A illustratred brief history of western philosophy

An Illustrated Brief History of WESTERN PHILOSOPHY AIBA01 22/03/2006, 10:04 AM for norman kretzmann ii AIBA01 22/03/2006, 10:04 AM An Illustrated Brief History of WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Anthony Kenny iii AIBA01 22/03/2006, 10:04 AM © 1998, 2006 by Anthony Kenny blackwell publishing 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Anthony Kenny to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher First published as A Brief History of Western Philosophy 1998 by Blackwell Publishers Ltd This edition first published 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2006 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kenny, Anthony John Patrick An illustrated brief history of western philosophy / Anthony Kenny.—2nd ed p cm Includes index ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-4180-2 ISBN-10: 1-4051-4180-8 ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-4179-6 (pbk : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-4051-4179-4 (pbk : alk paper) Philosophy—History I Title B72.K44 2006 190—dc22 2006001708 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Picture Researcher: Helen Nash Set in 10/13pt Galliard by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, Kundli The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com iv AIBA01 27/03/2006, 09:54 AM CONTENTS Preface I II x List of Illustrations xiii Acknowledgements xvi Philosophy in its Infancy The Milesians Xenophanes Heraclitus The School of Parmenides Empedocles The Atomists 14 17 The Athens of Socrates 21 The Athenian Empire Anaxagoras The Sophists Socrates The Euthyphro The Crito The Phaedo III 21 23 24 25 28 31 31 The Philosophy of Plato 38 Life and Works The Theory of Ideas Plato’s Republic The Theaetetus and the Sophist 38 40 44 54 v AIBA01 22/03/2006, 10:05 AM contents IV The System of Aristotle 61 Plato’s Pupil, Alexander’s Teacher The Foundation of Logic The Theory of Drama Moral Philosophy: Virtue and Happiness Moral Philosophy: Wisdom and Understanding Politics Science and Explanation Words and Things Motion and Change Soul, Sense, and Intellect Metaphysics V Greek Philosophy after Aristotle The Hellenistic Era Epicureanism Stoicism Scepticism Rome and its Empire Jesus of Nazareth Christianity and Gnosticism Neo-Platonism VI Early Christian Philosophy 109 Early Medieval Philosophy 125 128 130 131 133 135 137 139 140 vi 109 112 114 117 120 125 John the Scot Alkindi and Avicenna The Feudal System Saint Anselm Abelard and Héloïse Abelard’s Logic Abelard’s Ethics Averroes Maimonides AIBA01 91 91 93 95 97 99 100 102 106 Arianism and Orthodoxy The Theology of Incarnation The Life of Augustine The City of God and the Mystery of Grace Boethius and Philoponus VII 61 63 67 68 72 75 77 80 81 83 86 22/03/2006, 10:05 AM contents VIII Philosophy in the Thirteenth Century An Age of Innovation Saint Bonaventure Thirteenth-Century Logic Aquinas’ Life and Works Aquinas’ Natural Theology Matter, Form, Substance, and Accident Aquinas on Essence and Existence Aquinas’ Philosophy of Mind Aquinas’ Moral Philosophy IX 144 147 149 150 152 154 156 157 159 Oxford Philosophers 164 The Fourteenth-Century University Duns Scotus Ockham’s Logic of Language Ockham’s Political Theory The Oxford Calculators John Wyclif X XI 164 165 172 174 177 178 Renaissance Philosophy 182 The Renaissance Free-will: Rome vs Louvain Renaissance Platonism Machiavelli More’s Utopia The Reformation Post-Reformation Philosophy Bruno and Galileo Francis Bacon 182 183 186 188 190 193 197 199 201 The Age of Descartes 206 The Wars of Religion The Life of Descartes The Doubt and the Cogito The Essence of Mind God, Mind, and Body The Material World 206 207 210 212 214 217 vii AIBA01 144 22/03/2006, 10:05 AM contents XII English Philosophy in the Seventeenth Century The Empiricism of Thomas Hobbes Hobbes’ Political Philosophy The Political Theory of John Locke Locke on Ideas and Qualities Substances and Persons XIII 221 223 226 228 232 Continental Philosophy in the Age of Louis XIV Blaise Pascal Spinoza and Malebranche Leibniz XIV British Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century The Enlightenment 266 266 267 271 The Critical Philosophy of Kant Kant’s Copernican Revolution The Transcendental Aesthetic The Transcendental Analytic: The Deduction of the Categories The Transcendental Analytic: The System of Principles The Transcendental Dialectic: The Paralogisms of Pure Reason The Transcendental Dialectic: The Antinomies of Pure Reason The Transcendental Dialectic: The Critique of Natural Theology Kant’s Moral Philosophy viii AIBA01 251 251 256 260 263 The Philosophes Rousseau Revolution and Romanticism XVI 237 237 240 245 Berkeley Hume’s Philosophy of Mind Hume on Causation Reid and Common Sense XV 221 22/03/2006, 10:05 AM 275 275 278 280 283 286 289 291 295 contents XVII German Idealism and Materialism 298 Fichte Hegel Marx and the Young Hegelians Capitalism and its Discontents XVIII 298 299 304 306 The Utilitarians 309 Jeremy Bentham The Utilitarianism of J S Mill Mill’s Logic XIX 309 314 316 Three Nineteenth-Century Philosophers Schopenhauer Kierkegaard Nietzsche XX 320 327 329 Three Modern Masters 333 Charles Darwin John Henry Newman Sigmund Freud XXI 333 339 343 Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics Frege’s Logic Frege’s Logicism Frege’s Philosophy of Logic Russell’s Paradox Russell’s Theory of Descriptions Logical Analysis XXII 351 351 353 356 357 359 362 The Philosophy of Wittgenstein 365 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Logical Positivism Philosophical Investigations 365 368 370 Afterword 382 Suggestions for Further Reading 386 Index 392 ix AIBA01 320 22/03/2006, 10:05 AM suggestions for further reading Chapter Fifteen The Enlightenment For this chapter and also Chapters Seventeen and Nineteen see R C Solomon, Continental Philosophy since 1750 (OUP, 1988) Rousseau’s Discourse on Political Economy and Social Contract are in WC, and his Confessions in PC Several works by Voltaire are in WC and PC There is a PM on Rousseau by R Wokler (1995), and one on Coleridge by R Holmes (1982) Chapter Sixteen The Critical Philosophy of Kant The commonly used English editions of Kant’s major works are Critique of Pure Reason, ed N Kemp Smith (Macmillan, 1973), Critique of Judgment, ed J Meredith (OUP, 1978) and Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, ed H Paton (Hutchinson, 1955) There is a PM by R Scruton (1982), and a Kant Dictionary by Howard Caygill (Blackwell, 1994) There are good studies by J Bennett (Kant’s Analytic, CUP, 1966, and Kant’s Dialectic, CUP, 1974) and by P Strawson (The Bounds of Sense, 1966) Chapter Seventeen German Idealism and Materialism There are paperback translation of parts of Hegel’s work under the titles ‘Hegel’s Logic’ and ‘Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind’ published by OUP (1975 and 1971) OUP also issues a paperback of The Phenomenology of Spirit and of the introduction to his Lectures on the History of Philosophy (1987) There is a PM by P Singer (1983) and a Hegel Dictionary by M Inwood (Blackwell, 1993) Many of Marx’s works are in PC; a Reader of his works, edited by J Elster, has been published by CUP There is a PM by P Singer (1980) Chapter Eighteen The Utilitarians Bentham’s complete works are being published in many volumes by OUP There is a PM by John Dinwiddy (1989) His Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was edited by J H Burne and H L A Hart (London, 1982) J S Mill’s On Liberty and Principles of Political Economy are in WC Chapter Nineteen Three Nineteenth-Century Philosophers Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Idea is often read in the English translation of R B Haldane and J Kemp (London, 1948–50) His short essays (Parerga and Paralipomena, OUP, 1974) are witty and well worth reading A recent study of his work is B Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer (OUP, 1987) Several of Kierkegaard’s works are available in PC, and there is a PM by P Gardiner (1988) See also A Rudd, Kierkegaard and the 390 AIBD02 390 22/03/2006, 11:11 AM suggestions for further reading Limits of the Ethical (OUP, 1993) Several of Nietzsche’s works are in WC and PC; there is a PM by M Tanner (1994) Chapter Twenty Three Modern Masters Darwin’s Origin of Species is in WC and in PC Newman’s major philosophical work is An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, ed I Ker (OUP, 1985) There is a good PM by O Chadwick (OUP, 1983) Comparatively little has been written about Newman’s philosophy, but see S A Grave, Conscience in Newman’s Thought (OUP, 1989) A series of inexpensive paperback English translations of the works of Freud brought out by Penguin There is a PM on Freud by A Storr (1989) Chapter Twenty-One Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics The most important philosophical texts of Frege are collected in English in The Frege Reader, ed M Beaney (Blackwell, 1997) M Dummett’s works, particularly Frege: Philosophy of Language (Duckworth, 2nd edn, 1981), dominate the field but are difficult for the beginner There is no PM, but see A Kenny, Frege (Penguin, 1995) Most of Russell’s works are still in print; for beginners the one to read first is Problems of Philosophy (OUP, 1967); perhaps his best book was Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy (Methuen, 1919) There is a PM by A C Grayling (1996) Chapter Twenty-Two The Philosophy of Wittgenstein The major texts of Wittgenstein are in English in A Kenny, A Wittgenstein Reader (Blackwell, 1994) His two principal works, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and Philosophical Investigations are both available in English editions published by Blackwell (1961 and 1958) See A Kenny, Wittgenstein (Penguin, 1973) and D Pears, The False Prison (OUP, 1987–8) There is also A Wittgenstein Dictionary by H.-J Glock (Blackwell, 1996) 391 AIBD02 391 22/03/2006, 11:11 AM index INDEX Page numbers in italics denote an illustration Abelard, 133–8, 134, 145, 160, 293 ethics, 137–8 life and works, 133–5 logic, 135–7 Abraham, 328 absolute, 288, 303 absolutists, 311–12 abstraction, 169 eliminative vs representational, 252 Academy, 38, 62, 92, 98 accidents, 80, 154, 155–6 Achilles, 14 acquaintance, 363 actuality, 81–2 first vs second, 84 adultery, 71, 160, 192 Aeschylus, 22 aesthetics, 324, 327–8 affirmative propositions, 65, 281 air, Albert, St, 150–1 Alexander the Great, 62, 63, 77, 91, 246–7, 281 Alexandria, 91, 105 alienation, 304–5 Alkindi, 128 Ambrose, St, 114, 118 analogy, 81, 167 analysis, 362–4 analyticity, 247, 276 Anaxagoras, 23–4, 27 Anaximander, Anaximenes, 4–5, 9, 15, 23 angels, 154, 356 animals as automata, 219 Anselm, St, 131–3, 175 anthropomorphism, Apollo, 1, 26, 184, 330 appearance (vs reality), 19, 59, 94, 98, 278, 322 apperception, 248, 282 appetite, 47, 53, 70, 72 Aquinas, St Thomas, 146–7, 150–63, 165, 167, 169, 171, 215; plate 9, 11 on essence and existence, 156–7 life and works, 150–2 metaphysics, 154–6 moral philosophy, 159–62 natural theology, 152–4 philosophy of mind, 157–9 Arcesilaus, 98 architect of the world, 294 arete, 73 argument (vs function), 353 Arianism, 109–12 aristocracy, 270, 330 Aristotle, 2, 14, 18, 41–2, 61–90, 64, 123–4, 139, 145, 148, 152, 156, 185, 186, 295, 337; plate 3, 392 AIBD03 392 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index Categories, 80–1 Ethics, 68–75, 148, 159, 162 History of Animals, plate life and works, 61–3 Metaphysics, 79, 86–90, 141, 379 moral philosophy, 68–75 Poetics, 67–8 Politics, 75–7 Posterior Analytics, 63–6, 78 on science, 77–80 on the soul, 83–6 theory of nature of change, 81–3 translation of works, 148 arithmetic, 318, 353–9, 355 Arnauld, Antoine, 215 art, 324, 329 article, definite, 9, 360–2 articulate belief, 57–8 asceticism, 71, 326 assent, 341 association of ideas, 260, 345 astrology, 187, 198, 201 astronomy, 2, 78, 199–200 atheism, 27, 222, 266, 305, 329, 343 Athenian Empire 21–2, 23, 25, 92 schools, 92 atomic propositions, 367–8 atomism, 17–20, 94 see also logical atomism attraction, 16, 19, 236 attributes, 42, 241 attunement, 35, 107 Augustine, St, 114–20, 116, 178 City of God, 117–19 Confessions, 115–17, 348–9 Austria-Hungary, 367 automation, 76 Averroes, 139–40 aviary, 57 Avicenna, 128–30, 132 Bacon, Francis, 201–2, 203 ball on cushion, 285 Barbara celarent, 149 Bayle, Pierre, 266 beauty, 35, 273, 324 behaviourism, 373, 378 being (= to be), 9, 10, 81, 359 Being (= what is), 9–14, 18, 59, 83, 303 Being qua being, 86–90, 166–7 belief, 49, 57–8, 259–60, 264, 340 Bellarmine, St Robert 201 Bentham, Jeremy, 309–14, 310 Berkeley, George, 233, 251–6, 260, 285, 321 Dialogues, 253–6 Principles, 251–2 Bernard, St, 135 Bessarion, Cardinal, 186 Bible, 9, 101–2, 110, 141–2, 181, 336 Blake, William Ancient of Days 294 blindness, 256 body vs soul, 33–6, 83–5, 94 see also dualism Boethius, 121–3, 184 Bonaventure, St, 146–8, 165 Borgia family, 188–9 Bradwardine, Thomas, 178 brain, 213, 233, 379 Brown, Ford Madox, plate 15 Brownie the donkey, 168 Bruno, Giordano, 199, 200 Buridan, Jean, 164 Burley, Walter, 177 Butler, Joseph, 236 cabbala, 187 Calvin, John, 120, 194 candlelight, 169 capitalism, 306–8 Cartesian circle, 216 categorematic terms, 149 categorical imperative, 296–7 categories, 80–1, 280–2, 286 Catherine of Alexandria, Saint, plate causation, 8, 79, 89, 167–8, 242, 260–3, 276, 318, 337 Cave, Platonic, 49–50 Chalcedon, Council of, 113–14 393 AIBD03 393 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index chance, 122 change, 34, 54–5, 81–3, 284 accidental vs substantial, 82 character, 67, 72 Charlemagne, 125 choice, 70, 115 see also freedom of the will Christianity, 102–5, 110, 144–5 Chrysippus, 95–6 church and state, 118, 130–1, 133, 175–6 Cicero, 99–100, 114 classes (logical), 43, 354–7 classes (political), 46, 305–6 Cleanthes, 95 clear and distinct perception, 213 Clement of Alexandria, 104 cogito ergo sum, 211, 288, 303 cognitive appearance, 98 Coleridge, S T., 62, 272, 274 colours, 158, 231, 256, 374 common sense, 263–5 communism, 179 composite sense vs divided sense, 170 compossibility, 249 concept script, 351 concepts, 132, 136, 252 concept vs object, 355–6 conclusions, 65 Concord, temple of (Agrigento), 17 concrete universals, 42 conscience, 160, 343, 347–8 consciousness, 208, 212, 282 consent, 137 consequences, 160 consequentialists, 311–12 Constantine, 109, 183 Constantinople, 109, 111, 144, 183 consubstantiality, 110 contemplation, 74–5, 162 continence, 74 contingent vs necessary, 35–6, 79, 242, 290 convention, 19 Copernicus, 199, 276 Corpus Christi, 155 cosmical concepts, 289–91 cosmological proofs, 291–5 counter-reformation, 195 courage, 46 creation, 83 see also eternity, of world creeds, 111 criterion, 98 Crito, 31, 36 cruelty, 332 Crusades, 144 cycles, 15, 331 Cynicism, 95 Cyril of Alexandria, 113 Dante, 140, 145, 175 Darwin, Charles, 333–8, 334 death, 28, 32–6, 93–4, 242–3 deduction, 282 definite descriptions, 58, 359–62, 367 deism, 266, 272 Delphic oracle, 27 democracy, 26, 51, 76, 270 Democritus, 17–20, 56, 94 Descartes, René, 207–20, 209, 222, 228–9, 230, 236, 237, 240, 245, 285, 338, 377, 378 Discourse on Method, 208 life and works, 207–10 Meditations, 210–11, 212–17 description, definite, 58, 359–62, 367 determinism, 120, 291, 338 hard vs soft, 291 deterrence, 313 dialectic, 44, 287 Hegelian, 303 Diderot, Denis, 266, 268 Diogenes, 95 Dionysius the Areopagite, 127 disputation, 146 divine law, 110, 162 divine right of kings, 225–6 divisibility, 18 dogmatism, 290, 299 394 AIBD03 394 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index Dominicans, 146, 162, 198 dominion, 179 double effect, 161, 238 doubt, 210–12 drama, 67–8 dreams, 210–11, 344–5 dualism, 208, 237, 378 duty, 295–6 earth, 6, East, the, 43 economic determinism, 307–8 ecumenism, 245 ego (Freudian), 346–7 egoism, 325 Eleatics, 9–13, 58–60 elements, 15, 58, 78 elenchus, 44 Eliot, T S., 8, 324–5 Elizabeth, Princess Palatine, 218 Empedocles, 14–17 empiricism, 98, 158, 290, 316, 339, 377 and Hobbes, 221–3 and Locke, 228–32 Encyclopédie, 266 ends vs means, 138, 29–7, 314 Ephesus, 6, 113, 114 Epicurus/Epicureanism, 92, 93–4, 97–8 epistemology, 356 equivalent classes, 354 Erasmus, Desiderius, 190 ergon, 69 Eriugena, 125–8 esse est percipi, 253 essence, 89, 109–10, 168 vs existence, 129–30, 156–7, 292 generic vs individual, 156 real vs nominal, 232 eternal truths, 218, 243 eternity, 117 of world, 123, 142, 152, 154, 289 ethics, 328 and Abelard, 137–8 and Aquinas, 159–62 and Aristotle, 68–75 and Democritus, 20 and Plato, 44–50 eucharist, 101, 154–5, 180–1, 196 Euclid, 66 eudaimonia, 69, 74 evening star, 357 evil genius, 211 evolution, and Empedocles, 16 Darwin’s, 333–8 excellence, 45 existence, 10, 87–8, 136, 215, 259, 292, 353 vs essence, 129–30, 156–7 existentialism, 329 experience, 78, 213 see also empiricism explanation, 77–80 by causes vs by reasons, 291 extension, 208–9, 241, 284 faculties, 70 faith, 153, 161, 339–42, 380 falsehood, 57–9 falsification, 205 fate, 97 felicific calculus, 200 Ferdinand of Aragon, 189 feudal system, 130–1, 306 Fichte, J G., 298–9 Ficino, Marsilio, 187 fictions, 87–8, 174 Filmer, Robert, 226 final causes, 79, 337 fire, 8, 97 first philosophy, 86–90 Five Ways, 152 flat-earthers, flux, 34 Folk-Spirit, 302 forces of production, 306 form vs matter, 82–3, 97, 154, 218–19 in Kant, 278 formal distinction, 169 forms of life, 379–80 395 AIBD03 395 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index fossils, foundations, 377 Fox, Charles James, plate 14 Francis of Assisi, St, 146 Franciscans, 146–7, 164, 174 freedom of speech, 267, 315–16 freedom of the will, 85, 94–5, 115, 119, 169–70, 184–6, 195, 198, 238, 242, 248, 262, 291 Frege, Gottlob, 318, 351–7 French Revolution, 271–2 Freud, Sigmund, 343–50 Freudian slips, 344 friendship, 44, 74, 95 function, 69, 80, 338 functions (logical), 353 future contingent events, 185 Galileo, 178, 199–201 games, 281, 372 Garden, the, 92, 93 Gassendi, Pierre, 214–15 genera, 178–9, 333 general will, 268–70, 271 generosity, 71 geometry, 1–2, 207, 240, 265, 279–80 Germany, 302 Gibbon, Edward, 108, 111 Gilson, Etienne, 165 Gnosticism, 102–5 God, 74, 95, 101–5, 109–10, 122, 127, 129, 137–8, 142, 147, 172, 255, 319 existence of, 130, 131–2, 152–3, 167–8, 214–15, 239, 241, 255, 291–3, 319, 331, 336, 343 foreknowledge of, 122, 170, 184 idea of, 215 God no deceiver, 210–11, 215 Gödel, Kurt, 359 good will, 295 Gorgias, 25 Gottschalk, 126 government, 176, 270 grace, 119–20 gravitation, 236 great-souled man, 72, 161 greatest happiness principle, 310–11 Gregory VII, Pope, 130, 131, 175 Grosseteste, Robert, 148 Grotius, Hugo, 206–7 haecceitas, 168–9 happiness, 52 and Aquinas, 159 and Aristotle, 69, 74 utilitarianism, 309–11 Harvey, William, 220 health, psychic, 53 see also mental health heat, 231, 253, 284 heaven, 118 Hegel, G W F., 299–304, 300, 305, 320, 327 heliocentrism, 200–1, 208 hell, 118 Hellenistic era, 91–2 Héloïse, 135 Henry of Ghent, 166 Henry VIII, 190, 193 Heraclitus, 6–8, 13, 13, 15, 20, 54–8, 238 heresy, 103, 196 Hermias, 61–2 Herodotus, 22 history of philosophy, 303–4 history, philosophy of, 299–303 Hobbes, Thomas, 221–6, 224 empiricism of, 221–3 political philosophy, 223–6 holiness, 29 Holy Roman Empire, 125, 130, 176, 183, 206 Homer, 1, 5, 46, 110 homonymy, 81 homoousion (vs homoiousion), 109, 111 homosexuality, 349 homunculus, 217 Hopkins, G M., 8, 155, 172 horseness, 83, 129, 168 396 AIBD03 396 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index humanism, 183 humanity, 41, 81, 110, 136, 158, 168 Hume, David, 256–63, 257, 275, 285, 377, 378 humility, 161–2 Huxley, T H., 336 Hypatia, 113 I (ego), 211, 282–3, 286–9, 299 id, 346–7 idealism, 158, 285–6, 299–304, 377 ideas, 35 abstract, 252–3, 254 innate, 228–9 Kantian, 288–9 Platonic, 40–4, 48–50, 69, 115, 127, 147, 157 identity, 233–4, 249–50, 354 ideology, 305, 308 idols, 204 ‘if then’, 96, 352 illumination, 148, 245 imagination, 48, 213, 223, 257–8 immaculate conception, 171–2 immortality, 2, 33–7, 53, 85, 140, 190, 368 imperative, hypothetical vs categorical, 296 imperishability, 36, 85 impetus, 123–4 impiety, 31 impressions (vs ideas), 256–60 inalienable rights, 176 incarnation, 112–14, 133, 153 inconceivability, 132 incontinence, 74 indiscernibles, 249 individualism, 327–9 individuation, 82–3, 107, 168, 233, 325 induction, 20–4, 317–18 inertia, 124, 200 infants, 115 sexuality, 345–6, 348–9 inference, 63–5, 341 real vs verbal, 317 infinite, 23, 166–7 infinite regress, 170 infinitesimal calculus, 245 infinity axiom, 359 inner eye, 261 Inquisition, 146, 195, 199 instants of nature, 171 intellect, 85–6, 169, 213 active vs passive, 129, 140, 147, 157–8 intellectual virtues, 73–4 intelligence, 73 intensive magnitude, 284 intention, 137, 160, 238, 313–14 direct vs oblique, 314 introspection, 258 intuition, 216, 239, 318 Islam, 125 Jansenism, 238 Jesuits, 195, 197–8, 238 Jesus, 100–2, 109–12, 329 Jews, 91, 101, 110, 240, 330 John the Scot, 125–8, 126 judge, 30 judgement, 212 categorical vs hypothetical vs disjunctive, 281 and knowledge, 56–7 synthetic vs analytic, 276–7, 283–4 Julius Caesar, 99, 248 justice, 2, 9, 44–54 Justinian, 108, 109, 123, 124, 145 Kant, Immanuel, 249, 275–97, 277, 298, 303, 320, 378 Critique of Pure Reason, 275–95, 287 Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, 295–7 Keats, John, 273 Kierkegaard, Søren, 327–9 kingdom of ends, 297 knowledge, 48–9, 54–8 a priori vs a posteriori, 276–9 of fact vs knowledge of consequence, 221 397 AIBD03 397 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index knowledge (cont’d) intuitive vs abstractive, 169, 172 and judgement, 56–7 as perception, 54–6 labour theory of value, 307 language, 115, 222, 251–2, 258, 281, 337, 362, 365–77 language-games, 372–4 Latin, 100, 115, 145, 150, 182 laws, 31 divine, 110, 162 natural, 202, 219, 322 Leibniz, G W., 171, 245–50, 250 Leucippus, 18 liberalism, 226, 314 liberty of indifference, 198, 213, 262 liberty of spontaneity, 248, 262, 291 light, 148 lions, 380 Locke, John, 226–36, 340 Essay, 228–32 theory of language, 251–6 Two Treatises, 226–8 logic and Abelard, 135–7 and Aristotle, 63–7 and Descartes, 219 and Frege, 351–7 and Hegel, 303 and Mill, 316–19 modal, 150 and Russell, 362–4 and Stoics, 96–7 thirteenth century, 149–50 three-valued, 185–6 logical atomism, 362–8 logical form, 367 logical positivism, 368–70 logicism, 353–6 Louvain University, 185 love, 15–16, 243 Lucretius, 93; plate Luther, Martin, 184, 193–4, 195 Lyceum, 62, 92 lyre, 34–5 Macaulay, Thomas, 204–5 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 188–90; plate 12 madness, 54, 347 magic, 187, 202 Maimonides, 139, 140–3 Malebranche, Nicolas, 243–5 Manicheism, 114 Marcus Aurelius, 95, 103 Marsilius of Padua, 175–6 Marx, Karl, 304–8 Mary, 113, 171 master-morality, 330 materialism, 304–6, 378 mathematics, 50, 66, 177, 202, 218, 318, 351–62 matter (material things), 253 matter vs form, 82–3, 97, 148, 154 maxims, 296 Maya, 321 mean, 70, 71 meaning, 136, 357, 372–7 meaning of life, 368 medical ethics, 312 Medici family, 186–7, 189, 193, 199 Melissus, 13–14 memory, 236, 257–8 mental health, 347–9 mental images, 251–3, 257–8 mental language, 173–4 mental processes, 373 metaphysics, 67, 86–90, 202, 276, 278, 373 metempsychosis, 2, 16 middle knowledge, 198 midwife, 54 Mill, James, 309 Mill, John Stuart, 309, 314–19, 315, 369, 377 mind, 24, 57, 106 Aquinas’ philosophy of, 157–9 and Descartes, 212–17, 220 Hume’s philosophy of, 256–60 398 AIBD03 398 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index and Mill, 316 and Wittgenstein, 372–7 see also dualism; intellect; soul vs body modal logic, 150 modes, 241 Molina, Luis de, 198 monads, 247–8 monarchy, 76 monism, 59, 240 monophysitism, 113–14 monotheism, 6, 110 Montaigne, Michel de, 197 Montesquieu, Baron de, 267 moral philosophy and Aristotle, 68–75 and Bentham, 312, 313–14 and Kant, 295–7 morality moral law, 295 moral virtues, 69–72, 73–4, 161 and Nietzsche, 330 and Socrates, 26–7 More, Thomas, 190–3, 191, 194, 195 Moses, 101 motion, 123, 229 vital vs voluntary, 222 motive, 72, 313–14 murder, 28, 71, 118 music, 46, 324–5 Muslim philosophy, 128–30, 139–40 myth, 46 names, 172, 222, 316, 360–1, 375 Napoleon, 272, 298, 331 nationalism, 298 natura naturans, 199 natural law, 202, 219, 322 natural powers, 85 natural rights, 176–7, 226–7, 310 natural selection, 335–6 natural theology, 153, 380 natural virtue, 73 nature, 2, 19, 76, 97, 127, 216, 224–5, 240–1 necessary being, 129–30, 153 necessary connection, 260–1, 284 necessary vs contingent, 35–6, 79, 242, 290 necessity and freedom, 242 necessity, simple vs conditional, 122 negative propositions, 65 neo-Platonism, 106–8, 147 Nero, 95 Nestorianism, 113–14 neurosis, 345–7 Newman, J H., 339–43, 340, 380 Newton, Isaac, 236, 338 Nicaea, 109–11 Nicolas of Autrecourt, 177 Nietzsche, F., 329–32 nominalism, 136, 173, 177, 178–9 non-contrariety, 48 nothing, 12 noumenon, 286 noun, 59 null-class, 354, 358 numbers, 354–6, 358–9 objects vs concepts, 355–6 occasionalism, 244, 254 Ockham’s razor, 174 Ockham, William, 172–7, 173 Oedipus, 22, 68 complex, 346 oligarchy, 51–2 omnipotence, 138, 171, 319 One, the, 106, 107 ontological argument, 214, 241, 356 ontology, opinion, 49 opium of the people, 305 opposites, 33 Oresme, Nicole, 164 Organon, 66 Origen, 104–5 origin of species, 333–6 original sin, 101, 113, 119, 171, 337 Orthodoxy, 109–12 other minds, 316 Oxford Calculators, 177–8 399 AIBD03 399 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index Oxford University, 145–6, 148, 162, 164–5, 177–8, 182 pain, 231, 242, 375 Papacy, 112, 130, 176–7, 180–1, 183, 225 paradigms, 42 paradoxes, 357–8 paralogisms, 288–9 Paris University, 145–6, 148, 162, 182 Parmenides, 9–14, 37, 58–60, 106 particular propositions, 65 Pascal, Blaise, 238–9 passion, 70–1, 242 Paul, St, 6, 101–2, 110, 120, 184 peacock’s tail, 127 Pelagianism, 119–20 pepper, 150 perception, 84 knowledge as, 54–6 Pericles, 22–4 permissiveness, 349 person vs man, 234 personal identity, 111–13, 233–5 Peter Lombard, 145, 151 Peter de Rivo, 185–6 Peter of Spain, 149 phenomena vs noumena, 286 phenomenalism, 255, 316 Philip the Fair, 175 Philo, 102 Philoponus, 123–4, 200 philosopher king, 51 philosophy, nature of, 370–4 phronesis, 73 physico-theological proof, 293 physics, 66, 177, 199 physis, 2, 66 Pico della Mirandola, 187 picture theory of meaning, 365–7 piety, 29–30 pineal gland, 216 pistons, 374 plasma physics, 15 Plato, 24, 26, 28, 38–60, 39, 110, 114, 186; plate 2, 11 Apology, 27, 36 Crito, 28, 31 Euthyphro, 28–31, 39 life and works, 38–40 Parmenides, 40, 41, 61 Phaedo, 28, 31–7 Republic, 40, 44–54, 69, 75–6, 118, 139, 193, 347 ‘Socratic’ dialogues, 38–40 Sophist, 40, 58–60 Theaetetus, 40, 54–8, 60, 84 Theory of Ideas, 40–4, 54, 60, 69 Timaeus, 40 Platonism, Renaissance, 186–7 pleasure, 72, 94, 314 Plotinus, 106–8 pneuma, 97 poetry, 51, 67–8 polis, 75 political philosophy and Aristotle, 75–6 and Hobbes, 223–6 and Locke, 226–8 and Machiavelli, 188–9 and Montesquieu, 267 and Plato, 51 and Rousseau, 268–71 and Socrates, 45–6 polity, 76 Pomponazzi, Pietro, 190 Pope, Alexander, 135, 227 Porphyry, 107, 121 possible worlds, 171, 197, 248–9 best of, 249 potentiality, 81–2, 84 powers, 231–2 practical reasoning, 170 practical science, 66, 68 pre-established harmony, 247 pre-existence, 33, 105, 272–3 Pre-Socratics, 1–25, 78 predestination, 119–20, 127, 196 400 AIBD03 400 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index predicate calculus, 351–2 predicates, 66, 136–7 first-order vs second-order, 292–3 premisses, 65–6 prescription, 70 ‘present King of France’, 360 price vs worth, 297 prime matter, 82 Principia Mathematica, 358–60 priority, 89 privacy, 220, 370 private language, 375–7 probability, 239, 342 Proclus, 107–8 prohairesis, 159 prohibitions, 312 properties, 42 property, 22 propositional calculus, 351–2 Protagoras, 24–5, 54–6 protocol statements, 369–70 providence, 97, 300 pseudo-propositions, 368 psychoanalysis, 343–4 psychology, 83, 288 Ptolemies, 91 punishment, 309, 313 purification of emotion, 68 Pyrrho, 98 Pythagoras, 1–2, 3, qualities, primary vs secondary, 229–32, 253–5, 264 quality of pleasure, 314 quantification, 353 quintessence, 78, 200 rainbow, 324 Ramus, Peter, 197 Raphael, 47, 189; plate 13 School of Athens, 3, 13, 62 rational powers, 85 rationalism, 158 realism, 136, 179 reality, 106, 215 reason, 47, 48, 53, 69, 74, 339, 347 pure reason, 286–91 reason vs superstition, 266, 283 recollection, 33, 36, 272 reference vs sense, 357 reformation, 193–6 Reid, Thomas, 263–5 relations of production, 306 religion, 1, 2, 4, 140, 328 Renaissance, 182–3 res cogitans, 212–13 resurrection, 8, 101, 105, 233 retribution, 313 revealed theology, 153 revelation, 341 river, romanticism, 272–4 Roman Empire, 99–100, 103–4, 109 round square, 360 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 256, 267–71, 269, 272, Royal Society, 205, 240 Russell, Bertrand, 152, 318, 357–64, 361 logical analysis, 362–4 paradox, 357–9 theory of descriptions, 359–62 sacraments, 144–5, 193 satisfaction, 133 Savonarola, 187 scepticism, 24, 97–9, 172 schism, 180–1 Schlick, Moritz, 368 scholasticism, 123, 145, 164 Schopenhauer, 320–7, 321, 377 sciences, 1, 66–7, 77–80, 367–8 scientism, 373, 379 Scotus, Duns, 165–72, 166, 175, 198 seeming, 13 self, 260, 283 self-consciousness, 190, 234, 282–3 self-defence, 161 semantics, 149 Seneca, 95, 102 401 AIBD03 401 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index sensation, 55, 94, 213, 219, 222, 254, 384 sense-perception, 58, 56, 78, 84–5 sense vs reference, 357 senses, 56, 84, 94, 155 inner vs outer, 278–9 sensibility, 272 sensibles, common vs proper, 230 sentence, 59, 63 separation of powers, 270 sex, 344–6 Sextus Empiricus, 98–9, 197 ship in river, 285 Shylock, 77 signs, 96 silence of the law, 225 simplicity, 107, 290, 371 Simplicius, 108, 123 sin, 110 Sixtus IV, 185–6 slave-morality, 330, 332 slavery, 76, 97, 195 social contract, 31, 227–8, 268–71 Socrates, 7, 25–37, 32; plate Socratic dialogues, 38–40 Socratic paradox, 27, 54 soul vs body, 33–6 solipsism, 369, 376–7 sophismata, 178 sophists, 24–5, 26, 58–9 Sophocles, 22, 68 sortals, 232 soul vs body, 33–6, 44; plate 10 and Aristotle, 70, 83–6 and Epicurus, 94 Plato’s parts of, 47–8, 51–3, 52 vegetative vs animal vs rational, 129, 165, 168 sovereignty, 225, 227, 268–70 space, 278–9 species, 178, 333–5 spider, Spinoza, Baruch, 240–3, 244, 272 spirit, 84, 235, 301–3 split personality, 233 State, 45, 51–2, 76, 268–9, 302, 305 state of nature, 223, 226, 268 statements, 96–7 Stoics, 92, 95–8, 103 strife, 15–16 struggle for existence, 335–6 Suarez, Francisco, 197–8 subsistence wages, 307 substance, 284–5 Aristotle’s category of, 80 first vs second, 81, 110, 112 Spinozist, 241 substance vs accident, 154 unknown substratum, 232–3, 253–5 substantial forms, 218 sufficient reason, 246 suicide, 118, 192, 296, 325 sun, 23 superego, 346–7 Superman, 331–2 superstition, 266, 326, 381 supposition, 149–50 surface grammar, 372 surplus value, 307 swerve of the atoms, 94 syllogisms, 65–6, 149, 204, 317, 352 syncategorematic terms, 149 synthetic a priori, 277–86 taste, 19, 84–5, 231 tautologies, 369 teleology, 79, 337–8 temper, 47, 53, 70, 72, 347 temperance, 46; plate Thales, 2–4, 15 Theodosius, 111, 118 theological virtues, 161 theology, 66–7, 87 theory of types, 358 therapy, 344, 372 thesis vs antithesis, 289, 303 thing-in-itself, 286, 299, 322 Third Man, 41–2 thought, 11, 16, 33, 59, 208–13 402 AIBD03 402 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index Thrasymachus, 45 three-valued logic, 185–6 Thucydides, 22 time, 117, 279, 284, 327 timocracy, 51 Timon, 98 tools, 281 tortoise, 14 totalitarianism, 46 tragedy, 67–8 transcendental aesthetic, 278–80 transcendental analytic, 280–6 transcendental deduction, 282 transcendental dialectic, 286–95 transcendental unity of apperception, 283, 303 transmigration of souls, 1, 16, 35 transubstantiation, 154–5, 156 transvaluation of values, 330 tree of knowledge, 202 Trinity, 112, 153 truth-functions, 352 truth-values, 352–3 truths of reason vs of fact, 246 Twenty Questions, 58 Tyndale, William, 98 Unbeing, 11–14, 18, 59, 83, 106 unconditioned, 290 unconscious, 344 understanding, 73–4, 280 unicorns, 157 uniformity of Nature, 318 universal propositions, 65, 281 universalizability, 296 universals, 135–6, 172–4, 178–9, 362 universals, concrete, 42 universities, 145–6, 164–5 univocity, 167 unmoved movers, 78, 89 usury, 76–7, 194 utilitarianism, 20, 71, 309–19 utility, principle of, 204, 310 Utopia, 190–3 Valla, Lorenzo, 183–5 Van Zomeren, Henry, 185 vegetarianism, 1, 16, 192 verb, 59 verification, 205 verification principle, 369–70 violent motion, 78, 123 virtue, 45, 51, 68–75, 97 moral, 69–72, 73–4, 161 natural, 73 vividness, 258 void time, 289 void, the, 18 Voltaire, 249, 266–7, 275 voluntariness, 159, 160 voluntarism, 170 wager, 239 Wagner, Richard, 325, 330 war, 118, 144, 192, 206–7, 303 Wars of Religion, 206–7 water, 2, weaver, 35 will, 137, 213, 262, 322–4 William of Sherwood, 149 wisdom, 33, 380 Aristotle on, 72–3, 74 Wittgenstein, L., 220, 364, 365–81, 366, 376; plate 16 On Certainty, 379–80 Philosophical Investigations, 370–80 Tractatus, 365–8, 369 Wolff, 249 women, 46, 113, 207, 218 Word (= Logos), 7, 102 Wordsworth, William, 272–3 World-mind, 106–7 world-picture, 380 World-soul, 107, 273 World-spirit, 301–3 world-view, 380 Wyclif, John, 178–81, 180, 196 Xenophanes, 5–6, 15 Xerxes, 21–2 403 AIBD03 403 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM index Yeats, W B., 62 Zeno of Citium, 92, 95 Zeno of Elea, 14 zero, 354, 358 Zeus, 1, 29, 95, 102, 215 zoology, 61 Zoroaster, 91 404 AIBD03 404 22/03/2006, 11:12 AM ... significant thinker was a younger contemporary and pupil of Thales called Anaximander, a savant who made the first map of the world and of the stars, and invented both a sundial and an all-weather... defeated the invading army at Marathon in 490 Darius’ son Xerxes launched a more massive expedition in 484, defeated a gallant band of Spartans at Thermopylae, and forced the Athenians to evacuate... the age of Pericles Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (near Izmir) was born about 500 bc and was thus about forty years older than Democritus He came to Athens after the end of the Persian wars, and became