Encyclopedia of world cultures 10 volume set 8 middle america and the caribbean (1994)

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume V1II MIDDLE AmERiCA AND THE CARIBBEAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES David Levinson Editor in Chief North America Oceania South Asia Europe (Central, Western, and Southeastern Europe) East and Southeast Asia Russia and Eurasia / China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa and the Middle East Index The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University HRAF, the foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthropology, is a not-for-profit consortium of twenty-three sponsoring members and 300 participating member institutions in twenty-five countries The HRAF archive, established in 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information on the cultures of the world Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume VIII MIDDLE AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN James W Dow Volume Editor Robert Van Kemper Associate Volume Editor G.K Hall & Company An Imprint of Simon & Schuster Macmillan NEW YORK Prentice Hall International LONDON* MEXICO CITY * NEW DELHI * SINGAPORE * SYDNEY * TORONTO MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS When You Know LENGTH inches feet yards Multiply By To Find centimeters meters 2.54 30 0.9 1.6 0.04 0.4 3.3 meters kilometers 1.1 0.6 inches feet yards miles 0.09 0.8 2.6 0.4 2.5 1.2 0.4 square meters square meters square kilometers hectares acres square yards square miles miles millimeters AREA square feet square yards square miles acres hectares square meters square kilometers centimeters centimeters meters kilometers inches TEMPERATURE IC = (IF - 32) - 1.8 OF = (OC x 1.8) + 32 ( 1995 by the Human Relations Area Files, Inc First published 1993 by G.K Hall & Co., an imprint of Simon & Schuster Macmillan 1633 Broadway New York, NY 10019-6785 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher 10 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (Revised for volume 8) Encyclopedia of world cultures Includes bibliographical references, fflmographies, and indexes Contents: v North America / Timothy J O'Leary, David Levinson, volume editors-[etc.}-v East and Southeast Asia / Paul Hockings, volume editor-v Middle America and the Caribbean / James W Dow, volume editor Ethnology-Encyclopedias Levinson, David, 1947306 GN307.E53 1991 90-49123 ISBN 0-8168-1840-X (set: alk paper) ISBN 0-8161-1808-6 (v 1: alk paper) ISBN 0-8161-1812-4 (v 3: alk paper) ISBN 0-8161-1814-0 (v 5: alk paper) ISBN 0-8161-1816-7 (v 8: alk paper) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials ANSI Z39.48-1992 i)M MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents Project Staff vi Contributors vii Preface xv Introduction xxi Maps Central America and the Caribbean xxxv Cultures of Northern Mexico xxxvi Cultures of Southern Mexico xxxvii Cultures of Central America xxxviii The Caribbean xxxix Cultures of Middle America and the Caribbean l Glossary 319 Filmography 325 Index to Filmography 326 Ethnonym Index 327 The Editors 330 V Editorial Board Project Staff Linda A Bennett Research Patricia D Andreucci Daniel Strouthes Memphis State University Europe Fernando C~imara Barbachano Instituto Nacional de Antropologia Mexico City Middle America and the Caribbean Editorial and Production Victoria Crocco Elly Dickason Eva Kitsos Abraham Maramba Ara Salibian L C Salibian e Historia, Norma J Diamond University of Michigan China Paul Friedrich University of Chicago Russia and Eurasia Cartography Robert Sullivan Rhode Island College Terence E Hays Rhode Island College Oceania Paul Hockings University of Illinois at Chicago South, East and Southeast Asia Robert V Kemper Southern Methodist University Middle America and the Caribbean John H Middleton Yale University Africa Timothy J O'Leary Human Relations Area Files North America Amal Rassam Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York Middle East Johannes Wilbert University of California South America Vi at Los Angeles Contributors Janis Alcorn Wasteko Chevy Chase, Maryland United States William Lee Alexander Department of Anthropology University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Tepehuan of Chihuahua; Tepehuan of Durango Luc Alofs Aruba Netherlands Antilles Arubans Vered Amit-Talai Department of Sociology/Anthropology Concordia University Montreal, Qu6bec Canada Cayman Islanders Marina Anguiano Academia de Educaci6n Indigena Universidad Pedog6gica Nacional Mexico, D.F Mexico Cora Kathlene Barber Rochester, Michigan United States Awakateko Riva Berleant-Schiller University of Connecticut Torrington, Connecticut United States Montserratians John R Bort Department of Sociology and Anthropology East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina United States Ngawbe Thomas Bowen Department of Anthropology California State University-Fresno Fresno, California United States Seri Vii viii Contributors Maria Eugenia Bozzoli de Wille Vice Rectory for Research University of Costa Rica San Josi Costa Rica Boruca, Bribri, and Cabicar; Costa Ricans Pete Brown TzcotzI and Tzeltal of Pantelhb Department of Anthropology Lawrence University Appleton, Wisconsin United States Katherine E Browne Department of Anthropology Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado United States Martinkquais C H Browner Chinantec Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States Anne Browning Department of Anthropology University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Pima Bajo Robert S Carlsen Tz'utujil University of Denver Denver, Colorado United States Barry Chevannes Rastafarians N Ross Crumnrine Cahita Institute of Social Studies The Hague The Netherlands Department of Anthropology University of Victoria Victoria, B.C Canada James W Dow Department of Sociology and Anthropology Oakland University Rochester, Michigan Ototmi of the Sierra; Tepehua Barbara Edmonson Department of Anthropology Tulane University New Orleans, Lousiana United States Wastelco Maria de la Paloma Escalante Gonzalbo, Division de Estudios de Posgrado Escuela Nacional de Antropologia e Historia Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia Mexico, D.F Mexico Ladinos United States Contributors Susan J Fernmndez St Petersburg, Florida United States Cubans Jose Abraham Franco Ozuna Departamento de Sociologia Universidad de Sonora Hermosillo, Sonora Guarijio Mexico Victor Manuel Franco Pellotier Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social Tlalpin, Mexico D.F Mexico Amuzgo Douglas P Fry Department of Anthropology Eckerd College St Petersburg, Florida United States Zapotec Carlos Garma Navarro Departamento de Antropologia Universidad Aut6noma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa Iztapalapa, D.F Mexico Totonac Jose Gonzalez Rodrigo Departamento de Antropologia Universidad Aut6noma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa Iztapalapa, D.F Mexico Nahua of the State of Mexico Nancie L Gonzalez Annapolis, Maryland United States Garifuna Kenneth J Goodman Department of Anthropology University of South Florida Tampa, Florida United States Dominicans Edmund T Gordon Department of Anthropology University of Texas, Austin Creoles of Nicaragua- Austin, Texas United States James B Greenberg Bureau of Applied Research Department of Anthropology University of Arizona Chatino Tucson, Arizona United States David Griffith Department of Anthropology Institute for Coastal and Marine Resources East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina United States Puerto Ricans ix X ConLTrIuUTs Paul Griflhorst Utrecht The Netherlands Curaqao W Penn Handwerker Department of Anthropology University of Connecticut Storrs, Connecticut United States Barbadians Mary W Helms Department of Anthropology University of North Carolina-Greensboro Greensboro, North Carolina United States Miskito Peter H Herlihy Department of Geography University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas United States Embera and Wounan; Sumu Christine G T Ho Department of Anthropology University of South Florida Tampa, Florida United States Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean Charles Andrew Hofling Department of Anthropology McMicken College of Arts and Sciences University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, Ohio United States Itza' Nicholas A Hopkins Department of Anthropology Florida State University Talahassee, Florida United States Ch'ol Cesar Huerta Rios Triquis Robert C Hunt Department of Anthropology Brandeis University Waltham, Massachusetts United States Cuicatec Rose Jones Department of Anthropology Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas United States Saint Lucians Morton Klass Department of Anthropology Barnard College Columbia University New York, New York United States East Indians in Trinadad 316 Zoque stroyed the remaining system of communal land tenure "Liberalization" led to an increase in the expanse of commercial farms and a loss of land for the Zoque This was only partially corrected by the postrevolutionary policy under which the modern ejido became the foundation of the Indian peasants' right to cultivate their own land Beginning in the 1930s, ejidos were given to the Zoque Kinship Kin Groups and Descent Before the agrarian land distribution that resulted in the ejido, the patrilineal orientation of Zoque nomenclature was more evident; both inheritance and postmarital residence depended on the father, and the family was extended for two to three generations Family fragmentation typical of a market economy and the arrival of new religious beliefs has led to a system that recognizes both the father's and the mother's side of the family; there is now a tendency for postmarital residence to be ambilocal At baptism, the child was once named for a relative from the previous generation, in a sense becoming his or her replacement on earth, but this practice has been infrequent since 1970 Kinship Terminology Traditional family terms follow the Omaha kinship pattern Marriage and Family Marriage Family-arranged marriage has practically disappeared, giving place to marriage based on individual decision or elopement Thereby the long and costly marriage negotiations are avoided, which could entail up to ten visits and presents of chocolate, bread, refreshments, and alcoholic drinks-things that the groom's family must take to the prospective bride's family The ancient division of communities into ceremonial wards and kinship-oriented entities facilitated internal endogamy Nowadays their almost total disappearance leaves endogamy at the community level as a defensive mechanism to limit the usufruct of community lands to community families Polygamy is infrequent, and those cases that occur are condemned by Catholic or Evangelical ecclesiastical authorities Domestic Unit The basic residential unit is the nuclear family, particularly since the decline in patrilocal residence Each biological or nuclear family takes meals by itself, independently of the other families, although nuclear families help one another in agricultural labor and in ritual obligations Inheritance Traditionally, inheritance was in the male line Patrilineal inheritance has been replaced by bilateral inheritance, although the tendency is for men to receive lands, whereas women inherit domestic animals and utensils Many inheritances are granted in life, causing tensions and disputes between parents and children and between siblings Socialization Children are generally treated with respect and are not punished Their play is relatively unsupervised, and they are very close to their mothers, with whom they live and whom they help in various domestic tasks School is obligatory, although very few children finish their primary studies The other medium of socialization is partici- pation in religious rituals, depending on the family's religious orientation Sociopolitical Organization Social Organization During the pre-Hispanic period, the social hierarchy was based on wealth and traditional authority The former was displayed by the chiefs, whereas the latter was divided among chiefs, priests, elders, and shamans, who performed ceremonial rites and preserved the ancient knowledge The father of each household was recognized as the head of the extended family After the Spanish Conquest, new social institutions originating in the Iberian Peninsula were incorporated: the Catholic church, cofradias, and compadrazgo (ritual kinship) The cofradias served to create social prestige through the assumption of cargos within them Elders continued their active participation in ceremonies; this is still evident in traditional ritual practices Political Organization When the Spaniards arrived in Zoque territory, they found it organized into chiefdoms with subject peoples There was no centralization of power, and each chiefdom exerted control over a specific area, based on kinship The status of the chief was extended to his kin; thus social differentiation was created in the chiefdom After the Conquest, a system of religious cargos maintained the principles of age and prestige within a civilreligious hierarchy After the second decade of the twentieth century, the establishment of the local village governments removed political power from the civil-religious hierarchies and recast Zoque political systems within institutions created by the national and state governments Social Control Territorial dispersion of the Zoque makes it difficult to identify control mechanisms that represent the whole group; however, in the municipio of Tapalapa, Chiapas, a form of social control on the natural and supernatural level has been noted People believe that a mythical tribunal of i'ps Tojk ("twelve houses" or "twelve places") punishes people who transgress social and moral norms This tribunal is addressed in dreams by people who possess kojama (animal-companion spirits) Illness is an indication that the kojama of the victim may be held prisoner by the tribunal Only treatment by a jama yoye (curer) can lead the victim to health The jama yoye persuades the victim to abandon his incorrect social behavior and/or involves himself in symbolic combat between various implicated animal-companion spirits Another mechanism of social control is ritual reciprocity, which communicates trust and good intentions, thus reducing tension between families within the community Conflict Conflicts are generally generated out of scarcity, such as the need for land Conflicts between neighbors over land can become serious Confrontations involve nuclear or extended families and can be started by an illness interpreted as sorcery Physical violence is generally avoided through the mediation of a curer, who supernaturally protects the victim The disappearance of curers and the decline of rituals that functioned as mechanisms to calm social tensions between families and neighbors has resulted in the use of legal mechanisms to resolve land dis- Zoque putes and other problems such as adultery, marital conflict, insult, physical aggression, theft, and murder Religion and Expressive Culture Religious Beliefs The Catholic religion was systematically imposed, beginning in 1564, with the foundation of the convent of Tecpatin, Chiapas Nevertheless, in the twentieth century, there is an evident religious split between the Catholics linked to the official church and people maintaining traditional ritual forms In the 1930s groups of Seventh Day Adventists successfully penetrated the communities and now are practically the only Protestant denomination in Zoque municipios The Spanish Conquest did not result in the complete acceptance of Catholic beliefs Traditional gods continued to be worshiped at sacred places In caves and mountains, gods of nature-the sun, the moon, lightning, the serpent, the jaguar, Jantepusi (Mother of the Earth)-were venerated, as were gods who were apparently a synthesis of preHispanic agricultural cults represented in various images sculpted in stone, clay, and wood Such deities could appear in various forms, but were almost always associated with the moon and water Mythical figures among presentday Zoque are Piowacwe, ("little old woman" or "burning woman"), a female god of misfortune who lives in the bowels of the earth in the Chichonal volcano, and Nawayomo ("evil woman" or "water woman"), deceiver of men Both have the capability of transforming themselves, and the latter appears in the form of a woman and a serpent with a dentate vagina Religious Practitioners Native ritual practices aimed at propitiating the gods were performed clandestinely during the colonial period or were syncretized with Catholic institutions Through cofradias and mayordomias, the role of wise elders as ritual specialists was perpetuated Festivals for the saints, which were institutionalized in mayordomias, maintained the religious life of many communities Religious fragmentation now has decreased the influence of elders as ritual leaders, making it possible for younger men to hold important posts in official Catholic and Seventh Day Adventist institutions Ceremonies The Catholic ceremonial calendar was superimposed on the pre-Hispanic calendar, and the saints took the place of the ancient deities This has resulted in a public religious system organized around festivals for the patron saints of communities or barrios These ceremonies involve processions, the ritual exchange of saints with other communities, the distribution of images among ritual participants, and offerings in the form of dances, music, flowers, food, and drink Pilgrimages and Carnival festivities expand the ritual repertoire, which also includes marriages, baptisms, communions, deaths, and ritual curing Arts The production of textiles and ceramics is now practically nonexistent among the Zoque Basketry is still produced, however, and masks and musical instruments (drums and flutes) are designed and made for ritual use Dance and music are an integral part of ritual Also, bilin- 317 gual- and indigenous-language publications have opened an expressive literary field to Zoque narrators and poets Medicine Illness is seen as the result of transgression against the social order or the effect of sorcery In both cases, the mediation of a curer is required, usually a man knowledgeable in the ancient ways, who by "pulsing"reading the rhythm of the patient's blood-can determine the causes of illness By means of various rituals, in which dreaming plays an important part, he will be able to restore the patient's kidnapped tonal This practice is becoming increasingly infrequent, and the knowledge is dying out; recourse to community health centers has become more frequent Medicinal plants continue to be used, however; men specialize in their collection Women function as midwives, but only rarely they engage in ritual mediation Death and Afterlife Zoque believe that the soul separates from the body at the time of death They not see death as contaminating members of the family; therefore, when someone dies, relatives and people close to the family offer help and support Wakes are held; coffee, bread, and, sometimes, alcohol are distributed to attending guests The Days of the Dead (Todos Santos) are celebrated on the first two days of November These are joyful days with ritual exchanges of food and the preparation of altars in honor of the dead In the graveyard, tombs are cleaned, and offerings of food and drink of the kind that the deceased enjoyed during his or her lifetime are made Each family enjoys a ritual meal near the remains of their loved ones Bibliography Aramoni Calder6n, Dolores (1992) Los refugios de lo sagrado: Religiosidad, conflicto, y resistencia entre los zoques de Chiapas Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CNCA) Codry, Donald Bush, and Dorothy Codry (1941) Costumes and Weaving of the Zoque Indians of Chiapas Paper 15 Los Angeles: Southwest Museum Fabregas Puig, Andr6s (1986) "Los estudios sobre zoques de Chiapas: Una lectura desde el olvido y la reiteraci6n." In Anuario de investigaci6n, 1993, 78-125 Tuxtla Guti6rrez: Instituto Chiapaneco de Cultura; Gobierno del Estado de Chiapas Thomas, Norman D (1974) Envidia, brujeria, y organizaci6n ceremonial: Un pueblo zoque Mexico City: Secretaria de Educaci6n P6blica Villa Rojas, Alfonso, Jose Velasco, Felix Baez-Jorge, Francisco C6rdoba, and Norman Thomas (1975) Los zoques de Chiapas Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista; Secretaria de Educaci6n P6blica MIGUEL LISBONA GUILLEN Glossary bride-service The practice of a groom performing work for his wife's kin for a set period of time either before or after marriage alcalde Mayor of a town A town in Middle America has considerable political power over the surrounding area bride-wealth See bride-price affine A relative by marriage cabildo A village or town council composed of a hierarchy of officeholders in countries that were formerly Spanish colonies; the town hall cabecera The capital or head town of a municipio A social category composed of persons who fall within a culturally defined age range age grade aguardiente A white rum distilled from fermented cacao A tropical tree cultivated since pre-Hispanic times for its seeds The seeds were used by the Aztecs to make a beverage called chocolate, and today they are the key ingredient in modern chocolate raw sugar agnatic descent See patrilineal descent cacique A local strongman or political boss The word "cacique" was adopted into Spanish to designate a native chief Today it is applied variously to Indians and nonIndians to designate a local political boss who leads and controls people through the more or less undemocratic exercise of political power aguacil An agent of town or municipal officials with limited police powers ambilineal descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation through either the male or the female line anciano An elder of a village campo santo Graveyard animal husbandry See pastoralism cargo An obligation to perform and sponsor religious rituals in honor of a public saint Also it can refer to any official duty Religious cargos are publicly recognized obligations to the community Cargo means "burden," which connotes the heavy responsibility to the community felt by the person who has the obligation A type of religious belief in which the world is made to move and becomes alive because of spiritual (soul) forces in beings and things animism autochthones The indigenous inhabitants of a region Often used to refer to the native inhabitants encountered by European explorers or settlers cargo system A formal social structure of religious obligations (cargos) taken on for a defined period, usually a year, with community recognition These obligations involve the performance of public religious rituals avunculocal residence The practice of a newly married couple residing in the community or household of the husband's mother's brother cassava A plant of the genus Manihot (also known as manihot, manioc, tapioca, and yuca), cultivated by aboriginal farmers for its nutritious starchy roots ayuntamiento The government of a town, the town hall barrio A subdivision and residential area of a town chayote The fruit of cucurbitaceous vine (Sechium edule) cultivated by the Middle American Indians from remote times It has a spiny outer skin and a starchy, tasty interior bilateral descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation more or less equally through both the male and the female line a groom or his kin giving substantial property or wealth to the bride's kin before, at the time of, or after marriage bride-price The practice of chicha A native beerlike drink made from fermented maize, sugarcane, manioc, sweet potatoes, and/or fruit 319 320 Glossary civil religious hierarchy A system through which individuals alternate between civil and religious offices, thus climbing a ladder of prestige and power in their communities Civil-religious hierarchies depend on cargo systems clan A unilineal descent group in which people claim descent from a common ancestor but cannot demonstrate this descent classificatory kin terms Kinship terms such as "aunt" that designate several categories of distinct relatives, such as mother's sister and father's sister cochineal A red dye obtained by Middle American natives from an insect that lives on a type of nopal cactus This cactus is still cultivated today as a source of a natural dye for food and cosmetics In the colonial period cochineal dye was a source of wealth for the Europeans who exported it cofradia A religious organization Modem cofradias are dedicated to the veneration of the religious images in their charge The term is often used in the Mayan area to refer to a group of men in charge of the celebrations of a particular saint These groups are similar to groups called "mayordomias" farther north In the nineteenth century cofradias had other communal economic functions, such as providing loans cognates Words that belong to different languages but have similar sounds and meanings collaterals A person's relatives, not related to him or her as ascendants or descendants; one's uncle, aunt, cousin, brother, sister, nephew, niece compadrazgo Ritual coparenthood It involves two married couples One couple becomes godparents of something-typically but not necessarily a child-belonging to the other couple Compadrazgo establishes a special bond between the two couples through a ritual of godparenting and engenders a special form of trust and respect between the two couples, each of which refers to the other as "compadres." Compadrazgo goes well beyond the godparenting of children to include godparenting of religious images, objects, and life-cycle events such as graduation, death, and marriage See also fictive kinship grammatical and lexical features combined from two or more natural languages It is a first language, distinct from a pidgin Creole "Creole" is most often used today to refer to the Black populations of the West Indies and Central America It is derived from the Spanish criollo and the French creole, meaning a White or Black person descended from immigrants criollo Used during the colonial period to describe a White or Black person born in the colonies with no Indian admixture Cristero movement A pro-Catholic rebellion in the late 1920s in the Mexican states of Jalisco, Michoacin, and Colima against the federal government repression of the Catholic church cross cousin See cousin, cross cult The beliefs, ideas, and activities associated with the worship of a supernatural force or its representations, such as an ancestor cult or a bear cult Dia de los Muertos Day of the Dead See Todos Santos double descent Kinship affiliation by both matrilineal and patrilineal descent dowry The practice of a bride's kin giving substantial property or wealth to the groom or to his kin before or at the time of marriage Ego In kinship studies, a male or female whom the anthropologist arbitrarily designates as the reference point for a particular kinship diagram or discussion of kinship terminology ejidatario A beneficiary of land distributed as an ejido ejido Ejido is a form of landholding created by Mexican cousin, parallel Children of one's parent's siblings of the same sex-one's father's brothers' and mother's sisters' children federal agrarian reform Land was taken by the federal govemment and given to a group of subsistence farmers as an ejido with the provision that they could not rent or sell the land Membership in the ejido group was not legally heritable, and continued membership depended upon residence and use of the land Many ejido plots nevertheless remained in a single family for generations A change in Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution in 1992 permitted the ejidatarios, members of the ejido, to obtain title to the land The titles are restricted by complex laws and not necessarily split the land into individual privately sellable plots This change also brought to an end the transformation of large landholdings into ejidos Land-poor people and ejidatarios have been threatened by the change, and it was an important factor causing Indians in Chiapas to rebel against the Mexican state in 1994 (Collier 1995) The rebels were known as "Zapatistas," after their organization, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation creole A general, inconsistently used term usually applied to a spoken language or dialect that is based on encomienda A Crown grant of Indian tribute to a Spaniard during the colonial period The encomienda system al- comunero A person who farms communal lands by right consanguine A relative by descent from a common ancestor cousin, cross Children of one's parent's siblings of the opposite sex-one's father's sisters' and mother's brothers' children Glossary 321 lowed colonists to utilize Indian labor and wealth in setting up agricultural and mining enterprises patrilateral cross cousins are referred to by the same terms used for father or father's sister encomendero The person receiving an encomienda grant kin terms, descriptive Kinship terms that are used to distinguish different categories of relatives, such as mother or father endogamy Marriage within a specific group or social category of which the person is a member, such as one's caste or community kin terms, Dravidian See kin terms, Iroquois exogamy Marriage outside a specific group or social category of which the person is a member, such as one's clan or community fictive kinship A social relationship, such as blood brotherhood or godparenthood, between individuals who are neither affines nor consanguines but who are referred to or addressed with kin terms and treated as kin See also compadrazgo fiesta A celebration and feast held according to ritual traditions hacienda A landed estate Haciendas came into existence during the colonial period in Middle America In the nineteenth century haciendas expanded as profit-making ventures that exploited the labor of the people whose lands they expropriated hacendado The owner of a hacienda horticulture Plant cultivation carried out by relatively simple means, usually without permanent fields, artificial fertilizers, or plowing initiation rites Ceremonies and related activities that mark the transition from childhood to adulthood or from secular status to being a cult member ixtle The rough fiber of the maguey (agave) plant or rope made of it jacal A shack, a humble dwelling kindred The bilateral kin group of near kin who may be expected to be present and participant on important ceremonial occasions, usually in the absence of unilineal descent kinship Family relationship, whether traced through marital ties or through "blood" descent kin terms, bifurcate-collateral A system of kinship terminology in which all collaterals in the parental generation are referred to by different kin terms kin terms, bifurcate-merging A system of kinship terminology in which members of the two descent groups in the parental generation are referred to by different kin terms kin terms, Crow A system of kinship terminology in which matrilateral cross cousins are distinguished from each other and and from parallel cousins and siblings, but kin terms, Eskimo A system of kinship terminology in which cousins are distinguished from brothers and sisters, but no distinction is made between cross and parallel cousins kin terms, generational A system of kinship terminology in which all kin of the same sex in the parental generation are referred to by the same term kin terms, Hawaiian A system of kinship terminology in which all male cousins are referred to by the same term used for "brother," and all female cousins are referred to by the same term used for "sister." kin terms, Iroquois A system of kinship terminology in which parallel cousins are referred to by the same terms used for brothers and sisters, but cross cousins are identified by different terms kin terms, lineal A system of kinship terminology in which direct descendants or ascendants are distinguished from collateral kin kin terms, Omaha A system of kinship terminology in which female matrilateral cross cousins are referred to by the same term used for one's mother, and female patrilateral cross cousins are referred to by the same term used for one's sister's daughter kin terms, Sudanese A system of kinship terminology in which there are distinct terms for each category of cousin and sibling, and for aunts, uncles, nieces, and nephews Koppen, Waldimir Peter A German meteorologist and climatologist who introduced a system for classifying climates His system has been adapted for use in Middle American anthropology There are four major climatic types in Middle America: "A," warm humid climates in which the average temperature of the coldest month is greater than 18° C; "B," dry climates determined by calculations involving rainfall and temperature; "C," humid temperate climates in which the average temperature of the coldest month is between -3° and 18° C; and "E," cold climates in which the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 6.50 C Other letters in a climate code indicate the seasonality of the precipitation, seasonal average temperature extremes, and other factors See Garcia (1964) and Vivi6 Escoto (1964) Latino During the colonial period, "Ladino" referred to an Indian who had acquired Hispanic culture and language Today it is often used south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to refer to people who follow a modem, market-oriented, non-Indian culture pattern of Hispanic origin 322 Glossary levirate The practice of requiring a man to marry his brother's widow lineage A unilineal descent group in which all members can reckon their descent from a common ancestor either through males (patrilineage) or females (matrilineage) magic Beliefs and ritual practices designed to harness supernatural forces to achieve the goals of the magician maiz maize, New World Indian corn (Zea mays) Maize is the most important crop in the native Americas matrilineal descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation only through the female line matrilocal residence The practice of a newly married couple residing with the wife's kin mayordomo A Spanish word meaning 'a servant in charge of something." It is commonly applied by Mesoamerican Indians to higher officials in a religious cargo system Its original meaning has been changed: whereas it once referred to a person in change of a church, image, or public religious treasury, it now refers to a person who sponsors religious rituals at great personal expense mescal A strong alcoholic beverage distilled from a species of maguey (Agave) cactus When the cactus is mature, the base of the leaves is cut into chunks and baked in a pit oven with heated rocks Water is added to the sealed oven to produce steam that helps to cook the chunks When done, the chunks are cooled and taken to the distillery to be beaten into a mash The mash is squeezed to extract a juice, which is then fermented An ingenious native still distills the fermented juice in a two-stage process to produce the final product messianic movement A form of social movement in which adherents believe that a particular individual-a messiah-will lead them to a more prosperous and better life mestizo During the colonial period, a mestizo was a person of mixed Indian and other ancestry Today the term is often used to designate a person who follows a modem, market-oriented, non-Indian culture pattern of Hispanic origin milpa A field cultivated in the traditional Indian way The primary cereal crop planted in the milpa is maize This is supplemented by cocropping beans and squashes A milpa can be a slash-and-bum field with long fallowing or a plowed field with short fallowing moiety A form of social organization in which an entire cultural group is made up of two social groups Each moiety is often composed of a number of interrelated clans, sibs, or phratries monogamy Marriage between one man and one woman at a time municipio A political/territorial division of the executive power of a Mexican state Although the municipio is often thought of as a territorial division of a state, it corresponds only to the executive branch of the government, headed by the governor nagual/nahual Because of the idiosyncratic way in which Aztec words were applied by the Aztecs and later by the Spanish, the word "nagual" has been used to describe two different types of animal-spirit companions, an evil one allied with the forces of the underworld and a basically helpful one that is a personal animal-companion spirit for the individual The latter is also called the "tonal." An article by Foster (1944) clarifies these differences neolocal residence The practice of a newly married couple living apart from the immediate kin of either party pacification The cessation of warfare by indigenous peoples enforced by colonial nations or their agents paraje A village that is a subdivision of a municipio parallel cousin See cousin, parallel pasado See anciano pastoralism A type of subsistence economy based on the herding of domesticated grazing animals, such as sheep or cattle patrilineal descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation only through the male line patrilocal residence The practice of a newly married couple residing with the husband's kin peasants/peasantry Small-scale agriculturists producing only subsistence crops, perhaps in combination with some fishing, animal husbandry, or hunting They live in villages in a larger state but participate little in the state's commerce or cultural activities Today many peasants rely on mechanized farming and are involved in the national economy and are called postpeasants by anthropologists pe6n/peon In the past, a peon was a person attached to a hacienda and compelled to work for the owner Today the word refers to any agricultural day laborer petate A mat woven of straw or cane used for sleeping In the most rudimentary native house, the petates are unrolled each evening on the packed dirt floor to provide sleeping space pidgin A second language, very often composed of words and grammatical features from several languages and used as the medium of communication between speakers of different languages polyandry The marriage of one woman to more than one man at a time polygyny The marriage of one man to more than one woman at a time Glossary 323 puberty rites See initiation rites pulque A mildly alcoholic drink made by fermenting the juice of a highland species (Agave atrovirens) of maguey cactus The juice (aguamiel) is drawn from the live plant after it flowers and then fermented quinceafiera The celebration of a girl's fifteenth birthday It is a celebration of the girl's sexual maturity In many Latin American countries it has become an occasion for a lavish feast held by the girl's parents rancheria A settlement that is smaller and has less political status than a pueblo (village) repartimiento A system of coerced Indian labor set up by the Spanish in the sixteenth century to supply labor for colonial enterprises Application for Indians to work on needed services could be made to the Crown authorities The person receiving the benefit had to pay the Indians' wages rezandero A person who says, sings, or chants traditional prayers, usually in Spanish, from a prayer book These are often at vigils for the dead shaman A religious practitioner who receives his or her power directly from supernatural forces shifting cultivation A form of horticulture in which plots of land are cleared and planted for a few years and then left to fallow for a number of years while other plots are used Also called swidden, extensive, or slash-and-burn cultivation sib See clan sierra A mountainous region sister exchange A form of arranged marriage in which two men exchange their sisters as wives slash-and-burn cultivation A system of food production that involves burning trees and brush to clear and fertilize a garden plot, and then planting crops The plot is used for a few years and then left to fallow while other plots are similarly used sorcery (brujeria) Magic practiced for evil and antisocial ends It may be practiced by a sorcerer, for money paid by a client In Middle America there is a widespread belief in sorcery, but few will admit to practicing it sororal polygyny The marriage of one man to two or more sisters at the same time sororate The practice of marrying one's sister's widower sucking cure A curing technique often used by shamans that involved sucking out a foreign object from the patient's body through an implement such as a bone tube The foreign object, a piece of bone or stone, was viewed as the cause of the malady, and the sucking out as the cure swidden The field or garden plot resulting from slashand-burn field preparation teknonymy The practice of addressing a person after the name of his wife or his or her child rather than by the individual name For example, "Bill" is called "Father of John." topil See aguacil Todos Santos A festival beginning on the evening of 31 October and lasting for several days It coincides with the Catholic All Saints' Day but has other origins in the Aztec Days of the Dead at the end of the secular Mesoamerican year It is celebrated by all classes in all parts of Mexico and is one of the most universal Mesoamerican festivals People believe that the souls of departed family members visit the earth for a day The souls are welcomed by an altar filled with food offerings It is an important time for strengthening family bonds tona/tonal An animal-companion spirit Existing in various forms, this native American religious belief can be found in all parts of the Western Hemisphere The tonal is usually unseen Shamans can work with it in curing rituals The tonal is a guardian and a life spirit Some people believe that people have more than one given to them at birth The fate of the tonal parallels that of its owner, and its vulnerability reflects the vulnerability of the owner to the vicissitudes of life The tonal can aid and revive persons who are in need of help transhumance Seasonal movement of a society or community It may involve seasonal shifts in food production between hunting and gathering and horticulture or the movement of herds to more favorable locations tribe Although there is some variation in use, the term "tribe" usually applies to a distinct people who view themselves and are recognized by outsiders as a distinct culture The 'tribal society has its own name, territory, customs, subsistence activities, and often its own language unilineal descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation through only one line, either the matriline or the patriline unilocal residence The general term for matrilocal, patrilocal, or avunculocal postmarital residence usufruct The right to use land or property without actually owning it uterine descent See matrilineal descent uxorilocal residence The practice of a newly married couple living at or near the former residence of the wife virilocal residence The practice of a newly married couple living at or near the former residence of the husband wattle-and-daub A method of house construction whereby a framework (wattle) of poles and twigs is covered (daubed) with mud and plaster 324 Glossary witchcraft The use of innate supernatural forces to control or harm another person Unlike sorcery, witchcraft does not require the use of magical rituals Garcia, E (1964) Modificaciones al sistema de clasificaci6n de Koppen para adaptarlo a las condiciones particulares de la Repisblica Mexicana Mexico City: Offset Larios Bibliography Collier, George (1994) Basta! Land and the Zapatista Re- Vivi6 Escoto, Jorge (1964) "Weather and Climate of Mexico and Central America." In Handbook of Middle American Indians, edited by Robert Wauchope Vol 1, Natural Environment and Early Cultures, edited by Robert C West Austin: University of Texas Press bellion in Chiapas Monroe, Oreg.: Food First Books Foster, George (1944) "Nagualism in Mexico and Guatemala." Acta Americana 2:85-103 Filmography The following is a list of films and videos on Middle American nations and cultures The list is not meant to be complete; rather, it is a sampling of documentary films available from distributors in North America Listing a film or video does not constitute an endorsement by the volume editors or any of the contributors, nor does the absence of a film represent any sort of nonendorsement Names of distributors are provided at the end of each citation Please consult the National Information Center for Educational Media (NICEM) or the Educational Film and Video Locator for current addresses Some of the films and videos listed here are also available through the Extension Media Center of the University of California at Berkeley (2176 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, CA 94704) and/or the Penn State Audio-Visual Services (Special Services Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802), as indicated by (EMC) or (PS) at the end of the citation 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Appeals to Santiago (Mexico; Maya) 1968 Produced by the University of California at Irvine Color, 27 minutes CRM/McGraw-Hill Films Arts and Crafts of Mexico Part 1, Pottery and Weaving (Mexican Indians) 1961 (rev ed.) Color, 14 minutes, 16mm Encyclopedia Brittanica Educational Corporation (PS) Arts and Crafts of Mexico Part 2, Basketry, Stone, Wood, and Metals (Mexican Indians) 1961 (rev ed.) Color, 14 minutes, 16mm Encyclopedia Brittanica Educational Corporation (PS) Before Reggae Hit the Town Uamaica) 1992 Color, 21 minutes, VHS (EMC) Bitter Cane (Haiti) 1983 Produced by Haiti Films Color, 75 minutes Cinema Guild Camino Triste: The Hard Journey of the Guatemalan Refugees (Guatemala) 1983 Produced by Seventh Day Productions Color, 30 minutes First Run Features/Icarus Films Capital of Earth: The Maroons of Moore Town (Maroons) 1979 Color, 40 minutes, 16mm, U-matic Pennsylvania State University Psych Cinema Register (PS) Chichicastenango (Maya) 1987 Produced by Claudia Feldmar for Camara Color, 30 minutes, VHS, 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 325 U-matic Pennsylvania State University Psych Cinema Register (PS) The Chinamapas (Farming; Mexico) 1990 Color, 31 minutes, VHS (EMC) Comalapa: Traditions and Textiles (Maya) 1987 Color, 26 minutes, VHS, U-matic Pennsylvania State University Psych Cinema Register (PS) Conflict of the Gods, Program (Mexico) 1991 Color, 59 minutes Films, Incorporated Daughters of Ixchel: Maya Thread of Change (Guatemalan Maya) 1993 Color, 29 minutes, VHS (EMC) The Devil's Dream (Dance of Death; Guatemala) 1991 Color, 58 minutes Cinema Guild Guatemalan Pottery (Guatemala) 1987 Produced by Claudia Feldmar, Camara Color, 60 minutes, VHS, U-matic Pennsylvania State University Psych Cinema Register (PS) Hidden Scars (Kiche' Maya) 1994 Produced by Grace Barnes Color, 50 minutes, VHS (EMC) Holy Week in Antigua, Guatemala (Guatemala) 1987 Produced by Claudia Feldmar, Camara Color, 26 minutes, VHS, U-matic Pennsylvania State University Psych Cinema Register (PS) Huichol Sacred Pilgrimage to Wirikuta (Huichol) 1991 Color, 29 minutes, VHS (EMC) Invisible Indians: Mixtec Farmworkers in California (Mixtec) 1993 Color, 43 minutes, VHS (EMC) Kantik'i Maishi: Songs of Sorghum (Netherlands An tilles) 1992 Color, 58 minutes, VHS (EMC) Kiliwa: Hunters and Gathers of Baja California (Kiliwa) 1975 Color, 14 minutes, 16mm (EMC) Lancandon Maya Balche Ritual (Lakandon) 1988 Color, 40 minutes, VHS (EMC) The Living Maya: Part (Maya) 1982 Directed by Hubert Smith Color, 58 minutes, VHS Cinema Guild (EMC) (PS) The Living Maya: Part (Maya) 1982 Directed by Hubert Smith Color, 58 minutes, VHS Cinema Guild (EMC) (PS) The Living Maya: Part (Maya) 1982 Directed by Hubert Smith Color, 58 minutes, VHS Cinema Guild (EMC) (PS) The Living Maya: Part (Maya) 1982 Directed by Hubert Smith Color, 58 minutes, VHS Cinema Guild (EMC) (PS) Maya of Ancient and Modern Yucatan (Maya) 1949 B&W, 22 minutes, 16mm Phoenix Films (PS) Ollero Yucateco (Yucatan Potter) (Maya) 1965 326 28 29 30 31 32 Filmography Color, 25 minutes, 16mm University of Illinois Film Center (PS) Popol Vuh: The Creation Myth of the Maya (Maya) 1989 Color, 60 minutes, 16mm (EMC) Sacred Games (Maya) 1989 Color, 59 minutes, 16mm Cinema Guild (EMC) Slash-and-Burn Agriculture (Nicaragua) 1975 Color, 16 minutes, VHS B and C Films (EMC) Swidden Horticulture among the Lacandon Maya (Lakandon) 1987 Color, 29 minutes, VHS (EMC) Todos Santos Cuchumatan (Main) 1982 Color, 41 minutes, 16mm First Run Features/Icarus Films (EMC) 33 Todos Santos: The Survivors (Guatemala) 1988 Color, 55 minutes, VHS First Run Features/Icarus Films 34 To Find Our Life: The Peyote Hunt of the Huichols of Mexico (Huichol) 1969 Produced by the Latin American Center at UCLA Color, 60 minutes, 16mm (PS) 35 To Make the Balance (Oaxaca, Mexico; Law) 1970 Color, 33 minutes, VHS (EMC) 36 The Toured: The Other Side of Tourism in Barbados (Barbados) 1993 Color, 38 minutes, VHS (EMC) 37 Tremors in Guzman (Mexico) 1988 Produced by John Hewitt and Sam Wonderly Color, 30 minutes, VHS (EMC) 38 Trique Weaving (Mexico; Weaving) 1971 Color, 30 minutes University Film and Video 39 The Turtle People (Miskito) 1973 Produced by James Ward Color, 26 minutes, 16mm B and C Films (PS) 40 Tzintzuntzan in the 1990's: A Lakeside Village in Highland Mexico (Mexico) 1992 Color, 126 minutes Indiana University 41 Voices of the Orishas (Cubans) 1994 Color, 37 minutes, VHS Cinema Guild (EMC) 42 Voodoo and the Church in Haiti (Haiti) 1989 Color, 40 minutes, VHS (EMC) 43 Weavers in Ahuiran (Michoacin, Mexico) 1990 Color, 54 minutes, VHS (EMC) 44 Witch Doctor (Hatians) 1952 Story and choreography by jean Leon Destine B&W, 10 minutes, 16mm Films, Incorporated (PS) 45 Women in Jamaica (Jamaica; Women) 1989 Color, 58 minutes, VHS Films for Humanities and Sciences Index to Filmography Barbados, 36 Cubans, 41 Dance of Death, 13 Farming, Guatemala, 6, 13, 14, 16, 33 Guatemalan Maya, 12 Haiti, 5, 42 Haitians, 44 Huichol, 17, 34 Jamaica, 4, 45 Kiche' Maya, 15 Kiliwa, 20 Lakandon, 21, 31 Law, 35 Mam, 32 Maroons, Maya, 1, 8, 10, 12, 15, 22-29, 31 Mexican Indians, 2, Mexico, 1, 9, 11, 37, 38, 40 Michoacin, Mexico, 43 Miskito, 39 Mixtec, 18 Netherlands Antilles, 19 Nicaragua, 30 Oaxaca, Mexico, 35 Weaving, 38 Women, 45 Ethnonym Index This index provides some of the alternative names and the names of major subgroups for cultures covered in this volume The culture names that are entry titles are in boldface African Mexicans Aguacateco-Awakateko Aguateca-Awakateko ajNenton-Chuj ajSan Mateyo-Chuj ajSan Sabastyan-Chuj Alliouagana-Montserratians Amuzgo Andresero-Tzotzil of San Andres larrainzar Anguillans Antigua and Barbuda Arubans Awaketeco-Awakateko Awakateko Ayisyens-Haitians Ayuuk-Mixe Aztec-Nahua of the Huasteca Bahamians Balamiha-Awakateko Barbadians Batz'i Krisanoetike-Tzotzil of Chamula Batz'i vinik-Tzotzil of San Andres Larrainzar Baudo-Embera and Wounaan Beke-Martiniquais Ben 'Zaa-Zapotec Bermudians Bianco Cabecar-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Binii Gula'sa-Zapotec Black Carib-Garifuna Blacks of Costa Rica Bogota-Bugle Bokota-Bugle Boruca-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabcar Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Bribri-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Bribriwak Bribri-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Brunca Boruca-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Brunka Boruca-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Bugle Buglere-Bugle Bukueta-Bugle Cabecar-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Cahita Cahita-Yaqui Cakchiquel-Kaqchikel los Cantoneses-Chinese of Costa Rica Chontal of Oaxaca-Tequisthatec Chontal of Tabasco Carib of Dominica Carifuna-Carib of Domninica Catarinos-Tzotzil and Tzeltal of Pantelh6 Catio-Ernberi and Wounaan Catru-Embera and Wounaan Cattle Ranchers of the Huasteca Cayman Islanders Cere-Seri Ceri-Seri Chami-Emberi and Wounaan Chamo'-Tzotzd of Chamula Chamula-Tzotzil of Chamula Chorte-Ch'orti' Chorti-Ch'orti' Ch'orti' Chucho-Chocho Chanabal-Toajob'al Chaniabal-Tojoab'al Chaneabal-Tojohb'al Chatino Cha'tno-Chatino Chikapu-Kikapu Chinantec Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean Chinese of Costa Rica Chinese Royal-Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean los Chinos-Chinese of Costa Rica Chocama-Emberi and Wounaan Chocho Chochol-Chocho Chocholteca-Chocho Choch6n-Chocho Chocho-Popolocan-Chocho Chochoteco-Chocho Choc6-Emberi and Wounaan Choko-Emberi and Wounaan Chol-Ch'ol Ch'ol Choloti-Ch'orti' Chono-Chocho Chontal-Tequistatec Chontales-Chontal of Tabasco Chontal Maya-Chontal of Tabasco Chontal Mayan-Chontal of Tabasco 327 Chontalpa-Tequistlatec Chuch6n-Chocho Chuj Cicaque-Jicaque Citari-Emberi and Wounaan Cloud People-Mixtec Cocopa-Indians of Baja California la Colonia China-Chinese of Costa Rica Colored Chinese-Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean Comcaac-Seri Cora Coras-nayaritas-Cora Costa Ricans Creole Chinese-Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean Creoles Creoles-Martiniquais Creoles of Nicaragua Criollos-Creoles of Nicaragua Cubans Cuextecatl-Wasteko Cuicatec Cuna-Kuna Curacao Curacaoenaar-Curacao Dabeiba-Emberi and Wounaan Digeunio-Indians of Baja California Domninicans Dreadlocks-Rastafarians Dreads-Rastafarians Dzah-hmi-Chinantec East Indians in Trinidad Embena-Emberi and Wounaan Embera and Wounaan Empena-Emberi and Wounaan 328 Ethnonym Index Empera-Emberi and Wounaan Epera-Emberi and Wounaan French Antilhians Garifuna Garifuna-Carib of Dominica Garinagu-Garifuna Grenadians Guabi-Huave Guadeloupians Guadjio-Guarijio Guariio Guarogios-Guaryio Guatuso-Maleku Guatuzo-Maleku Guayma-Seri Guaymi-Ngawbe Kanjobal-Q'anjob'al Kaqchikel Karaphuna-Garifuna Katio-Emberi and Wounaan Kekchi-Q'eqchi' K'ekchi-Q'eqchi' Kiche' Kickapoo-Kikapu Kikapu Kiliwi-Indians of Baja California Kittitians-Kittsians and Nevisians Kittsians and Nevisians Korsou-Curacao Kuna Kurasolefio-Curaqao Lacandon-Lakandon Lacandone-Lakandon Guaymi-Sabanero-Bugle Ladinos Lakandon Haitians Lenca Lower Pima-Pimna Bajo Lucians-Saint Lucians Haftiens-Haitians Haqui-Cahita Haytians-Haitians Hed-Seri Hicaque-jicaque Himbera-Emberi and Wounaan Hfiahfiu/Hfiq hfiq -Otomi of the Sierra; Otomi of the Valley of Mezquital Hoch6n-Chocho Huabi-Huave Huarijio-Guarijio Huastec-Wasteko Huave Huavi-Huave Huazontecos-Huave Huhmei-Chinantec Huichol Huichole-Huichol Humbera-Emberi and Wounaan Ikake-Jicaque Indians of Baja California Indians of Venustiano Carranza-Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos Indo-Trinidadians-East Indians in Trinidad Island Carib-Carib of Dominica; Garifuna Italian Mexicans Itza' Itza-Itza' Itzaj Maya-Itza' Itza Maya-Itza' Ixcatec-Chocho-Chocho brdl Jacalteco-Jakalteko Jaika-Maleku Jakalteko Jamaicans jicaque Jocolabal-Tojolabal Jojolabal-Tojolab'al Juave-Huave Maasehual-Yukateko Macehualmeh-Nahuat of the Sierra de Puebla Maleku Mam Mames-Mam Mam Maya-Mam Marefios-Huave Martiniquais Maya-Awakateko; Chontal of Tabasco; Ch'ol; Cho'rti'; Chuj; Itza'; Lxii; Jakalteko; Kaqchikel; Ki'che'; Lakandon; Mamn; Mopan; Poqomam; Poqomchi'; Q'aqjob'al; Q'eqchi'; Sipakapense; Tojolab'al; Tzeltal; Tzotzil and Tzeltal of Pantelh6; Tzotzil of Chamula; Tzotzil of San Andres Larrainzar; Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Llanos; Tzotzil of Zinacantan; Tz'utujil; Uspanteko; Wasteko; Yukateko Mayangna-Sumu Mayero-Itza'; Yukateko Mayo-Cahita Mazahua Mazatec mestizo rancheros-Cattle Ranchers of the Huasteca Metropolitans-Martiniquais Mexica-Nahuat of the Sierra de Peubla Mexicano-Nahua Peoples; Nahua of the Huasteca; Nahua of the State of Mexico; Nahuat of the Sierra de Puebla Mexijcatl-Nahua of the Huasteca Michuguaca-Tarascans Mije-Mixe Miskito Miskito Coast Creoles-Creoles of Nicaragua Miskitu-Miskito Kabekirwak Cabecar-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Kakchiquel-Kaqchikel Kanhobal-Q'anjob'al Mixe Mixtec Montserratians Mopan Mopane-Mopan Mopanero-Mopan Mopan Maya-Mopan Morenos-Creoles of Nicaragua Moskito-Miskito Mosqueto-Miskito Mosquito-Miskito Moustique-Miskito Move-Ngawbe Movere-Ngawbe Muri-Bugle Mudre-Bugle Nahua of the Huasteca Nahua of the State of Mexico Nahua Peoples Nahuat of the Sierra de Puebla N ii -Otomi of the Sierra Nati Dread-Rastafarians Nayares-Cora Nayaritas-Cora Negros-Creoles of Nicaragua Netherlands Antillians Ngiabe-Ngawbe Ngawbe Ngawbere-Ngawbe Ng6be-Ngawbe Noanabs-Emberi and Wounaan Noanama-Emberi and Wounaan Noanes-Embeni and Wounaan Nonama-Emberi and Wounaan Nonamefio-Emberi and Wounaan Northern Tepehuan-Tepehuan of Chihuahua Ny hq -Otomi of the Sierra Nuu Savi-Mixtec N'yiihi-Otomi of the Sierra Odami-Tepehuan of Chihuahua Ohlwa-Sumu Oirubae-Arubans Olua-Sumu Oob-Pima Bajo OOdham-Pima Bajo 'O'odham-Pima Bajo Opata Opata-Opata Opatoro-Lenca Ora Oubao-Arubans Oro Ubo-Arubans Otomi of the Sierra Otomi of the Sierra Norte de Puebla-Otomi of the Sierra Otomi of the Southern Huasteca-Otomi of the Sierra Otomi of the Valley of Mezquital Overseas Indians-East Indians in Trinidad Pahaya-Paya Paipai-Indians of Baja California Pame Panamaka-Sumnu Panoteca-Wasteko Pawyer-Paya Paya Pech-Paya People of Nevis-Kittsians and Nevisians Ethnonyvm Index 329 People of Saint Kitts-Kittsians and Nevisians Pesch-Paya Peten Maya-Itza' Phorhepicha-Tarascans Phurhepecha-Tarascans Pima Bajo Pipil Pocomim-Poqomam Pocoman-Poqomam Poconchi-Poqomchi' Pokomam-Poqomam Pokoman-Poqomam Pokomchi-Poqomchi' Pokonchi-Poqomchi' Popoloca Popoluca Popya-Paya Poqomam Poqomchi' Poya-Paya Poyai-Paya Poyer-Paya Puerto Ricans Puertorriquefios-Puerto Ricans Purepecha-Tarascans Purepecha-Tarascans Q'anjobal Q'eqchi' Quiche-Kiche' Ralamuli-Tarahumara Rama rancheros-Cattle Ranchers of the Huasteca Rarimuri-Tarahumara Rastafari-Rastafarians Rastafarians Rastas-Rastafarians Rio Verde-Emberi and Wounaan Sabanero-Bugle Sadi-Seri Saija-Emberi and Wounaan Saint Lucians Salineros-Seri San Bartolefios-Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos San Jorge-Emberi and Wounaan San Josefios-Itza' San Juan Chamula-Tzotzil of Chamula Santa Catarina Pantelh6-Tzotzil and Tzeltal of Pantelh6 Seco-Paya Se'ie Bribri-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabicar Seri Shuta enima-Mazatec Sierra Nahuat-Nahuat of the Sierra de Puebla Sipacapa Quiche-Sipakapense Sipacapefio-Sipakapense Sipacapense-Sipakapense Sipakapense Smoo-Sumu Smu-Sumu Somoo-Sumu Soques-Zoque Sori-Seri Sotz'leb-Twtzil of Zinacantan Summoo-Sumu Sumo-Sumu Sumoo-Sumu Sumu Tad6-Emberi and Wounaan Taguaca-Jicaque; Sumu Tahuajca-Sumu Taia-Paya Talamanca Bdibri-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Taoajka-Sumu Tasiotefios-Seri Taupane-jicaque Tarahumar-Tarahumara Tarahumara Tarahumari-Tarahumara Tarascans Tarascos-Tarascans Taraumar-Tarahumara Tawahka-Sumu Tawka-Paya Taya-Paya Teenek-Wasteko Tehueco-Cahita Tepehua Tepehuan of Chihuahua Tepehuan of Durango Tepoca-Seri Tequldatec Tequisdateco-Tequistlatec Teribe Terraba-Teribe Tevi-Huichol Tiburone-Seri Tico-Costa Ricans Tipai-Indians of Baja California Tlapanec Tojolabal-Tojolab'al Tojolab'al Tol-Jicaque Tolpan-Jicaque Torrupan-Jicaque Totiketik-Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos Totiques-Twtzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos Totonac Totonaca-Totonac Totonaco-Totonac Towcka-Sumu Trinidadians and Tobagonians Triques-Triqui Triqui Tsapotecatl-Zapotec Tsoque-Zoque Tule-Kuna Tulemala-Kuna Turks and Caicos Islanders Twahka-Sumu Twaka-Sumu Twanka-Sumu Twaxha-Sumu Tzeltal Tzoques-Zoque Tzotzil and Tzeltal of Pantelho Tzotziles-Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos Tzotzil of Chamula Tzotzil of San Andres Larrainzar Tzotzil of San Bartolome de los Uanos Tzotzil of Zinacantan Tz'utujil Ulua-Sumu Ulwa-Sumu Upanguayma-Seri Uspantec-Uspanteko Uspanteco-Uspanteko Uspanteko Varohio-Guarijio Varohios-Guaryio Varojios-Guaraio Viceita Bribri-Boruca, Bribri, and Cabecar Vinuk-Tz'utujil Virgin Islanders Wabi-Huave Wa-hmi-Chinantec Warijio-Guarjio Warijios-Guaryio Wasteko Waunama-Emberi and Wounaan Waunan-Emberi and Wounaan Waunana-Emberi and Wounaan Wizarika-Huichol Woolwa-Sumu Woowa-Sumu Wounaan-Emberi and Wounaan Wounan-Embera and Wounaan Wulwa-Sumu Xicaque-Jicaque Xinca Yahval lum-Tzotzil of San Andres Larrainzar Yaqui Yaqui-Cahita Yocotan-Chontal of Tabasco Yoeme-Yaqui Yokot'an-Chontal of Tabasco Yoreme-Yaqui Yu di Korsou-Curacao Yukateko Za-Zapotec Zapotec Zapoteco-Zapotec Zinacantecos-Tzotzil of Zinacantan Zinacantecs-Tzotzil of Zinacantan Zoc-Zoque Zoque Zumo-Sumu The Editors Editor in Chief David Levinson (Ph.D., State University of New York at Buffalo) is vice-president of the Human Relations Area Files, in New Haven, Connecticut He is a cultural anthropologist whose primary research interests are in social issues, worldwide comparative research, and social theory He has conducted research on homelessness, alcohol abuse, aggression, family relations, and ethnicity Among his dozens of publications are the award-winning text Toward Human Culture (with Martin J Malone), The Tribal Living Book (with David Sherwood), and Family Violence in Cross-Cultural Perspective Dr Levinson also teaches anthropology at Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut Volume Editor James W Dow (Ph.D., Brandeis University), professor of anthropology at Oakland University, has studied indigenous cultures since 1963 His major fieldwork has been conducted among the Otomi-speaking people of the eastern sierra of Hidalgo, concerning whom he has published three books, Santos y supervivencias, The Otomi of the Northern Sierra de Puebla, and The Shaman's Touch He has been a Fulbright Scholar and the recipient of a research award from the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion He is the coeditor of and a contributor to Peasant Livelihood: Studies in Economic Anthropology and Cultural Ecology and Class, Politics, and Popular Religion in Mexico and Central America He is also the author of articles appearing in various journals such as American Anthropologist, Human Organization, Peasant Studies, and Social Science Information He is a member of the executive committee of the Central States Anthropological Society and is the treasurer of the Society for Latin American Anthropology Besides studying the ethnology of Middle America, he has an interest in anthropological methods, both qualitative and quantitative, and is administrator of the ANTHAP computer network that serves the Society for Applied Anthropology and the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology Associate Editor Robert V Kemper (Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley) is professor of anthropology at Souther Methodist University, Dallas, Texas He has served as president of the Society for Urban Anthropology and as copresident of the Society for Latin American Anthropology He has been editor for socio-cultural anthropology of the American Anthropologist, associate editor of Urban Anthropology, and editor of Human Organization He is a member of the executive board of the Council for the Preservation of Anthropological Records, has been a member of the executive board of the American Anthropological Association, and is the founding chair of the Commission on the Anthropology of Tourism of the International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences He has published widely on migration, urban studies, tourism, the history of anthropology, applied anthropology, and education, with a special focus on Mexico and Hispanic populations His major publications include Anthroplogists in Cities (coedited with George M Foster); Migration and Adaptation: Tzintzuntzan Peasants in Mexico City; The History of Anthropology: A Research Bibliography (with John F S Phinney); Metropolitan Latin America: The Challenge and the Response (coedited with Wayne A Cornelius); Long-Term Field Research in Social Anthropology (coedited with George M Foster, Thayer Scudder, and Elizabeth Colson); and Migration across Frontiers: Mexico and the United States (coedited with Fernando Cimara) ... / China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa and the Middle East Index The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations... the Middle American mainland cultures and the Caribbean cultures of the West Indian islands and Bermuda Middle America is the region south of the United States and north of South America It includes... Mongolia, the People's Republic of China, and the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics South America covers the cultures of South America Middle America and the Caribbean covers the cultures of