Encyclopedia of gender and education

Gender and Education: An Encyclopedia, Volumes I & II Barbara J Bank Editor Praeger Gender and Education Gender and Education An Encyclopedia Volume I Edited by Barbara J Bank Sara Delamont and Catherine Marshall, Associate Editors Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gender and education : an encyclopedia / edited by Barbara J Bank ; associate editors Sara Delamont and Catherine Marshall p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33343–9 (set : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33344–6 (vol : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33345–3 (vol : alk paper) Educational equalization–Encyclopedias Women–Education–Encyclopedias Sex discrimination in education–Encyclopedias I Bank, Barbara J II Delamont, Sara, 1947- III Marshall, Catherine, 1946LC213.G425 2007 370.8203—dc22 2007023758 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available Copyright © 2007 by Barbara J Bank All rights reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2007023758 ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33343–9 (set) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33344–6 (vol 1) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33345–3 (vol 2) First published in 2007 Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc www.praeger.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984) 10 Contents Preface xi Introduction xv Volume One Part I: Gendered Theories of Education Overview Academic Capitalism Black Feminism, Womanism, and Standpoint Theories 15 Cultural Capital Theories 23 Feminist Reproduction Theory 31 Liberal and Radical Feminisms 39 Multicultural and Global Feminisms 47 Postmodern and Poststructural Theories 55 Queer Theory 63 Relational-Cultural Theory 71 Sex Role Socialization 79 Social Capital Theories 87 Social Constructionism 93 Part II: Gender Issues in Educational Research 101 Overview 103 Feminist Critiques of Educational Research and Practices 107 vi CONTENTS International and U.S Data Sources on Gender and Education 117 Methodological Problems in Gender Research 125 Part III: Institutional Contexts for Gendered Education 131 Overview 133 Alternative Schools 139 Coeducational Colleges and Universities 147 Community Colleges 155 Distance Education 163 Historically Black Colleges and Universities 171 Home Schooling 179 Men’s Colleges and Universities 185 Military Colleges and Academies 193 National School Systems 201 Private Single-Sex and Coeducational Schools 209 Public Single-Sex and Coeducational Schools 217 Tribal Colleges and Universities 227 Women’s Colleges and Universities 235 Part IV: Gender Constructions in the Official Curriculum 243 Overview 245 Biological and Physical Sciences 249 Black Studies 257 Early Childhood Education 263 Family and Consumer Sciences (Historically, Home Economics) 269 Health and Sex Education 275 History Lessons about Gender 281 Mathematics 287 Men’s Studies 295 Multicultural Education 303 Music 309 National Curricula 315 CONTENTS Physical Education 321 Queer[ing] Curriculum 327 Social Studies 331 Teacher Education 339 Technology and Computer Science 345 Theatre and Drama 351 Visual Arts 357 Vocational Education 363 Women’s and Gender Studies 369 Part V: Gendered Achievements in the Official Curriculum 375 Overview 377 Academic Majors 381 Attrition from Schools 389 College Student Attrition and Retention 395 Curricular Tracking 401 Educational Achievements in International Context 407 Graduate and Professional Education 415 Intelligence Tests 421 Literacy 427 Mathematics Performance 435 Reading 443 Science Achievement 449 Writing 457 About the Editors and Contributors 463 Volume Two Part VI: Gender Constructions and Achievements in the Extracurriculum 473 Overview 475 Academic, Arts, and Service Clubs 479 Femininity, Cheerleading, and Sports 485 Fraternities 491 vii CONTENTS Teacher Burnout 691 Work-Family Conflicts of Educators 701 Part X: Gender and Educational Policies 709 Overview 711 The “Boy Problem” 717 Evaluation Policies for Academics 723 Feminist Pedagogy 731 Gender Equality Policies in British Schooling 739 Gender Equality Policies in Canadian Schooling 747 Gender Equity and Students with Disabilities 755 International Policies 763 NGOs and Their Impact on Gendered Education 771 Pregnant and Parenting Teens 779 School Choice and Gender Equity 787 Sexual Harassment Policies and Practices 793 Students’ Rights in U.S Higher Education 801 Title IX and School Sports 809 Women’s Educational Equity Act 817 Work-Family Reconciliation Policies 823 Name Index 831 Subject Index 845 About the Editors and Contributors 853 ix viii CONTENTS Masculinity and School Sports 497 Service Learning and Activism 503 Sororities 509 Student Government 517 Women’s Centers 523 Part VII: Gender Constructions in the Hidden Curriculum 529 Overview 531 Educator Sexual Misconduct 535 Expectations of Teachers for Boys and Girls 541 Heterosexism and Homophobia in the Hidden Curriculum 549 Managing “Problem” Boys and Girls 555 School Counseling 563 Teacher-Student Interactions 571 Part VIII: Gender Constructions in the Peer Group 577 Overview 579 Bullying, Harassment, and Violence Among Students 583 Gangs and Schools 591 Heterosexism and Homophobia in the Peer Group 597 Peer Cultures and Friendships in School 605 Playgrounds and Recreational Activities 613 Part IX: Gendered Teaching and Administration 621 Overview 623 Advising and Mentoring in Graduate Education 627 Career Patterns in Higher Education 635 Career Patterns in Schools 643 Faculty Workloads in Higher Education 653 Feminization of Teaching 661 Leadership Styles 669 Masculinity, Homophobia, and Teaching 677 Salaries of Academics 683 SUBJECT INDEX 377–80 See also names of specific school subjects Educational research: feminist critiques of, 107–15; frameworks for, 677, 680, 681; gender issues and, 101, 103–6, 743, 745; representations of social class in, 553, 554 See also Gender research EFA (Education for All): global policy, 202, 764–65, 768, 773, 774; world conference on, 202 Essentialism, 6, 47, 57, 129, 437, 784; social constructionism v., 64–65, 94 See also Biological determinism; Biological sex differences Expectations, of teachers for boys and girls, 541–47 See also Teacher-student interactions Extracurriculum, 475–78; “boy problem” and, 342; exclusion of pregnant and parenting students, 781–82; offerings at colleges, 173, 186, 194, 236; offerings at single-sex and coeducational schools, 224–25; theatre and visual arts in, 354, 358 See also Fraternities; School clubs; School sports; Service learning; Sororities; Women’s centers Faculty in higher education See Academics; Career patterns of: professionals in higher education; Workloads of Family and consumer sciences, 246, 269–74 Family friendly policies See Work-family conflict, reconciliation policies Federal Vocational Education Act of 1976 (USA), 274 Femininity: boys and, 553, 575; in cheerleading and women’s sports, 485–90, 497, 499; as cultural capital, 26, 28; curricular constructions of, 254, 275, 311, 321–24, 359, 446, 573; “good” students and, 532, 575; masculinity v., 5, 74, 266–67, 328; peer cultures and, 580, 599, 609; research on, 81; social constructions of, 93, 95, 97, 282, 284, 372, 575; social constructions in specific educational contexts, 195–96, 198, 222, 343; sororities and, 514; theoretical conceptualizations of, 43, 48, 296, 299, 328; traditional, and deviations from, 139, 144, 145, 306, 550– 51, 682; White conceptualization of, 22, 559 Feminisms: ecofeminism, 43; lesbian, 16, 40, 43; Marxist and neo-Marxist, 31–33, 36, 727 (see also Reproduction theories, feminist versions); postcolonial, 44, 45; postmodern influences on, 342–43, 359, 506 (see also Postmodern and poststructural theories); socialist, 40, 41, 42, 159, 438, 727 See also Liberal feminism; Multicultural and global feminisms; Radical feminism Feminization of: lower level campus administration, 636, 640; teaching, 430, 661–67 FERPA (Federal Educational Rights and Privacy Act, 1974, USA), 806–7 Fraternities, 475, 476, 491–96, 509, 510, 512, 514; men’s colleges and, 187, 190, 191, 192 Gang rape, 153 Gangs, 144, 579, 581, 591–96 See also Peer group Gender equality policies: in British schooling, 739–46, 781; in Canadian schooling, 747– 54; international, 201, 202, 203, 205, 407– 14, 763–70; national curricula and, 315, 316–19 See also Education policies and gender Gender equity: distance education and, 166– 67; reproductive theories and, 32–34, 36; school choice and, 34, 787–92; transformational approach to literacy and, 432–33 Gender legislation See Gender equality policies; Legislation; names of specific laws Gender research, 32, 35, 60, 96; data sources for, 117–24; methodological problems in, 125–29; music education and, 309–12 Gender schema, 81, 614–18 Gender segregation in: academic majors, 151, 381–87, 450–51; colleges, 148, 149, 152; national school systems, 203, 205, 208, 318; occupations and vocational education, 363, 364, 381, 644, 645, 666; school administration, 643, 644, 649, 650, 791; schools, 135, 136, 791; student peer groups, 609 See also Single-sex v coeducational schools Gender studies See Women’s and gender studies G.I Bill, 188, 817 GLBT (gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transexuals) See LGBT students Graduate and professional education, 150, 247, 415–19, 713 HBCUs (historically Black colleges and 847 848 SUBJECT INDEX universities), 135, 171–78, 186, 236, 271, 526; teacher training at, 340–41 Health and sex education, 113, 180, 275–80, 298, 403 Heterosexism and homophobia in: Black civil rights movement, 16; hidden curriculum, 549–54; peer group, 392, 597–603; school curricula, 305; socialization of boys, 74; teaching, 677–82 Hidden curriculum, 56, 311, 358, 366, 500; gender constructions in, 531–33; heterosexism and homophobia in, 549–54 History lessons about gender, 281–86 See also Social studies Home economics, 136, 152, 158, 217, 246, 297, 413 See also Family and consumer sciences Home schooling, 133, 179–83 Homophobia See Heterosexism and homophobia ICT (information and communication technology), 168, 345, 432 IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, USA), 756, 757 Intelligence tests, 421–25, 544 IT (information technology), 318, 345 Leadership styles of educators, 114, 624, 640, 646–47, 669–75; at HBCUs, 175; in visual arts, 359, 360, 361; in women’s studies, 371 Learning disabilities, gender differences in, 73–74, 221, 444, 718, 757–58 See also “Boy Problem”; Disabilities Legislation regarding: affirmative action, 650; gender and educational equality, 39, 316, 318, 684–85; home economics, 273; home schooling, 179; mathematics performance of girls, 435, 436; pregnancy and parenting teens, 781; students’ rights, 801, 805–6; students with disabilities, 755–57; TCUs, 229 See also Gender equality policies; names of specific laws LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transexual) students: inclusive policies for, 67, 68, 600; mistreatment of, 586, 597; peer advocacy for, 475, 600–601; sororities for, 511; treatment by teachers, 602–3 Liberal feminism, 4, 5, 159, 182, 437, 748; “Boy Problem” and, 719–20; feminist reproduction theory and, 34; radical feminism and, 39–45, 58, 159, 726–27 Literacy, 120–22, 379, 427–33, 440, 789; goals of EFA, MDGs, and NGOs, 765, 774, 775 See also “Boy Problem”; Reading Major fields/programs of study See Academic majors Masculinity: “boy problem” and, 719–22; cheerleading and, 485–86; crisis of (see “Boy Problem”); femininity v., 5, 74, 266– 67, 328; gender oppression and, 306; hegemonic, 129, 185, 299–300, 497, 551, 553, 681; heterosexuality and, 551–52, 599; homophobia and teaching and, 677–82; men’s studies scholarship on, 299–300; national curricula and, 314; peer cultures and, 580, 599, 609; physical education and, 322–34; play and, 616; school sports and, 306, 445, 497–501; sexual harassment and, 609; “tough guise” and, 307; violence and, 587 Mathematics: achievement measures of, 121, 122; advanced track placements in, 404; feminism and, 251; gender constructions in, 287–93; instructors of, difficulty finding at TCUs, 231; interpretations of performance in, 127–28; masculinity and, 246, 317, 359; national curricula and, 314, 318; single-sex classes and performance in, 211–12, 214– 15, 221, 437 Mathematics, gender differences in: interest in 211, 215; enrollment in, 136, 206, 247, 405; expected performance in, 408; majors and degree attainment in, 253, 381, 405, 450, 452; occupational careers in, 154, 384; performance in, 378, 408–10, 435–41; senior faculty positions in, 404; TIMSS results, 206–7, 411–12 MDGs (Millenium Developmental Goals, U.N.), 764, 765, 768 Men’s colleges and universities, 185–92, 201, 296 See also Military colleges and academies Men’s studies, 247, 295–301, 677 Mentors, 154, 311, 279, 289, 449, 453 See also Advising and mentoring Military colleges and academies, 151, 189, 191, 193–200 See also VMI (Virginia Military Institute) court case Morrill Land Grant Act (USA): of 1862, 149, 238, 270, 273; of 1890, 149, 172, 270 Multicultural and global feminisms, 6, 40, 41, 47–53, 344, 727 Multicultural education, 258, 303–8, 342, 495, 789 SUBJECT INDEX Music, 309–14; as cultural capital, 27, 87; gender differentiation within field of, 246; in home schooling, 181; school theatrical productions of, 352–53, 354; student participation in extracurricular forms of, 479, 480; teachers of, as sexual abusers, 536, 540; videos of, and the female body, 359 NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress), 334, 450, 718 See also Data sources on gender and education National curricula, 315–20 National school systems, 201–8, 407 NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, USA), 693; devaluation of applied sciences, arts, social studies in, 274, 331, 359; gender and, 711; “high stakes testing” and, 103; research funding and, 111; school choice and, 315; school reform undermined by, 308; single-sex schooling and, 137, 218; teacher burnout and, 695–96; testing and quantitative analysis promoted by, 98 NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 715, 769; impact on gendered education, 771–78 Patriarchy, 77, 769; education institutions, entrenched in, 4, 5, 11, 12, 33, 39, 173, 175; female experience of schooling and, 391, 393; feminism and, 5, 18, 41, 42–45, 727; gender construction in, 5, 41; men, effects on, 298, 299; transformation of, 39; White, 261; women’s groups, opposition to, 373, 775–76, 820 Pedagogy: Black feminist, 20–21; critical, 352, 360, 431; feminist, 114, 360, 361, 524, 629, 715, 731–38; flexible, 142, 145; gender sex equity and, 750, 779, 784, 818, 820; queer, 63, 68–70, 328, 554; traditional, 142 Pedagogy in: “boy’s problem,” etiology of, 719, 720; mathematics, 291; multicultural education, 303, 306, 307, 308; music, 312, 313; physical education, 321, 324, 325, 326; teachers’ education, 340; women’s studies, 506 Peer group: bullying, harassment and violence in, 74, 113, 304, 500, 583–89, 599; cultures and friendships in, 597, 605–11; gender constructions in, 295, 296, 299, 579–81; recreational activities on playgrounds, 615–18 Physical education, 274, 315, 316, 321–26, 476 See also School sports PIRLS (Program in International Reading Literacy Study), 121, 122 PISA (Program for International Student Assessment), 347–48, 438–40 See also Data sources on gender and education Playgrounds and recreational activities, 613–19 Policies See Gender equality policies; names of specific policies Positionality, 306–7, 627, 630, 735 Positivism, 111, 250; criticisms of, 271 Postmodern and poststructural theories, 5, 34, 35, 40, 41, 55–61; in music education, 311; research knowledge and, 110 Pregnant and parenting teens, schooling of, 113, 114, 142, 143, 714, 744, 779–86 Private schools See School types Problem boys and girls, management by teachers, 555–61 Public schools See School types Queer: activism, 735; curriculum, 327–30; meanings of, 327; studies, 247 Queer theory, 5, 40, 56, 63–70, 327, 743; in men’s studies, 299; in music education, 311; subjectivities in school and, 551, 552 Racial segregation, 135–36, 172, 712, 805, 817; gender segregation, differences from, 136 Radical feminism, 4, 5, 12, 727; liberal feminism and, 39–45, 58, 437–38, 726–27; sisterhood in, 43, 45, 51 Reading, 278, 339, 359, 379, 443–48, 721; curricular tracking in, 403; gender differences in, 128, 211, 221, 264, 379, 718; measures of, 121, 122, 695, 718; queer practices and, 328, 329; single-sex schooling and, 224 See also Literacy Relational-cultural theory, 4, 71–78 Reproduction See Sexual reproduction; Social reproduction Reproduction theories, 25, 27, 28; feminist versions of, 4, 5, 31–38 Research See Educational research; Gender research Role learning See Sex role socialization Role models, 154, 311 See also Advising and mentoring; Mentors Salaries of: academics, 625, 637, 657, 683–90; reading teachers, 447; school administrators 849 850 SUBJECT INDEX and teachers, 340–41, 343, 623, 644, 665– 66, 722 School clubs: academic, arts, and service, 479–84; drama, in all-male schools, 224 See also Student government School counseling, 77, 219, 400, 524, 563–69, 678, 789 See also Advising and mentoring School sports: boys’ and men’s, 477–78, 479, 481, 497–501, 617, 619; cheerleading, girls’ and women’s, 485–90; gender equity policies and, 766, 807; history of, 186, 187, 190, 342; masculinity and, 299, 300, 306, 445, 497–501; risky behavior and, 482; school theatre programs as alternative to, 186, 300, 354; Title IX and, 809–16 See also Physical education School types: Catholic, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215–16, 789; independent, 209–10, 211, 212, 213, 498; Islamic, 204–5; private, 137, 209–16, 222, 223, 402; public, 217–25; single-sex, 741–42 See also Single-sex v coeducational schools Science: academic capitalism and, 8, 9, 10, 12; attrition from higher education by women in, 397; Black women in, 174; feminist critiques of, 21–22, 43, 44, 111; interpretations of performance in, 127–28; masculinity and, 246, 297, 309, 359, 408, 543, 545–46, 573; measures of performance in, 121, 122; national curricula and, 315, 317, 318; patriarchal biases in, 250–51; underrepresentation of girls and women in, 379, 380, 696, 697, 713; valued above arts, 359 See also Biological and physical sciences Science, gender differences in: access to, 524, 542; achievement, 206–7, 287, 378, 411–13, 449–55 (see also Single-sex v coeducational schools); course enrollments, 136, 404, 550; degrees obtained, 84, 382–84, 386–87, 543, 636–37; encouragement received, 559, 568, 572; peer influences on, 611; teacher expectancies about, 544, 545 See also Biological and physical sciences SDA (Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, UK), 711, 740 Second-wave feminism, 32, 55, 56, 105, 149, 713, 715, 743; men’s studies and, 296, 297; single-sex education and, 217; sisterhood in, 513, 516; student government and, 518; women’s studies and, 370–72 Self-socialization of gender, 613, 614–15, 618 See also Sex role socialization theory Service learning and activism, 259, 336, 503–7, 527 Sex education See Health and sex education Sexism, 48, 190, 299, 528; Black women’s experiences of, 16, 20, 261; bullying as different from, 587; multicultural feminism and, 49; programs to reduce, 178, 191, 198; racism and, 305–6; relational-cultural theory and, 71, 77; religious roots of, 172– 73; teachers and peer, 533, 573 Sexist practices in: mass media, 310; mathematics, 289; music education, 310; single-sex schools, 212, 220 Sex role socialization, 94, 112, 296–97; hidden curriculum as source of, 550; liberal feminist emphasis on, 437; reading and, 444–45, 447; relational-cultural theory and, 72–76 See also Self-socialization of gender Sex role socialization theory, 3, 4, 5, 79–85, 265–66, 748; critiques of, 32–33, 56–57, 748–49 Sex role theory, 33, 57, 265, 551 See also Sex role socialization theory Sexual harassment, 153, 599, 602–3, 609, 680; educator sexual misconduct and, 535–40; HBCUs and, 177; men’s colleges as context for, 190–91, 193, 196, 198–99; overreactions to, 557–58; policies regarding, 153, 158, 751, 793–800, 805–6, 807; programmatic responses against, 198, 279, 316, 495, 525, 818; student attrition, as consequence of, 292, 453; teachers as observers of, 308, 575; Title IX and, 81, 812; underreporting of, 153 See also Peer group: bullying, harassment, and violence Sexual reproduction: as choice in liberal feminism, 40, 41; as constraint on women, 727–28; gender constructions and, 109, 682; sex education and, 254, 276, 278; technology and, 50; vocational education and, 364; women with disabilities and feminist views of, 760 Single-sex v coeducational schools: in international context, 204–5, 208, 437, 542; in private sector, 137, 209–16; in public sector, 135, 136, 137, 217–25, 403, 543, 552, 574; science achievement and, 211, 213, 214–15, 220, 229; school choice policies and, 714, 788–91 Social capital theories, 4, 23, 24, 28, 87–92 Social constructionism, 5, 93–97; men’s studies and, 299; theoretical debates about, 48, 61, 250 SUBJECT INDEX Social constructions of: femininity in cheerleading, 489; gender in curricula, 330, 403; gender and whiteness in teacher education, 339, 343; knowledge in classbased studies, 550; masculinity and reading, 446; peer cultures, 605; selves in feminist pedagogy, 736; youth cultures, 607 Social movements See Black movements; Civil rights movement; Women’s movements Social reproduction, 56, 714; of gender identities through physical education, 324, 326; of gendered inequalities by educational institutions, 56; of heterosexuality, 44 See also Reproduction theories Social sciences: academic capitalism and, 9, 10, 12; Black feminism, challenges to, 21; Foucault’s influence on, 56; funding policies effects on, 631; gender gap in, 381– 85, 636; men’s studies and, 297, 300; queer perspectives in, 329 Social studies, 331–38, 354, 404 See also History lessons about gender Sociobiology, 41 See also Biological sex differences Sororities, 173, 475, 476, 493, 494, 509–15 Standpoint theories: Black feminism and, 6, 15–22 STDs (sexually transmitted diseases), education about, 277 STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) fields of study: attrition from, 450; chilly climate for women in, 453; gender differences in, 378–79, 381–82, 386, 450–51; teacher recruitment into, 697 See also Career impediments Student government, 517–22; student unions, compared to, 475–76 Students’ rights policies, 801–7 TCUs (tribally controlled colleges and universities), 227–33 Teacher burnout, 181–82, 624, 691–99 Teacher education, 339–44; in drama and theatre, 352; FCS and, 274; gender gap in, 247, 721; NGOs and, 775; in physical education, 321, 325–26; shortcomings of, 308, 310–11 Teacher-student interactions, 571–76 Teachers See Career patterns of; Salaries of; Workloads of Teachers unions, 112, 750, 751, 753, 764 Technology and computer science, 345–50; academic majors of men and women in, 381, 383–84, 386–87; gender gaps in, 169, 246, 247, 249–50, 572, 630, 787 Theatre and drama, 114, 186, 246, 351–56, 461 Theories, gendered, of education, 3–6 See also Feminisms; names of specific theories TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study), 207, 208, 411–12, 438– 40, 451 See also Data sources on gender and education Title IX of Education Amendments of 1972 (USA), 113, 149–50, 539, 711–13, 805–7; “boy problem” and, 722; people with disabilities and, 755–56; pregnant teens and, 780; school sports and, 190–91, 487, 490, 501, 809–16; sexual misconduct and, 538, 583–84, 794, 799–800; single-sex schooling and, 136, 218, 220, 240, 788; WEEA and, 818–19 Tracking See Curricular tracking Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 202 Visual arts, 357–62; as cultural capital, 27, 87; devalued in academic capitalism, 12; devalued in NCLB, 274; drama and, 354; gender stereotypes concerning, 568, 617; in national curricula, 318; poststructuralism, influence on, 56; sex segregation in, 246 See also School clubs: academic, arts, and service VMI (Virginia Military Institute) court case, 137, 150, 218, 220, 223, 805 See also Military colleges and academies Vocational education, 246, 273–74, 363–68; data on, 120–21; in national curricula, 315 WEEA (Women’s Educational Equity Act), 817–21 Womanism, 18, 261–62 Women’s and gender studies, 254, 369–74; citizen education and, 336; community colleges and, 158, 160; curricular transformations encouraged by, 109, 246, 249–52, 255, 310, 335; Black, 259–61; distance education and, 169; feminist activism and, 247, 503–6; feminist influences on, 50–51; HBCUs and, 178; hiring of women faculty and, 191; pedagogy and, 254, 731, 732; secondary school level, 753; shortcomings in, 253; social 851 852 SUBJECT INDEX constructionism and, 94; women’s centers and, 523–26; womanism and, 18 Women’s centers, 3, 158, 160, 523–28 Women’s colleges and universities, 135, 148, 149, 173, 235–42; faculty and administrators at, 11, 154, 177, 671; science and, 237, 252; sororities at, 512 Women’s movements, 41, 190, 371–72, 742– 43; Black sororities and, 173, 513–14; consequences of, 158, 192, 257, 296–97, 649, 780, 811; for liberation (see Secondwave feminism); for rights and suffrage, 148, 173, 282, 296, 335; third-wave feminism, 11; women’s centers and, 524, 526; women’s studies and, 252, 369 Work-family conflict, 149, 625, 727–28; distance education as response to, 164–65; of educators, 160, 655, 658, 701–7, 727; penalties for, 175, 387; reconciliation policies, 160–61, 182, 705–6, 823–30; women faculty as role models for resolution of, 630 Workloads of: faculty in higher education, 630, 631, 637, 653–59; teachers, 184, 751, 752 World Conferences on Women, 52; 4th in Beijing, 52, 765, 776; NGO Forum at 3rd in Nairobi, 333 Writing, 457–62 Youth See Gangs; Peer group About the Editors and Contributors Barbara J Bank is Professor Emerita of Sociology and of Women Studies at the University of Missouri–Columbia She has been honored with a Fulbright Senior Scholar Award, visiting fellowships at the Australian National University, and three awards for outstanding teaching Her scholarly presentations and publications, including Contradictions in Women’s Education: Traditionalism, Careerism, and Community at a Single-Sex College (2003), reflect her interests in the areas of social psychology, gender studies, and the sociology of youth and education Sara Delamont is Reader in Sociology at Cardiff University, Wales, U.K She was elected an Academician of the U.K Academy of Social Sciences in 2000 In 1984, she was the first woman President of the British Educational Research Association, and she was also the first woman Dean of Social Sciences at Cardiff University She is currently editing two journals, Teaching and Teacher Education and Qualitative Research, and her most recent single-authored book is Feminist Sociology (2003) Her ongoing research interests include an ethnography of how the Brazilian martial art capoeira is taught in the United Kingdom Catherine Marshall is Professor of Educational Administration and Policy at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Her gender studies focus on leadership and policy in education She has also studied gender policy internationally Her Feminist Critical Policy Analysis (1997) demands policy attention to a range of gender issues Marshall also conducts research on state education politics and gender issues in education careers She initiated the formation of Leadership for Social Justice, an international network for equity advocacy Her books, Reframing Educational Politics for Social Justice (2005) and Leadership for Social Justice (2006), are used to shift the educational administration field away from managerial assumptions to equity advocacy leadership Sandra Acker is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Equity Studies, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto in Canada where she has 854 ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS recently served as Associate Dean (Social Sciences), School of Graduate Studies She has worked in the United States, Britain, and Canada as a sociologist of education, with interests in gender and education, teachers’ work, and higher education Her current research is focused on university tenure practices, women academics in leadership positions, graduate student experiences, and transitions in teacher education institutions She is the author of Gendered Education (1994) and The Realities of Teachers’ Work: Never a Dull Moment (1999) Lyndsay J Agans is a doctoral student and research assistant in Higher Education at the University of Denver Her scholarship focuses on organization and governance as it relates to change and reform for equality in higher education Debra Barbezat is Professor of Economics at Colby College in Waterville, Maine She received her PhD from the University of Michigan with an emphasis on labor economics Her research has focused specifically on academic labor markets including male-female pay gaps, the effects of collective bargaining, and the influence of seniority, job mobility, and salary structure on academic salaries Rachel Hile Bassett is Assistant Professor of English at Indiana University–Purdue University at Fort Wayne Her research focuses on early modern English literature, and she is the editor of Parenting and Professing: Balancing Family Work with an Academic Career (2005) Karen Bojar is Professor of English and Coordinator of Women’s Studies at Community College of Philadelphia where she has taught for the past 30 years She has published extensively on feminist pedagogy and the relationship between women’s studies, service learning, and feminist activism She has had a long history in grassroots feminist politics Currently, she serves as President of Philadelphia NOW, chairs its Political Action Committee, and is on the board of the Pennsylvania NOW-PAC She is also a board member of NARAL-PA Foundation Linda K Carter is a graduate student in Economics at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee Her research interests include the economic history of education in the United States and the use of innovative strategies to improve educational outcomes in less-developed countries She is the author of A Hard Day’s Night: Evening Schools and Child Labor in Early 20th Century New Jersey, a study of the factors determining attendance at night school among New Jersey child workers that is part of her dissertation Rebecca Priegert Coulter is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Western Ontario, Canada She has published several articles and chapters on gender equity policies and practices in Canada and coedited History Is Hers: Women Educators in Twentieth-Century Ontario (2005) In recognition of her contributions to the education of girls and women, she won the 2005 Achievement Award from the Canadian Association for the Study of Women and Education Amanda Datnow is Associate Professor at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California Her research focuses on the politics and policies of school reform, with a particular focus on educators’ professional lives and issues of equity She is ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS the author of Integrating Educational Systems for Successful Reform in Diverse Contexts (2006) and numerous other books and articles Miriam E David is Professor of Policy Studies in Education and Associate Director for Higher Education of the Teaching and Learning Research Programme based at the Institute of Education, University of London, U.K She has an international reputation for her research and scholarly publications on education, family, gender, and policy sociology Miriam Hernandez Dimmler is a PhD candidate in the Clinical Science Program at the University of California, Berkeley Her research focuses on family socialization processes in ethnic minority and low-income families, school-based interventions for family, urban education, and minority mental health Anthony Gary Dworkin is Professor of Sociology at the University of Houston, Texas; cofounder of that university’s Sociology of Education Research Group; and editor of The New Inequality Series at SUNY Press Additionally, he serves on the council of Research Committee 04 (Sociology of Education) of the International Sociological Association His publications include works on teacher burnout and student dropout behavior; minority-majority relations and racial and ethnic stereotyping; gender roles; the impact of accountability systems on student learning outcomes; and, most recently, accountability and high-stakes testing under No Child Left Behind He is currently coediting The International Handbook on Research on Teachers and Teaching Janet Enke is Chair of the Social Science Department at Metropolitan State University in St Paul, Minnesota She has written on young women’s experiences in high school varsity athletics and has been recognized four times for her excellence in teaching Berenice Malka Fisher is Professor Emerita of Educational Philosophy at New York University Her articles and chapters address topics as diverse as women role models, the impact of disability on women’s friendships, and feminism and political theater Her book, No Angel in the Classroom: Teaching Through Feminist Discourse, won the 2002 Distinguished Publication Award of the Association for Women in Psychology Her current interests include feminist education, political discourse, and the peaceful resolution of political conflict Kathleen J Fitzgerald is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Columbia College in Columbia, Missouri Her research and teaching interests include gender, race, education, family, and social policy Elizabeth Glennie is a Research Scientist at Duke University’s Center for Child and Family Policy and Director of the North Carolina Education Research Data Center Much of her research has focused on the American educational system with an emphasis on school engagement and educational achievement In particular, she analyzes factors that influence student engagement with school and those affecting teacher job satisfaction and turnover rates Janet C Gornick is Professor of Political Science and Sociology at The Graduate Center, City University of New York (CUNY), and Professor of Political Science at Baruch 855 856 ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS College, also part of CUNY She is also Director of the Luxembourg Income Study, a cross-national research institute and data archive located in Luxembourg She has written extensively on work-family reconciliation policies in the industrialized countries and is coauthor of Families That Work: Policies for Reconciling Parenthood and Employment (2003) Linda Grant is Professor of Sociology at the University of Georgia, Adjunct Professor in the Social Foundations of Education program, and an affiliated faculty member of the Institute for Women’s Studies She recently completed a term as deputy editor of the journal Sociology of Education Her research focuses on equity and inequality in education and in medical and scientific careers Sandra Harding is Vice-Chancellor and President of James Cook University, Queensland, Australia She is a sociologist whose key scholarly interests revolve around the sociology of work, organization, and inequality Her current research is focused on the conditions for enterprise development and organization survey methodology She has a keen professional interest in education policy and management Chris Haywood is Programme Director of Media, Communication, and Cultural Studies at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in the United Kingdom He has published widely in the area of sexuality, gender, and age and is coauthor of Men and Masculinities (2003) and Gender, Culture and Society: Contemporary Femininities and Masculinities (2006) Lea Hubbard is Associate Professor in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego, California Her work focuses on educational inequities, as they exist across ethnicity, class, and gender Her latest book, Reform as Learning: When School Reform Collided with Organizational Culture and Community Politics in San Diego (2006), combines sociocultural theories of learning with organizational life and policy adaptation Jerry A Jacobs is Merriam Term Professor of Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania He has served as editor of the American Sociological Review and President of the Eastern Sociological Society His research has addressed a number of aspects of women’s employment including authority, earnings, working conditions, part-time work, and entry into male-dominated occupations He is coauthor of The Time Divide (2004) His research has been funded by the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, the Sloan Foundation, Atlantic Philanthropies, and the Macy Foundation His current research projects include a study of women’s entry into the medical profession, funded by the Macy Foundation, and a study of working time and work-family conflict among university faculty Kerri Keegan is a recent graduate of Hofstra University’s School Counseling program in Hempstead, New York She plans to obtain a position as a school counselor Her research interest is in prevention programs for teenagers focused on self-injury and bullying Deirdre M Kelly is Professor in the Department of Educational Studies at the University of British Columbia Her research interests include alternative girlhoods, critical feminist policy analysis of schooling, and teaching for social justice She is the author of Last ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Chance High: How Girls and Boys Drop In and Out of Alternative Schools (1993) and Pregnant with Meaning: Teen Mothers and the Politics of Inclusive Schooling (2000), which won a 2003 American Educational Studies Association Critic’s Choice Award Kimberly Kelly is a doctoral candidate in sociology at the University of Georgia Her research focuses on gender, women’s activism, inequality, and interaction She is currently studying grassroots abortion activism Charlotte A Kunkel is Associate Professor of Sociology at Luther College in Decorah, Iowa She specializes in gender studies and has taught widely in sociology and women’s studies She actively pursues research and scholarship that promotes equality for all Her current interests include diversity education and women’s transnational identities and immigration John Wesley Lowery is Associate Professor of Educational Studies in the College of Education at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater He has written extensively on topics related to student affairs and higher education, particularly legal and legislative issues Mairtin Mac an Ghaill is Professor of Sociology at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom His current research involves exploration of the figure of the male migrant among the Irish diaspora in England He is the author of The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities and Schooling (1994) and Contemporary Racisms and Ethnicities (1999) Margaret E Madden is Provost and Vice-President of Academic Affairs at the State University of New York at Potsdam A social psychologist, she specializes in the psychology of gender and was President of the Society for the Psychology of Women (Division 35 of the American Psychological Association) in 2004 Recent publications focus on enhancing the representation of gender and ethnicity in the psychology curriculum and analyses of women’s and gender issues in higher education administration Laurie Mandel is founder of The GET.A.VOICE™ Project (www.getavoice.net), an organization that proactively addresses name-calling and gender-based verbal violence in schools through awareness, empowerment, and leadership She is an American Association of University Women fellow and is an educator at Murphy Junior High School, Three Village Schools, New York In 2004, she was the recipient of the Myra Sadker Curriculum Award from American University for her work on gender issues at the middle school level Robert A Margo is Professor of Economics and African-American Studies at Boston University in Massachusetts and a Research Associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research A specialist in the economic history of the American economy, his books include Race and Schooling in the South (1990), 1880–1950: An Economic History (2000), and Women’s Work: American Schoolteachers, 1650–1920 (2001) Donna M Mertens is Professor in the Department of Educational Foundations and Research at Gallaudet University in Washington, DC She writes extensively about the merger of the disability community and the transformative approach to research in such 857 858 ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS books as Research and Evaluation Methods in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods (2005) Marcia K Meyers is Professor of Social Work and Public Affairs and Director of the West Coast Poverty Center at the University of Washington She has published extensively on issues of poverty and social welfare policy in the United States and in a comparative context She has coauthored Families That Work: Policies for Reconciling Parenthood and Employment (2003) Karen Monkman is Associate Professor of Comparative Education, Social and Cultural Foundations of Education, and Educational Policy Studies at DePaul University in Chicago, Illinois Her educational research relates to gender, immigration, nonformal education, and social change Judith Mounty is Director of the Center for American Sign Language Literacy at Gallaudet University in Washington, DC She focuses her work in the area of psychological health in the deaf community and coedited Assessment of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Adults: Critical Issues in Testing and Evaluation (2005), which addresses measurement issues specific to the deaf population Keith B O’Neill is a doctoral student in the Higher Education Administration program at Bowling Green State University in Ohio He has been active in the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, the Ohio Association of Student Personnel Administrators, and Sigma Pi fraternity Michele Paludi is President of Human Resources Management Solutions and Participating Full Professor of Management at Union Graduate College She has published several texts on sexual harassment, including Ivory Power: Sexual Harassment on Campus (1990), which received the Myers Center Award for an Outstanding Book on Human Rights in the United States Cynthia Fabrizio Pelak is Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Memphis in Tennessee She has published articles on gender/race/class and sport in the United States and South Africa She is currently working on a project examining the persistence of sexist naming practices of women’s athletic teams at universities and colleges in the southern United States Liviu Popoviciu is Lecturer in Communication and Cultural Studies at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in the United Kingdom He has a particular interest in exploring the interconnections among globalization, nationalism, and subjectivity He has recently completed his PhD dissertation entitled Children and National Identity How Children Conceptualise Identity: A Comparison of Case Studies from Romania and England C Roger Rees is Professor in the Department of Health Studies, Physical Education, and Human Performance Science at Adelphi University in Garden City, New York He has written extensively on school sports, including Lessons of the Locker Room: The Myth of School Sports (1994) His research focuses on how to make interscholastic athletics a more positive influence on the lives of schoolchildren ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Joanne Roberts is a Research Scientist at the Wellesley Centers for Women at Wellesley College in Massachusetts She conducts research in the areas of quality of early care and education, child-care voucher use, and school readiness Wendy Wagner Robeson is a Research Scientist at the Wellesley Centers for Women at Wellesley College in Massachusetts Her research includes early care and education studies, school readiness, and the National Institute of Child Health and Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development Mary Ann Danowitz Sagaria is Professor of Higher Education at the University of Denver and a 2007 Fulbright Scholar at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration Her research focuses on leadership, academic careers, governance and administration, and gender and racial equality Nilofar Sami is a PhD student in the Clinical Science Program at the University of California, Berkeley Her research focuses on risk and resilience in children and adolescents, especially from impoverished backgrounds including immigrants and refugees, and research-based community interventions that promote academic achievement and well-being Daniel Sciarra is Associate Professor of Counselor Education and Chairperson of the Department of Counseling, Rehabilitation, Special Education, and Research at Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York He is both a licensed psychologist and a certified school counselor His main research interests are in multicultural counseling and the role of the school counselor in the academic achievement of Latino students Charol Shakeshaft is Professor in the Department of Foundations, Leadership, and Policy Studies at Hofstra University where she teaches courses on gender, statistical analysis, evaluation methodology, and school safety She is author of a Congressionally mandated study on educator sexual misconduct and is currently examining the ways in which states collect information on school violence, as well as the extent of sexual abuse of special education students Randall G Shelden is Professor of Criminal Justice at the University of Nevada–Las Vegas He is the author of several books and articles on the subject of crime and delinquency, including Youth Gangs in American Society (2004) and Delinquency and Juvenile Justice in America (2006) His Web site is www.sheldensays.com Bridget Sledz is a recent graduate of Hofstra University’s School Counseling program in Hempstead, New York She is currently working as an academic adviser at Polytechnic University in Brooklyn, New York Her research interest is in factors affecting retention rates in higher education Elizabeth Stearns is Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte Research interests include sociology of education, interracial friendships, and inequality in the contemporary United States Her recent research efforts have focused on the interplay of individual and school-level characteristics on students’ probability of dropping out of high school and student engagement with formal education She is a contributing author to Race in the Schools: Perpetuating White Dominance? (2003) 859 860 ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Nan Stein has been a Senior Research Scientist at the Center for Research on Women at Wellesley College since 1992 where she directs national research projects on sexual harassment, gender violence, teen dating violence, and bullying in schools She has written several curricula for schools on these issues and has published dozens of articles in the popular press as well as in educational and legal journals She has also served as an expert witness in lawsuits about sexual harassment and gender violence in schools Nelly P Stromquist is Professor of Comparative and International Education in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California She is interested in issues of gender equity, state policy, and social change Two of her most recent books are Feminist Organizations and Social Transformation in Latin America (2006) and Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power, Technology, and Knowledge (2002) She is former President of the Comparative and International Education Society and a 2005–2006 Fulbright New Century Scholar Marilyn Tallerico is Professor of Education at Binghamton University in Binghamton, New York Her research interests include gender and politics in public school educational leadership; women and the superintendency; promoting diversity, equity, and excellence in educational administration; and superintendent–school board relationships Robert Vitelli is Director of Development at Long Island Gay and Lesbian Youth where he has worked extensively with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender youth to develop the organization’s Safe Schools Initiative into one of the largest and most comprehensive programs of its kind in the United States He is also an instructor of human sexuality at Nassau Community College Marcus B Weaver-Hightower is Assistant Professor of Educational Foundations and Research at the University of North Dakota He was a Fulbright scholar to Australia who has written extensively on masculinity and the education of boys Rhona S Weinstein is Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley She has written extensively on the multilayered dynamics of academic expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies, with implications for school culture change She is the author of Reaching Higher: The Power of Expectations in Schooling (2002), which won the American Educational Research Association Division K Book Award and the Virginia and Warren Stone Prize from Harvard University Press Amy E Wells is Faculty Research Fellow and Associate Professor of Higher Education in the Department of Leadership and Counselor Education at the University of Mississippi in Oxford She has written on the history and development of education in the South, Rockefeller philanthropy, and multicultural Greek organizations Edward G Whipple is Vice-President for Student Affairs and Adjunct Associate Professor of Higher Education and Student Affairs at Bowling Green State University in Ohio He has served in a variety of administrative roles in Greek life and student affairs and has published a number of articles on topics related to these areas He has served in leadership positions at the national level with the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the Association of Fraternity Advisors, and Phi Delta Theta International Fraternity ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Barbara Morrow Williams, JD, PhD, is an education organizational consultant living in Columbia, Missouri She has authored articles on African American mothers and cultural capital and coauthored articles on school leadership Her research and writing interests include women, aging in leadership roles, schools as organizations, and First and Fourth Amendment issues in organizations She was a David L Clark Seminar Scholar in 2005, and her dissertation case study of a female, African American superintendent was nominated for the Politics of Education Dissertation Award for 2006 Amy Wilson is Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Foundations and Research at Gallaudet University in Washington, DC She is Director of the International Development for People with Disabilities Program Sarah Winslow-Bowe is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Clemson University in South Carolina Her research interests focus on gender inequality, the intersections of work and family, and the life course In addition to her publications on gender inequality and workfamily issues in academia, she has written about trends in work-family conflict from the 1970s through the 1990s and the relationship between welfare reform and women’s enrollment in postsecondary education Her current research examines persistence and variation in wives’ income advantage and its relationship to reported levels of marital conflict This research has been supported by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation and recognized by the Sociologists for Women in Society and the Family Sections of the American Sociological Association and the Society for the Study of Social Problems Leslie R Wolfe is President of the Center for Women Policy Studies, a multiethnic feminist think tank in Washington, DC, founded in 1972 She was Director of the Women’s Educational Equity Act Program in the U.S Department of Education from 1979 to 1983; her previous federal government career began at the U.S Commission on Civil Rights, where she was Deputy Director of the Women’s Rights Program After leaving government service, Wolfe served as Director of the Project on Equal Education Rights of the NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund before joining the Center for Women Policy Studies in 1988 Deborah Worley is a doctoral student and graduate assistant in Higher Education in the Department of Leadership and Counselor Education at the University of Mississippi in Oxford She has extensive experience in student affairs, including career services, experiential education, and student leadership development Her research emphases include student assessment and learning outcomes for master’s students 861 ... theories of gender and education described in this section Additional essays that explicitly discuss theories of gender and education are “Feminist Critiques of Educational Research and Practices”... theorize gender and education, those in Part II reveal the methods scholars and researchers use to gather and interpret information about gender and education This second set of essays should be of. .. encyclopedia The language of gender and gendering has not totally eclipsed earlier ways of talking and writing about differences between boys and girls or men and women in education and other social institutions