ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY Age of Revolution and Empire 1750 to 1900 VOLUME IV ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY Volume I The Ancient World Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e Volume II The Expanding World 600 c.e to 1450 Volume III The First Global Age 1450 to 1750 Volume IV Age of Revolution and Empire 1750 to 1900 Volume V Crisis and Achievement 1900 to 1950 Volume VI The Contemporary World 1950 to the Present Volume VII Primary Documents Master Index ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY Age of Revolution and Empire 1750 to 1900 VOLUME IV edited by Marsha E Ackermann Michael J Schroeder Janice J Terry Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Mark F Whitters Encyclopedia of World History Copyright © 2008 by Marsha E Ackermann, Michael J Schroeder, Janice J Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, and Mark F Whitters Maps copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world history / edited by Marsha E Ackermann [et al.] p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4 (hc : alk paper) World history—Encyclopedias I Ackermann, Marsha E D21.E5775 2007 903—dc22 2007005158 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Maps by Dale E Williams and Jeremy Eagle Golson Books, Ltd President and Editor Design Director Author Manager Layout Editor Indexer J Geoffrey Golson Mary Jo Scibetta Sue Moskowitz Susan Honeywell J S Editorial Printed in the United States of America VB GB 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY Volume IV CONTENTS About the Editors Foreword Historical Atlas List of Articles List of Contributors Chronology Major Themes Articles A to Z Resource Guide Index vi vii viii ix xiii xv xxv 1–456 457 461 About the Editors Marsha E Ackermann received a Ph.D in American culture from the University of Michigan She is the author of the award-winning book Cool Comfort: America’s Romance with Air-Conditioning and has taught U.S history and related topics at the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Eastern Michigan University Michael J Schroeder received a Ph.D in history from the University of Michigan and currently teaches at Eastern Michigan University Author of the textbook The New Immigrants: Mexican Americans, he has published numerous articles on Latin American history Janice J Terry received a Ph.D from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and is professor emeritus of Middle East history at Eastern Michigan University Her latest book is U.S Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest Groups She is also a coauthor of the world history textbooks The 20th Century: A Brief Global History and World History Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur received a Ph.D from the University of Michigan and is professor emeritus of Chinese history at Eastern Michigan University She is a coauthor of the world history textbooks The 20th Century: A Brief Global History and World History Mark F Whitters received a Ph.D in religion and history from The Catholic University of America and currently teaches at Eastern Michigan University His publications include The Epistle of Second Baruch: A Study in Form and Message vi Foreword The seven-volume Encyclopedia of World History is a comprehensive reference to the most important events, themes, and personalities in world history The encyclopedia covers the entire range of human history in chronological order—from the prehistoric eras and early civilizations to our contemporary age—using six time periods that will be familiar to students and teachers of world history This reference work provides a resource for students—and the general public—with content that is closely aligned to the National Standards for World History and the College Board’s Advanced Placement World History course, both of which have been widely adopted by states and school districts This encyclopedia is one of the first to offer a balanced presentation of human history for a truly global perspective of the past Each of the six chronological volumes begins with an in-depth essay that covers five themes common to all periods of world history They discuss such important issues as technological progress, agriculture and food production, warfare, trade and cultural interactions, and social and class relationships These major themes allow the reader to follow the development of the world’s major regions and civilizations and make comparisons across time and place The encyclopedia was edited by a team of five accomplished historians chosen because they are specialists in different areas and eras of world history, as well as having taught world history in the classroom They and many other experts are responsible for writing the approximately 2,000 signed entries based on the latest scholarship Additionally each article is cross-referenced with relevant other ones in that volume A chronology is included to provide students with a chronological reference to major events in the given era In each volume an array of full-color maps provides geographic context, while numerous illustrations provide visual contexts to the material Each article also concludes with a bibliography of several readily available pertinent reference works in English Historical documents included in the seventh volume provide the reader with primary sources, a feature that is especially important for students Each volume also includes its own index, while the seventh volume contains a master index for the set Marsha E Ackermann Michael J Schroeder Janice J Terry Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Mark F Whitters Eastern Michigan University vii Historical Atlas List of Maps Cities and Economic Life in Europe, c 1750 The Seven Years’ War in Europe, 1756–1763 Major Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1783 European Colonies and Exports from the Americas Revolutionary France, 1789–1794 Explorations of the Pacific, 1768–1788 Empires of Western Africa, c 1800 India, 1805 The Napoleonic Wars, 1803–1815 Europe after Congress of Vienna, 1815 Growth of Russia, 1801–1855 Latin America, 19th Century Ottoman, Arab, and European Presence in Africa, 1830 European Revolutions, 1815–1849 The Balkans after the Serb and Greek Revolutions, 1830 American Indian Territorial Losses, 1850–1890 Western Expansion of the United States, 1787–1912 Industrialization in Europe, 1850 Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1770–1870 British North America, 1849 Urbanization of Europe, 1850 Japan at the Time of Commodore Perry, 1853 Crimean War, 1853–1855 Conflicts in the Qing Empire, 1839–1899 Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 Major Battles of the American Civil War, 1861–1865 Wars of German Unification, 1864–1871 Balkan Peninsula after the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 European Colonialism in the Pacific, 19th Century European Possessions in Africa and Arabia, 1895 Growth of Russia, 1855–1904 World Trade, 19th Century viii M97 M98 M99 M100 M101 M102 M103 M104 M105 M106 M107 M108 M109 M110 M111 M112 M113 M114 M115 M116 M117 M118 M119 M120 M121 M122 M123 M124 M125 M126 M127 M128 List of Articles A abolition of slavery in the Americas Acadian deportation Adams, John, and family Afghani, Jamal al-Din alAfghan Wars, First and Second Africa, exploration of Africa, imperialism and the partition of Africa, Portuguese colonies in Aigun and Beijing, Treaties of Alaska purchase Alexander I Algeria under French rule Alien and Sedition Acts, U.S Aligarh College and movement American Revolution (1775–1783) American temperance movement Andean revolts Anglo-Chinese Opium Wars Anglo-French agreement on Siam (1897) Anglo-Russian rivalry Arabian Peninsula and British imperialism Arab reformers and nationalists art and architecture (1750–1900) Asian migration to Latin America Australia: exploration and settlement Australia: self-government to federation Austro-Hungarian Empire B Balkan and East European insurrections Banerji, Surendranath Banks of the United States, First and Second baroque culture in Latin America Beecher family Berlin, Congress of (1878) Bismarck, Otto von Bolívar, Simón Bourbon restoration Brahmo and Arya Samaj Brazil, independence to republic in Brethren movements British East India Company British Empire in southern Africa British governors-general of India British occupation of Egypt Buganda, kingdom of Burlingame, Anson, and Burlingame Treaty (1868) Burmese Wars, First, Second, and Third C Canadian Confederation Canton system Catherine the Great caudillos and caudillismo Cavour, Camillo Benso di Central America: National War Ceylon: Dutch to British colony Chakri dynasty and King Rama I Chicago Fire (1871) China, spheres of influence in Chinese Exclusion Act Civil War, American (1861–1865) Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) coffee revolution ix x List of Articles Colombia, War of the Thousand Days in (1899–1902) comuneros’ revolt Congo Free State Constitution, U.S Cook, James Crimean War Cuba, Ten Years’ War in Cuban War of Independence D Darwin, Charles Declaration of Independence, U.S Díaz, Porfirio diplomatic revolution, European Disraeli, Benjamin Dost Mohammed Douglass, Frederick Dreyfus affair E Eastern Question Eddy, Mary Baker (1821–1910), and the Christian Science Church enlightened despotism in Europe Enlightenment, the Ethiopia/Abyssinia F Fashoda crisis Fenian raids Ferdinand VII financial panics in North America Finney, Charles Grandison Francia, José Gaspar Rodríguez Franco-Prussian War and the Treaty of Frankfurt Franklin, Benjamin Franz Josef Frederick the Great of Prussia Freemasonry in North and Spanish America French Equatorial Africa French Indochina French Revolution Fukuzawa Yukichi G Garibaldi, Giuseppi gauchos German unification, wars of German Zollverein Gilded Age Gladstone, William Gokhale, G K Gong (K’ung), Prince Gordon, Charles Government of India Act (1858) Grant, Ulysses S Great Awakening, First and Second Great Plains of North America Greek War of Independence Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) H Haitian Revolution Hamid, Abdul (Abdulhamid II) II Hamilton, Alexander Harris, Townsend, and Japan Hart, Robert Hawaii Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel Hohenzollern dynasty (late) Hong Xiuquan (Hung Hsui-ch’uan) Humboldt, Alexander von Hundred Days of Reform I immigration, North America and Indian Mutiny Industrial Revolution Iqbal, Muhammad Irish Famine (1846–1851) Ismail, Khedive Italian nationalism/unification Iturbide, Agustín de J Jackson, Andrew Jefferson, Thomas Jiaqing (Chia-ch’ing) Johnstown flood Joseph II Juárez, Benito K Kader ibn Moheiddin al-Hosseini, Abdul Kang Youwei (K’ang Yu-wei) Khayr al-Din Korea, late Yi dynasty L labor unions and labor movements in the United States La Pérouse, Jean-Franỗois de Galaup, comte de Latin America, Bourbon reforms in Latin America, economic and political liberalism in Latin America, export economies in Latin America, independence in Latin America, machismo and marianismo in Latin America, positivism in Latin America, urbanism in League of Three Emperors Leo XIII Leopold II Lewis and Clark Expedition Liberian colonization Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) Lincoln, Abraham Lin Zexu (Lin Tse-Hsu) literature (1750–1900) Lobanov-Yamagata Agreement (1896) Louis XVI Louisiana Purchase M Macartney mission to China Macdonald, John Alexander Madison, James Malay states, Treaty of Federation and the (1895) Manifest Destiny Maori wars Maria Theresa market revolution in the United States Marshall, John Martí, José Marxism, Karl Marx (1818–1883), and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) Mazzini, Giuseppe Meiji Restoration, Constitution, and the Meiji era Metternich, Prince Clemens von M114 Industrialization in Europe, 1850 Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1770–1870 M115 M116 British North America, 1849 Urbanization of Europe, 1850 M117 M118 Japan at the Time of Commodore Perry, 1853 Crimean War, 1853–1855 M119 M120 Conflicts in the Qing Empire, 1839–1899 Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 M121 M122 Major Battles of the American Civil War, 1861–1865 Wars of German Unification, 1864–1871 M123 M124 Balkan Peninsula after the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 European Colonialism in the Pacific, 19th Century M125 M126 European Possessions in Africa and Arabia, 1895 Growth of Russia, 1855-1904 M127 M128 World Trade, 19th Century ... Invents Cotton Gin Eli Whitney, a young New Englander, invents a cotton gin that automatically cleans cotton 1793 Second Partition of Poland The second partition of Poland divides Poland between... Morton Stanley to find Dr Livingstone On November 10, 1871, Stanley found Livingstone at his camp at Ujji on Lake Tanganyika Upon Livingstone’s death in 1873, his body was returned to England... isolation and heralds a rapid industrialization of the economy of the island nation 1855 Livingstone Discovers Victoria Falls David Livingstone, a Scottish explorer, departs from South Africa to