconductors The acceptor atoms create holes in the valence band to carry current; this is a p-type (positive carrier) semiconductor access time The time taken to retrieve a small item of data from any form of storage in, or connected to, a computer Access time from RAM may Acceleration Speed Distance Acceleration zero—motion at constant speed Time Time Distance Speed Acceleration Acceleration constant—motion with constant increase in speed Time acceleration – access time Time Time GLOSSARY ASSOCIATIONS Physics PHYSICS Acoustical Society of America Professional organization working “to increase and diffuse the knowledge of acoustics and its practical applications.” Huntington Quadrangle, Melville, NY 11747 Tel 516-576-2360 http://asa.aip.org American Association of Physicists in Medicine Association working “to advance the practice of physics in medicine and biology by encouraging innovative research and development, disseminating scientific and technical information, fostering the education and professional development of medical physicists, and promoting the highest quality medical services for patients.” One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 Tel 301-209-3311 http://www.aapm.org American Association of Physics Teachers Group dedicated to improving the quality of physics education and promoting scientific literacy in the general public One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 Tel 301-209-3300 http://www.aapt.org American Astronomical Society Professional organization dedicated to “the advancement of astronomy and closely related branches of science.” 2000 Florida Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20009 Tel 202-328-2010 http://www.aas.org American Crystallographic Association Group dedicated to “the study of the arrangement of the atoms in matter, its causes, its nature and its consequence, and of the tools and methods used in such studies.” PO Box 96, Ellicott Station, Buffalo, NY 14205 Tel 716-898-8690 http://www.hwi.buffalo.edu/ACA/ ASSOCIATIONS 258 Physics American Geophysical Union Professional organization “dedicated to advancing the understanding of Earth and its environment in space and making results available to the public.” 2000 Florida Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20009 Tel 202-462-6900; 800-966-2481 http://www.agu.org American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics The world's largest professional society devoted to the progress of engineering and science in aviation, space, and defense 1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191 Tel 703-264-7500; 800-639-AIAA http://www.aiaa.org American Institute of Physics Institute dedicated to “promoting the advancement and diffusion of the knowledge of physics and its application to human welfare.” One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 Tel 301-209-3100 http://www.aip.org American Nuclear Society Professional organization promoting the “advancement of engineering and science relating to the atomic nucleus, and of allied sciences and arts.” 555 North Kensington Ave., La Grange Park, IL 60526 Tel 708-352-6611 http://www.ans.org American Physical Society The largest single professional organization for the “advancement and diffusion of the knowledge of physics.” One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 Tel 301-209-3200 http://www.aps.org American Society for Mass Spectrometry Professional society formed to “promote and disseminate knowledge of mass spectrometry and allied topics.” 2019 Galisteo St., Bldg I-1, Santa Fe, NM 87505 Tel 505-989-4517 http://www.asms.org Physics ASM International Formed to provide a means for exchanging information and interaction for metals and materials professionals 9639 Kinsman Rd., Materials Park, OH 44073 Tel 440-338-5151; 800 336-5152 http://www.asminternational.org The AVS Science and Technology Society Professional organization that promotes communication, research, and education “in the use of vacuum and other controlled environments to develop new materials, process technology, devices, and related understanding of material properties for the betterment of humanity.” 120 Wall St., New York, NY 10005 Tel 212-248-0200 http://www.avs.org IEEE Nuclear and Plasma Science Society Professional association advancing nuclear and plasma sciences Park Ave., New York, NY 10016 Tel 212-419-7900 http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/nps/ International Association of Mathematical Physics Professional association promoting research in mathematical physics FB Mathematik TU Berlin, Sekr MA 7-2 Str des 17 Juni 136, D-10623 Berlin, Germany http://www.iamp.org International Union of Crystallography Formed “to promote international cooperation in crystallography…, promote… publication of… research, to facilitate standardization of methods, units, nomenclatures, and symbols, and to form a focus for the relations of crystallography to other sciences.” Abbey Square, Chester, CH1 2HU, England Tel 011-44-1244-345431 http://www.iucr.ac.uk/ Laser Institute of America Professional society “dedicated to fostering lasers, laser applications, and safety worldwide.” 13501 Ingenuity Dr., Orlando, FL 32826 Tel 407-380-1553; 800-34-LASER http://www.laserinstitute.org Physics ASSOCIATIONS Materials Research Society Organization dedicated to bringing together “scientists, engineers, and research managers from industry, government, academia, and research laboratories to share findings in the research and development of new materials of technological importance.” 506 Keystone Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086 Tel 724-779-3003 http://www.mrs.org National Society of Black Physicists Organization dedicated to promoting “the well being of African-American physicists within the scientific community and within society at large.” 6704G Lee Highway, Arlington, VA 22205 Tel 703-536-4207 http://www.nsbp.org Optical Society of America Professional organization dedicated to increasing and diffusing “the knowledge of optics, pure and applied, to promote the common interests of investigators of optical problems, of designers, and of users of optical apparatus of all kinds.” 2010 Massachusetts Ave., N.W, Washington, DC 20036 Tel 202-223-8130 http://www.osa.org Society for Applied Spectroscopy Society dedicated to the advancement and dissemination of “knowledge and information concerning the art and science of spectroscopy and allied sciences.” 201-B Broadway St., Frederick, MD 21701 Tel 301-694-8122 http://www.s-a-s.org Society of Physics Students Society dedicated to assisting physics students, encouraging research, providing liaison with professional societies, and recognizing scholarship and achievement One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 Tel 301-209-3007 http://www.aip.org/education/sps/ ASSOCIATIONS 259 ASSOCIATIONS Physics – General scientific Society of Rheology Professional organization of “physicists, chemists, and engineers interested in the advancement and applications of rheology, which is defined as the deformation and flow of matter.” Huntington Quadrangle, Melville, NY 11747 Tel 516-576-2403 http://www.rheology.org/sor/ SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering The largest international organization for the “exchange, collection and dissemination of knowledge in optics, photonics, and imaging.” PO Box 10, Bellingham, WA 98227 Tel 360-676-3290 http://www.spie.org GENERAL SCIENTIFIC American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Organization formed to “further the work of scientists; and increase the public’s understanding and appreciation of the promise of scientific methods in human progress.” 1200 New York Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20005 Tel 202-326-6400 http://www.aaas.org Association for Women in Science Organization formed to “achieve equity and full participation for women in science, engineering, technology, and mathematics.” ASSOCIATIONS 260 1200 New York Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20005 Tel 202-326-8940 http://www.serve.com/awis Association of Science–Technology Centers Organization of science centers and museums dedicated to “furthering the public understanding of science.” 1025 Vermont Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20005 Tel 202-783-7200 http://www.astc.org The National Science Foundation An independent agency of the U.S government whose mission is to promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; and to secure the national defense It is a major source of research grants and funding in the sciences 4201 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22230 Tel 703-292-5111 http://www.nsf.gov/ National Science Teachers Association Professional organization dedicated to “excellence and innovation in science teaching and learning for all.” 1840 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201 Tel 703-243-7100 http://www.nsta.org Society for Amateur Scientists Collaboration between world-class professionals and citizen scientists to “remove the roadblocks that prevent ordinary people from participating in scientific adventures of all kinds.” 5600 Post Rd., East Greenwich, RI 02818 Tel 401-8398-7001 http://www.sas.org Physics – General scientific Name – Name WEBSITES SECTION EIGHT WEB SITES Name – Name WEBSITES 261 WEB SITES Physics PHYSICS The ABCs of Nuclear Science Nuclear Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Brief introduction to nuclear science with experiments and glossary http://www.lbl.gov/abc/ Antimatter: Mirror of the Universe CERN Explains what is antimatter and where it is made http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/ antimatter/index.html Atomicarchive.com AJ Software & Multimedia Explores the history of nuclear weapons and the science behind them http://www.atomicarchive.com The Atoms Family Miami Museum of Science Teaches about different forms of energy using the spooky Addams Family theme http://www.miamisci.org/af/sln/index.html Beginner’s Guide to Aerodynamics NASA, Glenn Research Center Explains aerodynamics to beginners through interactive animations, equations, and text http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/ bga.html The Constants and Equations Pages Institute of Physics (UK) Collection of constants and equations, including the periodic table, unit conversions, SI units, and mathematical symbols http://www.tcaep.co.uk Cosmic Evolution from Big Bang to Humankind Wright Center for Science Education Traces the cosmic origin and evolution of matter and energy from the big bang to 12 billion years later http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/ cosmic_evolution/index.html Eric Weisstein’s World of Physics Online encyclopedia, still under construction, with excellent graphics; good source for equations http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/ WEB SITES 262 Physics Exploring the Nature of Matter Comprehensive site sponsored by Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility Contains information on current research as well as teacher and student resources, including a table of elements, glossary, hands-on-activities, and games and puzzles http://www.jlab.org Fear of Physics FearofPhysics.com Friendly, non-technical Web site for students, which includes a physics dictionary and covers 200 homework and exam questions http://www.fearofphysics.com/index.html Inquiring Minds Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory Explores particle physics and the physics of the universe http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/index.html Introduction to Particle Physics Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Information on accelerators, detectors, antimatter, the Big Bang, dark matter, and the top quark http://hepwww.rl.ac.uk/Pub/Phil/contents.html The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty National Institute of Standards and Technology Covers fundamental physical constants, SI units, and uncertainty-of-measurement results http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html The Official String Theory Web Site Patricia Schwarz Explains theoretical particle physics in lay terms http://www.superstringtheory.com/index.html Physics Central American Physical Society Links to information on experiments, physics in daily life, biography, history, and reference resources http://www.physicscentral.org The Physics Classroom StudyWorks! Online Tutorials for high-school students on a variety of basic physics concepts, including Newton’s laws; work, energy, and power; momentum and its conservation; and waves http://www.physicsclassroom.com Physics – General Web sites Physics.org Institute of Physics (UK) Links to information on experiments, physics in daily life, biography, history, and reference resources http://www.physics.org The Physics Zone Science Joy Wagon Resource for learning introductory level, algebra based, physics http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/physicszone/ Physlink.com: Physics and Astronomy Online Comprehensive physics and astronomy online education, research, and reference Web site; includes "Ask the Expert" feature http://www.physlink.com The Soundry ThinkQuest Information on the perception, physics, and applications of sound, with a timeline of audio engineering http://library.thinkquest.org/19537/Main.html Stephen Hawking’s Universe PBS Information on the history of the universe and unanswered questions in cosmology http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/html/home.html StudyWorks! Online Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc Interactive activities, real world examples, and monitored homework help http://www.studyworksonline.com A Walk Through Time National Institute of Standards and Technology History of time measurement from prehistoric days to the present http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/time.html GENERAL WEB SITES American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Information on scientific developments and education programs for all ages http://www.aaas.org Exploratorium Experiments, exhibits, and sound and video files exploring hundreds of different topics http://www.exploratorium.edu Physics – General Web sites WEB SITES How Stuff Works HSW Media Network Individual tutorials in earth science, engineering, physical science, life science, and space http://science.howstuffworks.com National Science Digital Library (NSDL) National Science Foundation Giant database of links to quality resources and services supporting science education at all levels http://nsdl.org NOVA: Science in the News Australian Academy of Science Provides information on scientific principles and concepts in the headlines http://www.science.org.au/nova/ Quiz Hub Schmidel & Wojcik Learning center including homework help, quizzes, and interactive games http://quizhub.com/ Science Learning Network (SLN) Links to an international group of inquiry-based science museums and Web sites as well as educators’ hotlists http://sln.fi.edu/org/ ScienceMaster News, information, links, columns, and homework help in all major areas of science http://www.sciencemaster.com/ Science News for Kids Science Service Offers suggestions for hands-on activities, books, articles, Web resources, and other useful materials for students between the ages 9–13 http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org Scientific American.com Latest news in science as well as an “Ask the Experts” feature http://www.sciam.com Society for Amateur Scientists Provides hotlists for a variety of disciplines, also science hobbyists, suppliers, education stores, organizations, books, magazines, and newsletters http://www.sas.org WEB SITES 263 WEB SITES Teacher resources – Equipment suppliers ThinkQuest Library Oracle “Help Us Help” Foundation Links to hundreds of scientific sites on the Web http://library.thinkquest.org TEACHER RESOURCES Curriculum Center: Discoveryschool.com Discovery Curriculum materials for kindergarten through college, demonstrations, labs, online learning materials, and articles about teaching the physical sciences http://school.discovery.com/curriculumcenter/ Education World: The Educator’s Best Friend Lesson plans, practical information for educators, and information on how to integrate technology in the classroom http://www.education-world.com Middle School Physical Science Resource Center North Carolina State University Hands-on science experiments, book reviews, a newsletter, relevant essays, and a discussion forum http://www.science-house.org:8530/middleschool/ National Science Teachers Association Information on the teaching of science, including links to teacher recommended Web sites http://www.nsta.org Physical Sciences Resource Center American Association of Physics Teachers A wide range of curriculum materials, classroom demonstrations, labs, online learning material, and articles about teaching physical sciences http://psrc.aapt.org The Physicsfront.com American Association of Physics Teachers Lesson plans, activities, labs, and demonstrations for high school physics teachers http://www.compadre.org/precollege/webdocs/ about.cfm PhysicsLessons.com Jeff Whittaker Hands-on experiments; demonstrations, animations, and simulations; WEB SITES 264 quizzes and news for physical science teachers http://www.physicslessons.com Science NetLinks Provides a wealth of resources for K–12 science educators, including lesson plans and reviewed internet resources http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/ EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS Carolina Biological Supply Company Online catalogue of science equipment and teacher resources http://www.carolina.com Fisher Science Education Online catalogue of science equipment and teacher resources http://www.fishersci.com/education/index.jsp Frey Scientific Online catalogue of science equipment and teacher resources http://www.freyscientific.com/index.jsp NSTA’s Suppliers Guide National Science Teachers Association Suppliers of textbooks, reference works, computer programs, curriculum kits, and laboratory equipment http://suppliers.nsta.org RadioShack Online retailer of electronic parts, batteries, and accessories http://www.radioshack.com ScienceLab.com Discount supplier of science education materials and laboratory equipment http://www.sciencelab.com Ward’s Natural Science Supplier of materials for high school- and collegelevel biology and geology classes, as well as life, environmental, earth, and physical science studies in grades through http://www.wardsci.com Teacher resources – Equipment suppliers Abbe – Buridan INDEX The A–Z Glossary and other thematic Sections provide direct access to information The Index offers supplementary access to Sections to Page numbers in bold type indicate the main biographical note on individuals Abbe, Ernst, 156 Abel, Sir Frederick, 173 Abelson, Philip, 190 Abrikosov, Alexei A., 248 Absolute zero, 188, 217 Abu¯ ’Ali al-Hasan ibn alHaytham (Alhazen), 156, 209, 234 Acceleration, falling bodies, 178, 214 Accelerator, for electrons, 228 Acoustics, 201, 212, 228 Adsorption, 187 Aerodynamics, 185–186, 215, 228 Aiken, Howard H., 156 Aircraft, 169, 174 Airy, Sir George B., 156 Alferov, Zhores I., 248 Alfvén, Hannes O.G., 244 Algebra, 167, 178, 209 Alhazen see Abu¯ ’Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham Alpha decay, 178 Alpha particles, 172, 179, 185, 204, 205 Alpha rays, 220 Alternating current, 177, 202 Alvarez, Luis W., 156, 235, 244 Ammeter, 228 Ampere (amp), 156, 201, 220 Ampère, André M., 156 Amplification, 173, 243 Anaxagoras, 208 Anaximander, 208 Anaximines, 208 Anderson, Carl D., 157, 183, 222, 234, 241 Anderson, Philip W., 245 Andrews, Thomas, 229 Anemometer, 214 Angstrom, unit of length, 158 Ångström, Anders J., 157 Antiferromagnetism, 244 Antimatter, 157, 226, 228 Antineutrinos, 224, 228 Antiparticles, 228 Abbe – Buridan INDEX Antiprotons, 199, 224, 228, 243 Aperture synthesis technique, 245 Appleton layer, 241 Appleton, Sir Edward V., 241 Aqueducts, 209 Archimedes, 157, 209 Archimedes’ screw, 157, 209 Area, 157, 180, 195 Arfvedson, Johan A., 216 Argon, 201, 220 Aristotle, 208, 210 Armstrong, Edwin, 157, 221 Artificial intelligence, 176 Aryabhata, 209 Asaro, Frank, 156 Aspect, Alain, 161 Aspect experiment, 161 Astigmatism, 206 Aston, Francis W., 157, 221 Astronomy, 168, 178, 180, 181 Astrophysics, 162, 169, 174– 175, 187, 195, 248 Asymptotic freedom, 248 Atmosphere, upper, 203, 241 Atmospheric pressure, 193 Atom, 157–158, 169, 173, 194, 198, 202–203, 205, 208, 209, 240, 247 electron arrangement, 255 first split, 234 Hertzian resonance, 244 mass, 233 structure, 193, 240 term coined, 228 Atomic bomb, 163, 175, 192, 205 Atomic clocks, 246–247 Atomic fission, 221, 234 Atomic nuclei, 204, 223, 241, 242, 243, 245 Atomic particles, artificially accelerated, 242 Atomic physics, 203–204, 205 Atomic pile, 176 Atomic power, 175 Atomic states, parity of, 222 Atomic structure, 163, 166 Atomic theory, 182, 228, 240 Atomic weight, 215, 216, 228 Atwood, George, 214 Auer, Carl, 219 Auger effect, 221 Auger electrons, 157–158 Auger, Pierre, 157–158, 221 Auger showers, 157–158 Automorphic functions, 194– 195 Avogadro, Amedeo, 216 Baade, Wilhelm H.W., 158 Babbage, Charles, 158, 189, 217 Babinet, Jacques, 158 Bacon, Francis, 158 Bacon, Roger, 158, 210, 233 Bacterial genetics, 173 Bacteriophage genetics, 173 Baird, John Logie, 158–159 Balard, Antoine-J., 216 Ballistics, 197–198, 228 Bardeen, John, 159, 165–66, 200, 223, 236, 242, 244 Barkhausen, Heinrich G., 159 Barkla, Charles G., 159, 239 Barnard, Joseph E., 159 Barometer, 203 Bartholin, Erasmus, 159, 212 Bartlett, Neil, 224 Basov, Nikolay G., 160, 203, 243 Bates, Leslie F., 160 Battery, electric, 197, 204, 228 BCS-theory, 244 Beaufort, Francis, 215 Becquerel, Antoine-H., 160, 172, 235, 238 Bednorz, Johannes G., 160, 246 Békésy, Georg von, 160–161 Bell, Alexander G., 161 Bell, John S., 161 Berg, Otto C., 221 Bernal chart, 221 Bernal, John D., 161, 221 Bernoulli, Daniel, 161, 213, 232 Bernoulli effect, 213, 232 Bernoulli, Jakob, 161–162, 211 Bernoulli numbers, 161–162 Bernoulli’s theorem, 161–162 Berzelius, Jöns J., 215, 216 Beta decay, 176 Beta particles, 172, 220, 228 Beta rays, 220 Betatron, 228 Bethe, Hans A., 162, 244 Big bang theory, 163–164, 178 Binary systems, 199–200 Binnig, Gerd, 162, 246 Binomial distribution, 195 Biophysics, 195 Biot, Jean-B., 162 Bjerknes, Jacob A.B., 162 Bjerknes, Vilhelm F.K., 162 Black-body radiation, 165, 194, 201, 228 Blackett, Patrick M.S., Baron, 162–163, 242 Black holes, 182, 186, 192 Black, Joseph, 213, 231 Bloch, Felix, 163, 195, 223, 234, 242 Bloembergen, Nicholaas, 246 Bohm, David J., 163 Bohr, Aage N., 245 Bohr, Niels H.D., 163, 221, 234, 240 Boisbaudran, Paul-É.L de, 218–219, 219 Boltzmann, Ludwig E., 163, 218, 232 Bondi, Sir Hermann, 163–164 Boole, George, 164, 199–200 Boot, Henry A.H., 164 Borelli, Giovanni A., 164 Born, Max, 164, 242 Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), 226, 248 Bose-Einstein statistics, 165, 221 Bose, Satyendra Nath, 165, 221 Bose, Sir Jagadis C., 165 Boson particle, 165 Bothe, Walther, 242 Boundary layer, 195 Boyle, Robert, 165, 211, 228, 231 Boyle’s law, 165, 211, 228 Bragg, Sir W Henry, 165, 239 Bragg, Sir W Lawrence, 165, 165, 239 Brand, Hennig, 212 Brandt, Georg, 213 Brattain, Walter H., 159, 165– 166, 200, 223, 236, 242 Braun, Karl F., 190, 238 Brewster, Sir David, 166, 216, 228 Brewster’s law, 216, 228 Bridgman, Percy W., 166, 241 Brockhouse, Bertram N., 166, 200, 247 Broglie, Louis-V.-P.-R de, 166, 199, 202, 221, 229, 236, 240 Brownian motion, 216, 228–229 Brown, Robert, 216, 228–229 Bubble chamber, 180, 224, 243 Buckminsterfullerene (buckyball), 225 Bunsen burner, 166 Bunsen, Robert W., 166, 218, 235 Buridan, Jean, 210 INDEX 265 INDEX Bush, Vannevar, 166–167, 221 Cabeo, Niccolò, 167, 211 Calculating machines, 158, 193, 211, 217 Calculator, electromechanical, 156 Calculus, 161–162, 168, 211 differential, 192 of finite differences, 164 matrix, 182 of operators, 164 of variations, 186 Calorimeter, 214, 229 Cantor, George F.L.P., 167 Cantor’s set theory, 167 Capeller, M.A., 212 Capillary action, 210 Cardano, Geronimo, 167 Carlisle, Anthony, 215 Carlson, Chester F., 167 Carnot cycle, 167 Carnot, Nicolas-Léonard S., 167, 170 Cartwright, Edmund, 168 Carty, John J., 168 Casimir, Hendrik B.G., 168 Cassini, Gian Domenico (Jean-Dominique Cassini), 168 Catenary, the, 161–162 Cathode, 217 Cathode rays, 219, 229, 238 Cathode-ray tube, 172, 197, 198 CAT scanner, 184 Cauchy, Augustin-L., Baron, 168 Cavendish, Henry, 168, 213, 215, 231 Cavity magnetron, 164 Cayley, Sir George, 169, 215, 228 CDs, 160 Celsius, Anders, 213, 236 Celsius scale, 213, 236 CERN, 226 Cesium, 166, 186, 218 Chadwick, Sir James, 169, 222, 233, 241 Chain reaction nuclear fission, 222, 234 Chamberlain, Owen, 199, 228, 243 Chance, Britton, 169 Chandrasekhar limit, 169 Chandrasekhar, Subramanyan, 169, 246 Channel rays (canal rays), 219 Chaos theory, 220 INDEX 266 Bush – Electric discharges Charge conjugation, 222 Charles, Jacques-A.-C., 169– 170, 231 Charles’ law, 169–170, 178–179 Charpak, Georges, 247 Chemical chain reactions, 199 Chemical kinetics, 199 Chemical spectroscopy, 166 Chen Ning Yang, 193, 205–206, 243 Cherenkov effect, 170, 243 Cherenkov, Pavel A., 170, 222, 243 Cherenkov radiation, 222 Chronometer, 181–182 Chu, Steven, 170, 170–171, 194, 247 Clairaut, Alexis-C., 170 Clausius, Rudolf J.E., 170, 203, 218, 230, 236 Cleve, Per T., 219 Cloud chamber see Wilson cloud chamber COBOL, 184 Cockcroft, Sir John D., 170, 204, 222, 242 Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude, 170–171, 170, 194, 247 Coincidence method, 242 Color vision, 182, 206 Columbus, Christopher, 210 Compass, 210 Compton, Arthur H., 171, 205, 221, 234, 240 Compton effect, 171, 240 Computers, 158, 164, 199–200 analog, 166–167, 221 personal, 159, 172, 197 Condenser, electric, 186 Conductors, 179, 192–193, 230 Continental drift, 162–163, 183–184, 185 Conversion tables, 256 Conway, John H., 171 Cooper, Leon N., 159, 244 Copernican system, 178 Coriolis effect, 171 Coriolis, Gaspard-G de, 171, 217 Cormack, Allan, 184 Cornell, Eric A., 248 Corson, Dale, 223 Coryell, Charles, 223 Cosmic neutrinos, 248 Cosmic radiation, 162–163, 183, 191, 241, 242, 245, 248 Cosmology, 163–164, 174–175, 180 Coster, Dirk, 171, 221 Coulomb, Charles-A de, 171, 214, 229, 230 Coulomb’s law, 168, 171, 214, 229 Courtois, Bernard, 216 Cowan, Clyde L., 171, 224, 228 Crawford, Adair, 214 Crewe, Albert V., 225, 230 Crick, Francis, 165, 205 Cronin, James W., 245 Cronstedt, Axel F., 213 Crookes, Sir William, 172, 218, 219, 229, 235 Crookes tube, 172 Crystallization, 214, 229 Crystallography, 165, 212 Crystal structures, 221, 239 Cubic equations, 167 Curie, Marie, 160, 172, 172, 185, 194, 220, 238 Curie, Pierre, 160, 172, 172, 185, 219, 220, 229, 238 Curie point, 172, 205, 229 Curved space, 175, 197 Cyclotron, 188, 229, 241 Alembert, Jean Le R d’, 213 d’Alembert principle, 213 Dalén, Nils G., 239 Dalton, John, 215, 216, 228, 229, 233 Dalton’s law, 215, 229 Daniel, Johannes H., 223 Danysz, Marian, 223, 232 Darwin, Sir George H., 172 Davis, Raymond Jr., 233, 248 Davisson, Clinton J., 172–173, 202, 221, 241 Davy, Humphry, 215, 216 Debierne, André-L., 220 de Broglie relationship, 229 de Broglie’s theory, 172–173 Debye, the, 173 Debye, Peter J.W., 173 Decimal fractions, 201 Decimal notation, 209 De Forest, Lee, 173 Dehmelt, Hans G., 173, 247 Delafontaine, Marc, 219 Delbrỹck, Max, 173 Demarỗay, Eugène-Anatole, 220 Democritus, 208, 228 DENDRAL, 176 Descartes, René, 211, 232 Dewar flask, 173 Bush – Electric discharges Dewar, Sir James, 173, 232 Diamagnetism, 217 Dielectric constants, 173 Diesel engine, 174 Diesel, Rudolf, 174 Differential analyzer, 166–167 Differential calculus, 192 Differential equations, 186 Diffraction grating, 216 Diophantus, 209 Dipole moments, 173 Dirac, Paul A.M., 174, 199, 228, 230, 240 Direct current, 177 Disordered systems, 245 DNA, 165, 179, 205 Doppler, Christian J., 174, 217, 230 Doppler effect, 174, 175–176, 200, 217, 230, 239 Dorn, Friedrich E., 220 Douglas, Donald W., 174 Du Fay, Charles-F., 213, 235 E = mc2, 204, 220 Earth, 156, 175, 177, 181, 183–184, 185, 189, 199 dimensions, 170, 181, 209 magnetic field, 175, 178, 179, 188, 203 Earth-Moon system, 172 Earthquakes, 222 Eastman, George, 174 Eddington, Sir Arthur S., 174– 175 Edison effect, 197, 219 Edison, Thomas A., 197, 202, 219 Eightfold Way, 224 Einstein, Albert, 165, 174, 175, 178, 186, 188–189, 189, 190, 194–195, 197, 221, 222, 226, 228–229, 231, 234, 235, 239 equation, E = mc2, 204, 220 Ekeberg, Anders G., 215 Elastic bodies, 184, 231 Elasticity, 206, 230 Electrical attraction, 230 Electrically charged particles, paths of, 240 Electrical potential, 168 Electrical resistance, 182–183, 204–205 Electric battery, 204 Electric capacitor, 186 Electric current, 182–183, 186, 192–193, 193–194 Electric discharges, 182–183 Electric dry cell– Gray Electric dry cell, first, 197 Electricity, 168, 190, 192, 192– 193, 197, 199, 204, 212, 230, 240 atmospheric, 205 and chemical change, 215 conduction, 163, 177 and gases, 238 and magnetism, 179 positive and negative states, 213, 230 Electric light, 202, 219 Electric motor, 182–183, 216, 230 Electric relay, 182–183 Electric switching circuits, 199–200 Electric waves, polarization and reflection, 165 Electrode, 217 Electrodynamics, 156 Electrolysis, 176, 197, 217, 230 Electrolyte, 217 Electromagnetic effects, 167 Electromagnetic field theory, 176 Electromagnetic induction, 176, 182–183, 201, 217 Electromagnetic interaction, 245 Electromagnetic mass, 219 Electromagnetic radiation, 189, 190 Electromagnetic spectrum, 252 Electromagnetic theory and probability, 195 Electromagnetic waves, 174, 183, 190, 233 Electromagnetism, 188, 190, 216, 218, 230 Electromagnets, 176, 182–183, 186, 201, 216, 230 Electronics, 173 Electron optics, 246 Electrons, 173, 191, 93, 197, 202, 202–203, 205, 220, 221, 223, 228, 229, 240 arrangement of atoms, 255 Auger, 157–158 deep inelastic scattering, 247 diffraction, 202, 202–203, 221, 241 magnetic moment, 242 mass, 220, 230 quantum behavior, 199 wave nature, 221, 229, 240 Electron scattering, 172–173, 243 Electric dry cell– Gray INDEX Electroscope, 192 Electroweak interactions, 248 Elementary charge, 240 Elementary particles, 223, 243, 244, 245 Elements, 165, 198, 208, 211, 246 man-made, 190 periodic table, 218, 234, 254– 255 radioactive, 185, 241 Elhuyar y de Suvisa, Fausto and José d’, 214 Elsasser, Walter M., 175 Empedocles, 208 Energy, 215, 253 conservation of, 167, 185, 229 equivalence of, 182, 204 kinetic, 171, 196, 197–198 potential, 196 Entomology, 196 Entropy, 170, 230 Epicurus, 208 Eratosthenes, 209 Esaki, Leo, 244 Ether, the, 188–189, 191 Euclid, 175, 209 Evenson, Kenneth M., 225 Ewing, William M., 175 Exclusion principle, 187, 241 Eye focusing, 206 Eyeglasses, 210 Fabry, Marie P.A.C., 175–176 Fabry-Perot interferometer, 175–176 Fahrenheit, Daniel G., 176, 212, 236 Fahrenheit scale, 236 Falling bodies, 178, 214 Faraday, Michael, 176, 182– 183, 190, 201, 216, 217, 230, 232, 233 Feigenbaum, Edward A., 176 Fermat number, 225 Fermat, Pierre de, 176 Fermat’s last theorem, 176, 225 Fermi-Dirac statistics, 176, 230 Fermi, Enrico, 176, 222, 230, 233, 234, 241 Fermions, 176, 230 Ferrimagnetism, 244 Ferromagnetism, 204, 205 Feynman diagrams, 177 Feynman, Richard P., 177, 223, 243–244 Field particles W and Z, 246 Fitch, Val Logsdon, 245 FitzGerald, George F., 188–189, 219 FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction, 188–189, 219 Fizeau, Hippolyte-A.-L., 177 Fleming, Sir John A., 177 Fluid dynamics, 187 Fluid flow viscosity, 201 Fluid mechanics, 195 Fluids, super, 248 Fluorescence, 218 Foucault, Jean-B.-L., 177, 218 Foucault’s pendulum, 177 Fourier analysis, 177 Fourier, Jean-B.-J., Baron, 177 Fowler, William A., 169, 246 Fractions, continued, 161 Frame dragging, 226 Franck, James, 240 Frank, Ilya M., 170, 243 Franklin, Benjamin, 213, 230 Franklin, Rosalind, 205 Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 177, 216 Fraunhofer lines, 177 Free fall, law of, 210 Frequency modulation (FM), 221 Fresnel, Augustin-J., 178, 216 Friction, 171, 210, 214, 230 Friedman, Jerome I., 247 Fritts, Charles, 234 Frontinus, Sextus Julius, 209 Fukui, Saburo, 224 Gabor, Dennis, 244 Gadolin, Johan, 214 Gahn, Johan G., 214 Galilei, Galileo (known as Galileo), 178, 210, 233, 234, 235, 236 Galvanometer, 199, 216 Gamma rays, 172, 230, 243 Gamow, George, 178 Gas accumulators, 239 Gas chemistry, 168 Gascoigne, William, 211 Gaseous discharges, 187 Gases, 165, 178–179, 204, 211, 215, 231, 232, 238, 239, 248 in blood, 189 Boyle’s law, 228 critical temperature, 229 Dalton’s law, 229 diffusion, 180, 217, 229, 231 Henry’s law, 231 kinetic theory of, 161, 163, 170, 190, 218, 232 laws, 231 noble, 224 pressure, 169–170, 215 pressure and volume, 211 refractive indices, 162 speed of flow, 189 temperature, 185 Gassendi, Pierre, 211, 233 Gauss, Carl F., 178, 197 Gaussian coordinates, 178 Gay-Lussac, Joseph-L., 162, 169–170, 178–179, 215, 216 Gearing, differential, 209 Geiger counter, 231 Geiger, Johannes H.W., 179, 231 Gell-Mann, Murray, 179, 224, 244 Generators, 176 Gennes, Pierre-G de, 247 Geological time scale, 183–184 Geometric propositions, 208 Geometry, 175, 176, 180, 193, 197 of curved surfaces, 178 non-Euclidean, 175, 178, 197 Germer, Lester, 172–173 Ghiorso, Albert, 223–334, 224, 225 Giacconi, Riccardo, 248 Giaever, Ivar, 244 Gilbert, Walter, 179 Gilbert, William, 179, 210, 230 Ginzburg, Vitaly L., 248 Glaser, Donald A., 180, 224, 243 Glashow, Sheldon L., 245 Glauber, Roy J., 248 Glendenin, Lawrence, 223 Gödel, Kurt, 180 Gödel’s proof, 180 Goeppert-Mayer, Maria, 205, 223, 243 Goldhaber, Maurice, 222, 233 Goldstein, Eugen, 219, 229 Graaff, Robert Van de, 236 Graham’s law, 180, 217, 231 Graham, Thomas, 180, 217, 229, 231 Gravitation, 187, 192, 247 law of universal, 231 a property of space, 231 quantum theory, 182 Gravitational constant, 215, 231 Gray, Stephen, 180, 212, 230 INDEX 267 INDEX Gregor, William, 214 Gregory, David, 180 Gregory, James, 180 Grimaldi, Francesco M., 180– 181 Gross, David J., 248 Group theory, 171 Guericke, Otto von, 181, 211, 235 Guillaume, Charles É., 239 Gutenberg, Beno, 181 Gutenberg, Johannes, 181 Hadrons, 223, 224 Hahn, Otto, 221, 222, 234 Hall, Edwin H., 219 Hall effect, 219, 246 Halley, Edmond (Edmund), 181 Halley’s comet, 181 Hall, John L., 248 Halogens, 178–179 Hamilton, Sir William R., 181 Hänsch, Theodor W., 248 Harmonic analyzer, 203 Harrison, John, 181–182 Hatchett, Charles, 215 Hauksbee, Francis, 182, 212 Hauptman, Herbert, 185 Hawking, Stephen W., 182 Hawkins, Joel, 225 Heat, 196, 202, 204, 217, 231, 239 a form of energy, 185, 231 a form of motion, 213, 231 friction-generated, 214 latent, 213 Heat engine, 167 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 182 Heisenberg, Werner K., 182, 221, 240 Helium-3, 193, 224 superfluidity, 188, 197, 247 Helium, 187, 193, 218, 220, 239, 243 Helmholtz, Hermann L.F von, 182, 183, 217, 229, 236 Helmont, Jan B van, 211, 231 Henry, unit, 182–183 Henry, Joseph, 182–183, 217 Henry’s law, 215, 231 Henry, William, 215, 231 Herring, William C., 222 Herschel, William, 215, 231 Hertz, Gustav L., 240 Hertz, Heinrich R., 183, 190, 219, 234 Hertz (Hz), unit, 183 INDEX 268 Gregor – Light emitting diode Hertzian resonance, 244 Hess, Victor F., 157, 183, 241 Hevesy, Georg von, 171, 221 Hewish, Antony, 245 High particle acceleration, 188 High particle physics, 156 High pressure physics, 241 High-speed electronics, 248 Hisinger, Wilhelm, 215 Hjelm, Peter J., 214 Hoecke, Vander, 210 Hofstadter, Robert, 183, 243 Hollerith, Herman, 183 Holmes, Arthur, 183–184 Holographic method, 244 Holonyak, Nick Jr., 232 Hooke, Robert, 184, 212, 230, 231 Hooke’s law, 184, 212, 231 Hopper, Grace, 184 Hounsfield, Sir Godfrey N., 184 Hubble, Edwin, 158 Hulse, Russell A., 247 Huygens, Christiaan, 184, 211, 212, 232, 233 Huygens’ principle, 184 Hydraulics, 203 Hydrodynamics, 161, 162, 203, 211, 213, 231 Hydrogen, 157, 213 allotropic forms, 240 atom, 221 Hydrogen bomb, 198 Hydrogen bubble chamber, 244 Hydrogen maser, 246–247 Hydrogen spectrum, 193, 242 Hydrostatics, 157, 201, 210, 231 Hyperons, 223 Ice calorimeter, 166 Iceland felspar (calcite), 159 Iceland spar, 192 Impetus, 210 Inductance, 182–183, 204–205 Induction coil, 198, 217 Information theory, 199–200 Infrared radiation, 203, 215, 231 Insulators, 179 Integrals, 161–162, 195 Integrated circuit, 248 Interference, 178 Interferometer, 175–176, 191, 220, 231 Ion, 217 Ionizing radiation, 224 Ion trap technique, 247 Isostasy, theory of, 156 Isotopes, 157, 221, 232 Jansky, the, 184 Jansky, Karl G., 184 Janssen, Pierre-J.-C., 218 Janssen, Zacharias, 233 Jeffreys, Sir Harold, 185 Jensen, J Hans D., 205, 243 Joliot-Curie, Irène, 169, 185, 235 Joliot-Curie, Jean-Frédéric, 169, 185, 222, 235 Josephson, Brian D., 244–245 Josephson effects, 245 Joule, unit, 185 Joule, James P., 170, 185, 217, 218, 229, 231, 232, 236 Joule’s laws, 217, 232 Joule-Thomson effect, 218 Junction transistors, 165–166, 200 Kaons (K-mesons), 188, 232 Kapitsa, Pyotr L., 185, 245 Karle, Jerome, 185 Kármán, Theodore von, 185– 186 Kármán vortex street, 185–186 Kastler, Alfred, 244 Kelvin, Baron see Thomson, William (1st Baron Kelvin) Kelvin scale, 203, 232 Kendall, Henry W., 247 Kerr effect, 186, 219 Kerr, John, 186, 219 Kerr, Roy P., 186 Kersi, Donald, 228 Ketterle, Wolfgang, 248 Kilby, Jack S., 248 Kirchhoff, Gustav R., 166, 183, 186, 218 Kirchhoff’s laws, 186 Klaproth, Martin H., 214, 215 Kleist, Ewald G von, 186, 213, 232 Klitzing, Klaus von, 246 K-mesons (kaons), 223, 224, 245 Knoll, Max, 222, 230 Knot theory, 171 Koshiba, Masatoshi, 248 Kramers, H.A., 222 Kroemer, Herbert, 248 Krypton, 220 Kusch, Polykarp, 242 Lagrange, Joseph-L., Comte, 186, 214 Lagrangian function, 186, 214 Lambda particle, 223 Lamb, Willis E., 242 Gregor – Light emitting diode Landau, Lev D., 187, 243 Landé, Alfred, 187, 221 Land, Edwin H., 186–187 Langevin, Paul, 187, 235 Langmuir, Irving, 187 Lanxides, 225 Laplace, Pierre-S., Marquis de, 187, 214, 229 Laplace transforms, 187 Larmor, Sir Joseph, 188 Lasers, 160, 189–190, 194, 203, 224, 232, 243, 247 pulsed, 160 semiconductor, 160 Laser spectroscopy, 246, 248 Laue, Max von, 239 Laughlin, Robert B., 248 Lauterbur, Paul, 234 Lavoisier, Antoine-L., 214, 229, 233 Lawrence, Ernest O., 188, 229, 241 LED, 232 Lederman, Leon M., 188, 246 Lee, David M., 188, 193, 197, 247 Lee, Tsung Dao, 193, 205–206, 243 Leggett, Anthony J., 248 Leibnitz, Gottfried, 192 Lemtre, Georges-H., 178 Lenard, Philipp E.A., 238 Lenses, 156, 178, 180, 188, 209, 253 Leonardo da Vinci, 210, 230 Leptons, 223, 246 see also Tauon (tau lepton) Leucippus, 208, 228 Leyden jar, 186, 192, 213, 232 Lift, 213, 232 Light, 157, 184, 192, 196, 232 diffraction, 178, 180–181, 216, 232 incidence, 228 plane-polarized, 162, 166, 186, 192 polarized, 159, 176 propagation, 189 refraction, 189, 200, 232 scattering, 203, 240 spectral lines, 206 speed, 177, 191, 212, 218 wavelength, 231 waves, 178, 180–181, 190, 206, 212, 232 white, 211, 232 Light emitting diode (LED), 232 Lightning – Nuclear processes Lightning, 213 Lind, James, 214 Lines of force, 211 Lippershey, Hans, 188, 210, 235 Lippmann, Gabriel-J., 238 Liquid crystals, 247 Lisle, Jean R de, 214, 229 Lockyer, Joseph N., 218 Logarithmic scales, 193 Logarithmic spiral, 161–162 Logarithms, 191, 210, 211 Logic, symbolic, 164 Lomonosov, Mikhail, 213, 231 London, Heinz, 188, 224 Longitude, at sea, 181–182 Lorentz force, 220 Lorentz, Hendrik A., 188–189, 206, 220, 238 Lorenz, Ludwig V., 189 Love, Augustus E.H., 189 Lovelace, Ada, Countess, 158, 189 Love waves, 189 Low-temperature physics, 168, 187, 245 Lucretius, 209 Mach angle, 189 Mach, Ernst, 189 Mach number, 189 Mackenzie, K.R., 223 Magdeburg hemispheres, 181 Magnetic compass, 209, 210 Magnetic domains, 159 Magnetic fields, 185, 192–193, 200, 206 Earth’s, 162–163, 175, 179, 188, 210 Sun’s, 188 Magnetic force, 190, 204, 233 Magnetic moment, 241, 242 Magnetic poles, 210 Magnetic precision measurements, nuclear, 242 Magnetic resonance, 196, 222 Magnetic systems, 245 Magnetism, 160, 162, 172, 176, 179, 187, 233, 238 and atomic nuclei, 241 Curie point, 229 Magnetization, 159 Magnetohydrodynamics, 244 Magneto-optical effect, 186 Magnetostriction, 185 Magnetron, cavity, 164 Magnifying glass, 210, 233 Magnus, Albertus, 210 Magnus effect, 189 Magnus, Heinrich G., 189 Maiman, Theodore, 189–190, 224, 232 Manometer, 211, 233 Marconi, Guglielmo, 190, 238 Marignac, Jean-C de, 219 Marinsky, J.A., 223 Masers, 160, 203, 224, 233, 243, 246–247 Mass, conservation of, 229 Mass-energy equation, Einstein’s, 175 Mass spectrograph, 157 Mass spectrometer data, 176 Mathematical physics, 161 Mathematics, 167, 178, 194– 195, 208, 209 Matrix calculus, 182 Matrix mathematics, 221 Matter, 208, 215, 240 at low temperatures, 185, 239 atomic theory, 208, 211, 233 condensed, 243 conservation of, 229 four-element theory, 208 primary, 208 and radiation, 170–171, 194 three states, 233 Maxwell equations, 218, 233 Maxwell, James C., 188, 189, 190, 218, 232, 233 McMillan, Edwin M., 190 Measurement nuclear magnetic precision, 242 precision, 239 standard units, 209 Mechanical analytical engine, 189 Mechanics, 186, 195, 233 celestial, 187, 194–195 Meer, Simon van der, 246 Meitner, Lise, 190–191, 221, 222, 234 Mendeleyev, Dmitry, 218, 234 Mercury, transit of, 181 Mesons, 195, 223, 233, 242 Metals, and electricity, 163, 193–194 Meteorite, 156 Meteorology, 168, 199, 204 Michel, Helen, 156 Michelson, Albert A., 191, 191, 220, 231, 238 Michelson-Morley experiment, 188–189, 191 Micrometer, 211 Lightning – Nuclear processes INDEX Microscope, 180, 184, 203 compound, 233 electron, 222, 230, 246 field-emission needle-tip, 191 field ion, 224 optical, 159 phase contrast, 242 scanning electron, 225 scanning tunneling, 162, 225, 246 Microwaves, centimetric, 164 Microwave technology, 159 Millikan, Robert A., 191, 240 Mineralogy, 199 Minerals, classification, 209 Mirrors, 156, 209 Miyamoto, Shotaro, 224 Moissan, Henri, 219 Molecular beams, 222 Molecular biology, 161 Molecular ray method, 241 Molecular structures, 173 Molecules, 173, 216, 233 Molybdenum, 214 Moon, 180–181, 187 Morley, Edward W., 191, 191 Morse code messages, 190 Mosander, Carl G., 217 Moscow Papyrus, 208 Moseley, Henry G.J., 191 Mössbauer effect, 243 Mössbauer, Rudolf L., 183, 243 Motion, 208, 210, 233, 245 FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction, 219 and heat, 202 laws of, 178, 233 particle, 245 Mottelson, Ben R., 245 Mott, Sir Nevill F., 245 Mueller, Erwin W., 191, 224 Müller, Franz J., 214 Müller, K Alexander, 160, 246 Müller, Walther, 179 Multiwire proportional chamber, 247 Muon neutrino, 246 Muons, 157, 188, 222, 223, 233 Muscular action, 164, 182 Music, physics of, 182 Musschenbroek, Pieter van, 212, 213, 232 Muzzle velocity, 197–198 Napier, John, 191, 193, 210 Napier’s bones, 191 Nebulae, 181 Néel, Louis E.F., 244 Neon, 220 Nernst, Walther H., 236 Neutrino beam method, 246 Neutrinos, 171, 176, 188, 194, 196–197, 223, 226, 233, 247 cosmic, 248 muon, 246 Neutron capture, 205 Neutron diffraction technique, 247 Neutron irradiation, 241 Neutrons, 169, 183, 198, 247 discovery of, 185, 222, 233, 241 magnetic movement, 222 mass, 222, 233 slow, 241 Neutron scattering, 200 Neutron scattering analysis, 166 Neutron spectroscopy, 247 Newton’s gravitational constant, 168 Newton, Sir Isaac, 178, 192, 211, 212, 231, 232, 233, 235 Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation, 212 Nicholson, William, 215 Nickel, 213 Nicol prism, 192, 217 Nicol, William, 192, 217 Nilson, Lars, 219 Nitrogen, discovered, 214 NMR see Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Noddack, Walter, 221 Nollet, Jean-A., 192, 213 Nonparity theory, 193 Nuclear chain reaction, 234 Nuclear fission, 234 Nuclear force, strong, 206 Nuclear interaction, 193 Nuclear magnetic precision measurements, 242 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 163, 234 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning, 195 Nuclear physics, 163, 187, 202–203, 203–204, 205, 242 Nuclear processes, photographic method, 242 INDEX 269 INDEX Nuclear reactions, 222, 241, 244, 246 Nuclear shell structure, 243 Nuclear spin resonance, 195 Nucleons, 223, 243 Nucleus, 228 of atom, split, 222 shell model of atomic, 223 Numbers complex, 181 magic, 223 prime, 225 theory of, 176, 178, 186, 194–195 Nutation, 185 Oceans, 171, 175 Oganessian, Yuri, 226 Ohm, unit, 201 Ohm, Georg S., 192, 216, 234 Ohm’s law, 168, 192, 216, 234 Oil films on water, 187 Onnes, Heike K., 235, 239 Ophthalmoscope, 182 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 163, 192 Optical density, 189 Optical diffraction, 180–181 Optical frequency comb technique, 248 Optical interferometer, 191 Optics, 156, 166, 178, 180, 182, 190, 201, 210, 212, 234, 238 electron, 246 geometrical, 176, 210 Opto-electronics, 248 Ørsted, Hans C., 156, 192–193, 216, 228, 230 Oscillators, 243 ultrahigh-frequency, 159 Osheroff, Douglas D., 188, 193, 197, 247 Osmosis, 192 Osmotic pressure, 213 Oughtred, William, 193, 211 Oxygen discovered, 214 liquid, 232 Packing fraction, 221 Paramagnetism, 187, 217 Parity laws, 243 Particle accelerator, 170, 203–204, 224, 229 Particle detectors, 247 Particle physics, 194, 247 high, 156 Particles, 161, 182, 228 associated waves, 236 INDEX 270 Nuclear reactions – Radioisotopes Brownian motion, 228–229 elementary, 243, 243–244 identity of, 199 negatively charged, 229 subatomic, 179, 180 see also Alpha particles; Beta particles Particle tracts, 195 Pascal, programming language, 193 Pascal, Blaise, 193, 211, 234 Pascal’s law, 211, 234 Paschen, Louis, 193, 220 Paschen series of lines, 220 Pauling, Linus C., 222 Pauli principle, 193, 241 Pauli, Wolfgang, 171, 193, 233, 241 Paul, Wolfgang, 173, 247 Peltier effect, 193–194, 217, 234 Peltier, Jean-C.-A., 193–194, 199, 217, 234 Pendulum, 178, 210, 234 ballistic, 197–198 gridiron, 181–182 Pentaquark, 226 Penzias, Arno A., 178, 185, 245 Perey, Marguerite C., 194, 223 Periodic table, 218, 234, 254–255 Perl, Martin L., 194, 196–197, 235, 247 Peroxidase, 169 Perpetual motion, 167, 201 Perrin, Jean-B., 240 Phase contrast method, 242 Phase transitions, 246 Phillips, William D., 170, 170– 171, 194, 247 Phosphorus, 212 Photocopying, dry, 167 Photoelectric cell, 234 Photoelectric effect, 219, 234, 239, 240 Photography, 159, 238 carbon printing, 202 color, 238 dry plate and film, 174, 202 Polaroid-Land camera, 186– 187 roll film, 174 Photon, 221, 234 Physical chemistry, 180 Physics, term, 212 Pi, calculated to billion digits, 225 Piezoelectricity, 172, 219 Piezoelectric transducers, 187 Pi-meson, 195, 206, 233 Pion, 195, 206, 233 Planck, Max K.E.L., 165, 190, 194, 220, 234, 239 Planck’s constant, 194 Planck’s radiation law, 220 Planets, 168, 178, 187, 191, 212 Plasma physics, 244 Plate tectonic theory, 175 Platinum fluoride, 224 Plutonium, 199, 223 Pniewski, Jerzy, 223, 232 Poincaré, Jules-H., 194–195, 220 Point-contact transistor, 165– 166 Poisson distribution, 195 Poisson, Siméon-D., 195 Polarimetry, 192 Polarization, 165, 178, 184 Polarized light, 176 Politzer, H David, 248 Polymers, 247 Polyphase AC system, 202 Positive anti-electron, 192 Positive feedback, 157 Positron, 157, 234, 241 Potential energy, 218 Powell, Cecil F., 195, 223, 233, 242 Power loom, 168 Prandtl, Ludwig, 195 Pressure and boiling point, 176 Pascal’s law, 234 very high, 166 Priestley, Joseph, 214 Printing, 181 Prisms, improved, 177 Probability, 161–162, 176, 187, 193, 194–195 Projectiles, science of, 189 see also Ballistics Prokhorov, Aleksandr M., 160, 203, 243 Proof theory, 180 Proteins, 187 Proton, 178, 183, 221, 234, 241, 247 Proton linear accelerator, 156 Protostar, 226 Pulley system, Multiple, 209 Pulsars, 245, 247 Punched card data system, 183 Purcell, Edward M., 163, 195, 234, 242 Nuclear reactions – Radioisotopes Pythagoras, 195 Pythagorean Brotherhood, 208 Pythagorean theorem, 208 Quanta, 194, 234, 239 Quantum behavior of electrons, 199 Quantum electrodynamics, 177, 196, 223, 243–244 Quantum electronics, 243 Quantum field theory, 187 Quantum fluid, 248 Quantum mechanics, 164, 165, 174, 182, 192, 240, 242 Quantum numbers, 221 Quantum physics, 201, 234 Quantum properties of up and down, 179 Quantum statistics, 176 Quantum structure of electroweak interactions, 248 Quantum theory, 163, 166, 172– 173, 177, 194, 196, 221, 234, 248 Quantum theory of gravity, 182 Quantum tunneling, 178 Quantum wave mechanics, 199 Quark, 179 bottom, 188 pentaquark, 226 Quark model, 247 Quasi-crystal, 225 Quaternions, 181 Rabi, Isidor I., 196, 222, 241 Radar, 163–164, 195, 203, 204, 222, 235 Radiation, 238, 240 background, 183, 245 black-body law, 165 cosmic, 242, 245 and elements, 239 and matter, 170, 170–171, 194 wavelength of, 228 Radio, 157, 173, 183, 190, 197, 198 Radioactive elements, 241 artificial, 185, 241 Radioactive isotopes, 188 Radioactivity, 160, 172, 220, 235 artificial, 222, 235 spontaneous, 238 Radio astronomy, 184, 195 Radio astrophysics, 245 Radio emission strength, 184 Radioimmunoassay, 205 Radioisotopes, 235 Radiometer – Telescope Radiometer, 172, 219, 235 Radio proximity fuse, 203 Radio waves, 204 Radium, 172, 220 Radon, 220 Rahn, Johann H., 211 Rainwater, Leo J., 245 Raman effect, 196 Raman, Sir Chandrasekhara V., 196, 240 Raman spectroscopy, 196 Ramsay, William, 201, 220 Ramsey, Norman F., 173, 246– 247 Ramus, Petrus, 210 Randall, John, 164 Rankine, William J.M., 196, 218 Rayleigh, Baron see Strutt, John W (Lord Rayleigh) Ra¯ zi, Abu¯ Bakr ar-, 209 Réaumur porcelain, 196 Réaumur, René-A.F de, 196, 213, 236 Réaumur scale, 196 Rectifier, 177 Reflection, 210 of electric waves, 165 Refraction, 210, 211, 232, 235 double, 159, 212 Refractive index, 166 Reich, Ferdinand, 196, 218 Reines, Frederick, 171, 194, 196–197, 224, 228, 247 Relativity, 174, 194–195, 226 general theory of, 175, 180, 186, 221, 235 special theory of, 175, 188–189, 197, 220, 235 Repressor molecule, 179 Resistance, unit of (ohm), 192 Resistance particles, 235 Resonance, concept, 222 Resonance method, 241 Resonance states, 244 Rhazes (Abu¯ Bakr ar-Ra¯ zi), 209 Richardson, Robert C., 188, 193, 197, 247 Richardson, Sir Owen W., 197, 220, 240 Richardson’s law, 240 Richter, Burton, 245 Richter, Charles, 222 Richter, Hieronymous, 196 Richter scale, 222 Richter, Theodor, 218 Riemann, Georg F.B., 175, 197 Rifles, 197–198 Radiometer – Telescope INDEX Rio, Andrés M del, 215 Ritter, Johann W., 197, 215, 236 Robins, Benjamin, 197–198, 228 Rockets, 203 Rocks, ages of, 183–184 Roemer, Olaus, 212 Rohrer, Heinrich, 162, 246 Röntgen, Wilhelm C., 160, 198, 236, 238 Rubbia, Carlo, 246 Rubidium, 166, 186, 218 Ruhmkorff, Heinrich, 198, 218 Ruhmkorff induction coil, 218 Rumford, Count see Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford) Ruska, Ernst, 162, 222, 230, 246 Rutherford, Daniel, 214 Rutherford, Ernest (1st Baron Rutherford), 163, 179, 198, 220, 221, 228, 234 Rydberg, Johannes R., 198 Ryle, Sir Martin, 245 Sakharov, Andrey D., 198 Salam, Abdus, 245 Satellites, artificial, 203 Saussure, Horace-B de, 199 Saussurite, 199 Sauveur, Joseph, 212, 228 Scanners CAT, 184 high resolution, 196 NMR, 195 Schawlow, Arthur L., 246 Schechtman, Dan S., 225 Scheele, Carl W., 213, 214 Schrieffer, John R., 159, 244 Schrödinger, Erwin, 163, 174, 199, 236, 240 Schwartz, Melvin, 188, 246 Schweigger, Johann S.C., 199, 216 Schwinger, Julian, 243–244 Scientific method, 158, 211 Seaborg, Glenn T., 190, 223 Sedimentation equilibrium, 240 Seebeck effect, 199 Seebeck, Thomas J., 199, 216, 236 Sefström, Nils G., 217 Segrè, Emilio G., 199, 223, 228, 243 Seismic waves, 189 Seismology, 181 Semenov, Nikolay N., 199 Semiconductor heterostructures, 248 Semiconductor lasers, 160 Semiconductors, 242, 244 Separated oscillatory fields method, 246–247 Set theory, 167 Shannon, Claude E., 199–200 Shockley, William B., 159, 165–166, 200, 223, 236, 242 Shock wave, 189 Shull, Clifford G., 166, 200, 247 Siegbahn, Karl M.G., 240, 246 Silicon, 216 Silk, artificial, 202 SI units, symbols, 250, 251 Skin friction, 195 Sklodowska, Marie see Curie, Marie Slide rules, 191, 193, 211 Slowinski, David, 225 Snell’s law, 200, 211, 235 Snell, Willebrord, 200, 211, 232, 235 Sniadecki, Jedrzej, 216 Soddy, Frederick, 221, 232 Sodium, 187, 206, 215 Solar system, origin, 187 Solid-state physics, 163, 187, 244 Solubility of compounds, 178–179 Sonar, 187, 235 Soret, Jacques-L., 219 Sound, 189, 195, 212, 230 decibels, 250 intensity and loudness, 250 Sound waves, 174, 175 Space-time, 182 Spark chamber, 224 Spectacles, 188 Spectral lines, 200, 239 Spectrograph, mass, 157 Spectroscope, 187, 235, 238 Spectroscopic lines, 198 Spectroscopy, 157, 186, 196 chemical, 166 electron, 246 laser, 246, 248 neutron, 247 Raman, 196 X-ray, 240 Stampfer, Simon von, 217 Stark effect, 221 Stark, Johannes, 200, 221, 239 Stars, 158, 162, 169, 174–175, 192, 244, 246 Static electricity, 180, 203–204, 210, 211, 213, 235 Statistics, 163, 195 Bose-Einstein, 165 Steady state theory, 163–164 Stefan, Josef, 201, 219, 228 Stefan’s law, 201, 219, 228 Steinberger, Jack, 188, 246 Stern, Otto, 201, 222, 241 Stevin, Simon (Simon Stevinus), 201, 210, 231 Stokes’ law, 201 Stokes, Sir George G., 201, 218 Störmer, Horst L., 248 Strangeness, 179 Streamlining, 195 Stroboscope, 217 Strohmeyer, Friedrich, 216 Strong interaction, 248 Strutt, John W (Lord Rayleigh), 201, 220, 238 Sturgeon, William, 201, 216, 230 Subatomic particle physics, 198 Subatomic particles, 179, 180, 226 Sulfuric acid, 210 Sun, 168, 177, 201, 202 Superconductivity, 159, 160, 168, 187, 188, 235, 244, 246 Superconductors, 244, 248 Supercurrent, 244–245 Superfluidity, 185, 187, 193, 222 in helium-3, 188, 197, 247 Superheterodyne circuit, 157 Supernovae, 158 Surface chemistry, 187 Swan, Sir Joseph W., 202, 219 Symbolic logic, 164, 199–200 Symbols for constants, 250 electrical, 252 Greek letter pi, 212 in mathematics, 193, 209, 210, 211, 250 Symmetry principles, fundamental, 243 Tacke, Ida, 221 Tamm, Igor Y., 170, 243 Tauon (tau lepton), 194, 196–197, 235, 247 Taylor, Joseph H., Jr., 247 Taylor, Richard E., 247 Telegraph electric, 204–205 wireless, 238 Telephone, 161, 168, 172–173 Telescope, 177, 184, 188, 203, 235 INDEX 271 INDEX reflecting, 180, 192, 212, 235 refracting, 178, 210 Television, 158–159, 172, 197 Temperature, 188, 231 absolute, 187 critical, 229 Curie point, 229 very low, 188, 193, 197, 224, 225 Temperature scales, 176, 185, 203, 232, 235–236 Tennant, Smithson, 215 Terrestrial magnetism, 168 Tesla coil, 202 Tesla, Nikola, 202 Thales, 202, 208 Thénard, Louis-J., 216 Theoretical physics, 205–206, 239 Thermionic diode, 177 Thermionics, 197, 240 Thermionic valves, 197, 200 Thermodynamics, 162, 163, 167, 170, 187, 196, 217, 236 first law, 217, 229, 236 second law, 203, 218, 230, 236 third law, 236 Thermoelectricity, 216, 236 Thermometers, 176, 178, 196, 210, 235–236 alcohol, 213, 236 high-temperature, 199 mercury, 212, 236 Thermometry, 168 Thermos flask, 173 Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford), 202, 214 Thomson, Sir George P., 172– 173, 202, 221, 241 Thomson, Sir Joseph J., 157, 163, 202–203, 219, 220, 221, 229, 230, 232, 238 Thomson, William (1st Baron Kelvin), 185, 203, 217, 218, 232, 236 INDEX 272 Television – Zirconium Tides, 187, 203 Ting, Samuel C.C., 245 Tomography, 184 Tomonaga, Shinichiro¯ , 243–244 Topology, 194–195 Torricellian tube, 203 Torricelli, Evangelista, 203, 211, 231 Townes, Charles H., 160, 189–190, 203, 224, 233, 243 Transformer, 176, 217 Transistor amplifier, 200 Transistors, 223, 236, 242 junction, 165–166 point-contact, 159, 165–166 Transmutation of atomic nuclei, 242 Travers, Morris W., 220 Triangulation, 200 Trichromatic theory, 182 Trigonometry abbreviations, 193 functions, 161 Tsui, Daniel C., 248 ‘t Hooft, Gerardus, 248 Tungsten, 214 Tungsten electric lamps, 187 Tunnel barrier, 244–245 Tunneling, quantum, 178 Tunneling phenomena, 244 Turning effect of a force, 173 Tyndall effect, 203, 218 Tyndall, John, 203, 218 Ultrasound scanners, 172 Ultraviolet catastrophe paradox, 194 Ultraviolet light, 197 Ultraviolet radiation, 215, 236 Unified field theory, 222 Unified weak interaction, 245 Universe, age of, 226 Uranium, 160, 190, 190–191, 214 Urbain, Georges, 220 Utyonkov, Vladimir, 226 Vacuum flask, 173 Vacuum pump, 181 Vacuum tube, 177 Van Allen belts, 203 Van Allen, James A., 203 Van de Graaff generator, 236 Van de Graaff, Robert J., 203–204 Vara¯ hamihara, 209 Vauquelin, Louis-N., 215 Veltman, Martinus J G., 248 Villard, Paul, 230 Viruses, 173 Viscosity, 171 Vleck, John H Van, 245 Volt, 204 Volta, Alessandro G.A.A., Conte, 204, 215, 228 Voltage, 192 Voltaic pile, 204, 215, 228 Volume, formulas for, 157 Vortices, 185–186 Waals, Johannes D van der, 204, 239 Wallis, John, 184 Walton, Ernest T.S., 170, 204, 222, 242 Water, composition of, 215 Watson, James, 165, 205 Watson-Watt, Sir Robert, 204, 222, 235 Wave function, 242 Wave mechanics, 166, 178, 236 Wave/particle paradox, 164 Waves, identity of, 199 Wave theory, 184 Weak interaction, 246 Weak neutral current, 245 Weather, 162, 171 Wegener, Alfred, 183–184, 185 Weinberg, Steven, 245 Weiss, Pierre-Ernest, 204 Welding, 187 Wheatstone bridge, 204–205 Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 204–205 Whewell, William, 217 Television – Zirconium White dwarf, 169 Wieman, Carl E., 248 Wien, Wilhelm, 228, 239 Wigner, Eugene P., 205, 222, 243 Wilczek, Frank, 248 Wiles, Andrew, 176, 225 Wilkins, Maurice H.F., 205 Wilson, Charles T.R., 171, 205, 220, 229, 240 Wilson cloud chamber, 162– 163, 195, 205, 220, 229, 242 Wilson, Kenneth G., 205, 246 Wilson, Robert W., 178, 185, 245 Wind scale, 215 Wind tunnel, 195 Winkler, Clemens, 219 Witelo, 210 Wollaston, William H., 215 Wren, Sir Christopher, 184 Xenon, 220, 224 Xenon fluoroplatinate, 224 Xerox, 167 X-ray crystallography, 165, 185, 205 X-rays, 159, 160, 161, 171, 184, 198, 201, 236 cosmic, 248 diffraction, 165, 239 fluorescence, 159 scattering, 191 X-ray spectroscopy, 240 X-ray tubes, 198 Yalow, Rosalyn S., 205 Young-Helmholtz theory, 182 Young, Thomas, 206, 215, 232 Yukawa, Hideki, 195, 206, 233, 242 Zeeman effect, 206, 220, 236 Zeeman, Pieter, 188–189, 206, 220, 236, 238 Zeiss, Carl, 156 Zernike, Frits (Frederik), 242 Zirconium, 214 ...THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK Revised Edition THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK Revised Edition THE DIAGRAM GROUP The Facts On File Physics Handbook, Revised Edition Copyright... http://www.factsonfile.com Cover design by Cathy Rincon Printed in the United States of America VB DIAG 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper INTRODUCTION THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK, ... and library patrons CONTENTS SECTION ONE Glossary SECTION TWO Biographies 155 SECTION THREE Chronology 207 SECTION FOUR Key advances 227 SECTION FIVE Nobel Prize winners 237 SECTION SIX Charts