Western Civilization A Brief History Seventh Edition This page intentionally left blank Western Civilization A Brief History Volume II: From the 1400s Seventh Edition Marvin Perry Baruch College City University of New York George W Bock, Editorial Associate Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume II: From the 1400s, Seventh Edition Marvin Perry Senior Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Senior Sponsoring Editor: Nancy Blaine Associate Editor: Adrienne Zicht Editorial Assistant: Emma Goehring © 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as 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Photo Editor: Jennifer Meyer Dare Cover Designer: Roy Neuhaus Cover Image: The Fair Amateur, 1862 by Abraham Solomon (1824-62) Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library Compositor: MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at: international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Printed in the United States of America 13 12 11 10 09 Brief Contents Part Three The Rise of Modernity: From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment 1350–1789 182 Chapter Transition to the Modern Age: Renaissance and Reformation 184 Chapter 12 The Industrial Revolution: The Transformation of Society 294 Chapter 13 Thought and Culture in the Early Nineteenth Century 310 Chapter 14 Chapter Political and Economic Transformation: National States, Overseas Expansion, Commercial Revolution 210 Surge of Liberalism and Nationalism: Revolution, Counterrevolution, and Unification 327 Chapter 15 Chapter 10 Intellectual Transformation: The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment 238 Thought and Culture in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Realism and Social Criticism 349 Chapter 16 Part Four The Modern West: Progress and Breakdown 1789–1914 266 Europe in the Late Nineteenth Century: Modernization, Nationalism, Imperialism 366 Chapter 11 Chapter 17 The Era of the French Revolution: Affirmation of Liberty and Equality 268 Modern Consciousness: New Views of Nature, Human Nature, and the Arts 397 v vi ❖ Brief Contents Part Five Part Six Western Civilization in Crisis: World Wars and Totalitarianism 1914–1945 420 The Contemporary World 520 Chapter 18 The West in a Global Age Chapter 21 522 World War I: The West in Despair 422 Chapter 19 An Era of Totalitarianism 455 Chapter 20 World War II: Western Civilization in the Balance 496 Epilogue: Reaffirming the Core Values of the Western Tradition 561 Index I-1 Contents Maps xv Chronologies xvi Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxiii Introduction xxv Part Three The Rise of Modernity: From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment 1350–1789 182 Chapter Transition to the Modern Age: Renaissance and Reformation 184 Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance 186 The Renaissance Outlook 187 Humanism 189 A Revolution in Political Thought 190 Renaissance Art 191 The Spread of the Renaissance 194 Erasmian Humanism 194 French and English Humanism 195 The Renaissance and the Modern Age 196 Background to the Reformation: The Medieval Church in Crisis 196 The Lutheran Revolt 197 The Break with Catholicism 198 The Appeal and Spread of Lutheranism 200 The Spread of the Reformation 200 Calvinism 201 France 202 England 203 The Radical Reformation 203 The Catholic Response 205 The Reformation and the Modern Age 206 Primary Source: Leonardo Bruni, Study of Greek Literature and a Humanist Educational Program 208 Chapter Political and Economic Transformation: National States, Overseas Expansion, Commercial Revolution 210 Toward the Modern State 212 Hapsburg Spain 213 Ferdinand and Isabella 213 The Reign of Charles V: King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor 214 Philip II 216 The End of the Spanish Hapsburgs 216 The Growth of French Power 217 Religion and the French State 217 The Consolidation of French Monarchical Power 218 The Growth of Limited Monarchy and Constitutionalism in England 220 The Tudor Achievement 220 The English Revolution, 1640–1660 and 1688–1689 221 vii viii ❖ Contents The Holy Roman Empire: The Failure to Unify Germany 223 European Expansion 225 Forces Behind the Expansion 225 The Portuguese Empire 226 The Spanish Empire 227 Black Slavery and the Slave Trade 228 The Price Revolution 229 The Expansion of Agriculture 229 The Expansion of Trade and Industry 231 Innovations in Business 231 Different Patterns of Commercial Development 232 England and the Netherlands 232 France and Spain 232 The Fostering of Mercantile Capitalism 233 Toward a Global Economy 235 Primary Source: Seventeenth-Century Slave Traders: Buying and Transporting Africans 236 Seventeenth-Century Antecedents: Hobbes and Locke 250 Montesquieu 251 Voltaire 252 Rousseau 253 Social and Economic Thought 254 Epistemology, Psychology, and Education 254 Freedom of Conscience and Thought 255 Humanitarianism 255 Laissez-Faire Economics 257 The Idea of Progress 258 Conflicts and Politics 259 Warfare and Revolution 259 Enlightened Despotism 260 The Enlightenment and the Modern Mentality 260 Primary Source: René Descartes, Discourse on Method 263 Part Four Chapter 10 Intellectual Transformation: The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment 238 The Medieval View of the Universe 239 A New View of Nature 240 Nicolaus Copernicus: The Dethronement of the Earth 240 Galileo: Uniformity of Nature and Experimental Physics 241 Attack on Authority 243 Johannes Kepler: Laws of Planetary Motion 243 The Newtonian Synthesis 244 Prophets of Modern Science 245 Francis Bacon: The Inductive Method 245 René Descartes: The Deductive Method 245 The Meaning of the Scientific Revolution 246 The Age of Enlightenment: Affirmation of Reason and Freedom 248 Christianity Assailed: The Search for a Natural Religion 249 Political Thought 250 The Modern West: Progress and Breakdown 1789–1914 266 Chapter 11 The Era of the French Revolution: Affirmation of Liberty and Equality 268 The Old Regime 269 The First Estate 269 The Second Estate 269 The Third Estate 270 The Bourgeoisie 270 The Peasantry 271 Urban Laborers 271 Inefficient Administration and Financial Disorder 271 The Roles of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution 272 A Bourgeois Revolution? 273 The Moderate Stage, 1789–1791 274 Formation of the National Assembly 274 Storming of the Bastille 274 Contents ❖ The Great Fear 275 October Days 276 Reforms of the National Assembly 276 The Radical Stage, 1792–1794 277 The Sans-Culottes 278 Foreign Invasion 278 The Jacobins 279 The Nation in Arms 280 The Republic of Virtue and the Reign of Terror 280 The Fall of Robespierre 282 Napoleon and France: Return to Autocratic Rule 283 An Enlightened Despot 284 Legal, Educational, and Financial Policies 285 Napoleon and Europe: Diffusion of Revolutionary Institutions 285 The Fall of Napoleon 287 Failure to Subdue England 287 The Spanish Ulcer 287 Disaster in Russia 288 The German War of Liberation 288 Final Defeat 289 The Meaning of the French Revolution 289 Primary Source: Maximilien Robespierre, Republic of Virtue 292 Chapter 12 The Industrial Revolution: The Transformation of Society 294 Britain First 295 Changes in Technology 296 The Cotton Industry 296 The Steam Engine 297 The Iron Industry 297 Transportation 297 Society Transformed 297 Changes in Social Structure 298 Working-Class Life 300 The Rise of Reform in Britain 301 Responses to Industrialization 304 Liberalism 304 Early Socialism 305 ix Saint-Simon 305 Fourier 305 Owen 306 Industrialism in Perspective 307 Primary Source: Edward Baines,The Factory System 308 Chapter 13 Thought and Culture in the Early Nineteenth Century 310 Romanticism: A New Cultural Orientation 311 Exalting Imagination and Feelings 311 Nature, God, History 313 The Impact of the Romantic Movement 314 German Idealism 315 The Challenge Posed by Hume’s Empiricism 315 Immanuel Kant 315 G W F Hegel 316 Conservatism: The Value of Tradition 318 Hostility to the French Revolution 318 The Quest for Social Stability 319 Liberalism: The Value of the Individual 319 The Sources of Liberalism 320 Individual Liberty 320 Liberalism and Democracy 321 Nationalism: The Sacredness of the Nation 321 The Emergence of Modern Nationalism 322 Nationalism and Liberalism 323 Primary Source: Joseph de Maistre, Arch-Conservative 324 Chapter 14 Surge of Liberalism and Nationalism: Revolution, Counterrevolution, and Unification 327 The Congress of Vienna 329 Statesmen and Issues 329 562 ❖ Epilogue higher wisdom in non-Western traditions— African, Asian, or Native American Radical Muslims, who were responsible for or applaud September 11, view Western civilization as a threat to traditional Islam and plot its destruction Their vision of an Islamic society based on a strict interpretation of the Koran, clashes head-on with core principles of Western democracy— separation of church and state, religious toleration, protection of basic rights, and female equality Defenders of the Enlightenment heritage argue that this heritage, despite its flaws, still has a powerful message for us They caution against devaluing and undermining the modern West’s unique achievements: the tradition of rationality, which makes possible a scientific understanding of the physical universe and human nature, the utilization of nature for human betterment, and the identification and reformation of irrational and abusive institutions and beliefs; the tradition of political freedom, which is the foundation of democratic institutions; the tradition of inner freedom, which asserts the individual’s capacity for ethical autonomy, the ability and duty to make moral choices; the tradition of humanism, which regards individuals as active subjects, with both the right and the capacity to realize their full human potential; the tradition of equality, which demands equal treatment under the law; and the tradition of human dignity, which affirms the inviolable integrity and worth of the human personality and is the driving force behind what is now a global quest for social justice and human rights The modern struggle for human rights—initiated during the Enlightenment, advanced by the French Revolution, and embodied in liberalism— continues in the contemporary age Two crucial developments in this struggle are the civil rights movement in the United States and the feminist movement Spokespersons for these movements have used ideas formulated by Western thinkers in earlier struggles for liberty and equality Thus, one reason for the success of Martin Luther King’s policy of direct action was that he both inspired and shamed white America to live up to its JudeoChristian and democratic principles Though written thirty years ago, the insights of the French social theorist Jacques Ellul still apply The essential, central, undeniable fact is that the West was the first civilization in history to focus attention on the individual and on freedom The West, and the West alone, is responsible for the movement that has led to the desire for freedom Today men point the finger of outrage at slavery and torture Where did that kind of indignation originate? What civilization or culture cried out that slavery was unacceptable and torture scandalous? Not Islam, or Buddhism, or Confucius, or Zen, or the religions and moral codes of Africa and India! The West alone has defended the inalienable rights of the human person, the dignity of the individual The West attempted to apply in a conscious, methodical way the implications of freedom The West discovered what no one else had discovered: freedom and the individual I see no other satisfactory model that can replace what the West has produced.* The roots of these ideals are ultimately found in the West’s Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian heritage, but it was the philosophers of the Enlightenment who clearly articulated them for the modern age To be sure, these ideals are a goal, not a finished achievement, and nothing should make Westerners more appreciative of the preciousness of these ideals and more alert to their precariousness than examining the ways they have been violated and distorted over the course of centuries It is equally true that every age has to rethink and revitalize this tradition in order to adapt it to the needs of its own time Therefore, it is crucial in this age of globalism, with its heightened sense of ethnic and cultural diversity, that Westerners become sensitized to the histories and traditions of all cultures But it is equally crucial in an era of global interdependence and tension that Westerners continuously affirm and reaffirm the core values of their heritage and not permit this priceless legacy to be dismissed or negated As the history of the twentieth century demonstrates, when we lose confidence in this heritage, we risk losing our humanity, and civilized life is threatened by organized barbarism * Jacques Ellul, The Betrayal of the West, trans J O’Connell (New York: Seabury, 1978), 17–l9, 29 Index Absolute monarchy, 206, 219–220 Absolute Spirit, 317–318 Absolutism, 212, 220, 250–251, 277 Abstract art, 411, 484 Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (Luther), 199 Adenauer, Konrad, 530 Adolphus, Gustavus, 225 Afghanistan: Taliban in, 552–554; U.S war with, 552–554 Africa: in 1914, 392; British in, 391, 393–394; decolonization in, 527–528; European imperialism in, 391–394; slave trade and, 228–229 After the Questioning (Grosz), 485 The Age of Reason (Paine), 250 Agriculture: expansion of, 229–230; in Soviet Union, 462–464 Ahmed, Madhi Mohammed, 385 Al Qaeda, 542, 552–557 Albania, 427, 539, 544–545 Alberti, Leon Battista, 193 Alexander I of Russia, 288, 328, 332, 377 Alexander II of Russia, 377 Alexander III of Russia, 377–378 Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, 480 Algeria, 529 All Quiet on the Western Front (Remarque), 484 Alsace-Lorraine, 426 American colonies, 232 American Revolution, 259–260; as influence on French Revolution, 272–273; liberalism and, 320 American South, slavery in, 229 Anabaptists, 203–205 Ancient Greeks See also Hellenistic Age Andropov, Yuri, 535 Anglican Church, 203, 222 Anglicanism, 221 Anglo-Boer War, 394 Anglo-French Entente Cordiale, 427 Anglo-Russian Entente, 427 Animal Farm (Orwell), 488 Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 350–351 Anomie, 406 Anschluss, 500 Anti-Semitism: in Austria, 382; Christianity and, 476; in France, 381; in Germany, 381, 383–384, 473, 497; historical background of, 382–383; of Hitler, 474; Nazi, 474; racial nationalism and, 381–384; resurgence of, 550–551; in Romania, 381–382; in Russia, 382; Spanish Inquisition and, 214; Volkish thought and, 382–383 See also Jews Appeal of One Half of the Human Race (Bentham and Thompson), 362 “An Appeal to Reason” (Mann), 484 Appeasement, 497–498, 499 Archimedes, 240, 241 Architecture, in the Renaissance, 193 Arendt, Hannah, 457, 490 Aristocracy: British, 301–302; French, 232, 269–270, 273–274; social decline and, 217 Aristotle, 239, 243 Arkwright, Richard, 296 Art: abstract, 411, 484; cubism, 410–411; Dada, 484–485; expressionism, 484; modern, 410–411; post-World War I, 484–486; realism and naturalism in, 350–351; in the Renaissance, 187, 191–194, 240; Romantic Movement and, 314; in Soviet Union, 464; surrealism, 485 Artisans, 299–300, 370 Asia: in 1914, 387; European domination of, 385–391 Assembly lines, 368 Astronomy: Copernicus and, 240–241; laws of planetary motion and, 243–244 Atatürk, Mustapha Kemal, 385 Athenians: See also Ancient Greeks Atomic bomb, 514 August Decrees (France), 276, 277 Austria: anti-Semitism in, 382; Congress of Vienna and, 330; French Revolution and, 278–279; German support for, 428–429; German unification and, 343–344; Hitler and, 500; Italy and, 341–342; nationalism in, 345–347; post-World War I, 442; revolution of 1848 in, 337–338; Seven Years’ War and, 259; World War I and, 431, 437–438; World War II and, 500 Austria-Hungary: attack on Serbia by, 423; disintegration of, 439, 442; nationalist tension in, 423–426; Serbia and, 427 Austro-Prussian war, 343 Authoritarianism: after World War I, 466–468, 480; in Portugal, 480; in Spain, 480; spread of, 480 See also Fascism; Totalitarianism Autocracy, in Russia, 377 Azerbaijan, 543 Azores, 226 Bacon, Francis, 245 Baines, Edward, 308 Balance of power, principle of, 212–213 Balboa, Vasco de Nuñez, 227 Balkan Wars, 427 Ballot Act (1872), 371 Baltic trade, 232 Balzac, Honoré de, 350 Banalities, 271 Bank of England, 232 Bank of France, 285 Banking, 232 Barth, Karl, 487 Bastille, storming of, 274–275 Battle of Belleau Wood, 438 Battle of Britain, 503–504 Battle of El Alamein, 512 Battle of Iwo Jima, 510, 514 Battle of Kursk, 512 Battle of Midway, 510, 512 Battle of Okinawa, 510, 514 Battle of Omduran, 393 Battle of Stalingrad, 512 Battle of Tannenberg, 437 I-1 I-2 ❖ Index Baum, Rainer C 508 Bay of Pigs, 525 Beauvoir, Simone de, 489 Bebel, August, 371 Beccaria, Cesare, 255–256 Becker, Lydia, 372 Beckmann, Max, 485, 486 Beer Hall Putsch, 473 Belarus, 543 Belgium, 333, 429 Bell, Daniel, 409 Benda, Julien, 487 Benn, Gottfried, 409 Bentham, Jeremy, 362 Benz, Karl, 368 Bequerel, Henri, 412 Berdyaev, Nikolai, 489 Bergson, Henri, 401–402 Berlin, division of, 530 Berlin, Isaiah, 262 Berlin Conference, 391 Berlin Wall, 527, 530, 534–535, 538 Bernhardi, Friedrich von, 354, 451 Bernstein, Eduard, 371 Bessemer, Henry, 297 Beveridge, Albert J., 354 Bible: Council of Trent and, 206; Enlightenment thinkers and, 247, 249; evolution and the, 353; and Lutheranism, 199; Puritan views of, 259; translation of, 201 Bill of Rights (England), 223 Bill of Rights (U.S.), 261, 320 Bin Laden, Osama, 551, 552, 554, 555, 558 Bismark, Otto von, 343–345, 375–376, 391, 426–427 Black Hand, 423, 428 Black Weft (Kandinsky), 412 Blair, Tony, 547 Blake, William, 312, 313 Bleak House (Dickens), 351 Blücher, Gebhard von, 289 Blum, Léon, 481–482, 499 Boers, 393–394 Bohemia, 225, 340 Bohr, Niels, 412 Boleyn, Anne, 203 Bolshevik Revolution See Russian Revolution of 1917 Bolshevism, 437, 446–448 Bosnia, 427, 544, 545 Bourbon kings, 218–220 Bourgeoisie, 217; in France, 270, 273–274, 290; industrialization and, 298–299; liberalism and, 319–320; rise of, 319–320 See also Middle class Boxer Rebellion, 385, 389 Brahe, Tycho, 243 Brandt, Willy, 530 Braque, Georges, 410 Brethren of the Common Life, 194, 195 Brezhnev, Leonid, 531, 534 British East India Company, 385–386 British empire, in New World, 232 Bronowski, Jacob, 414 Brooke, Rupert, 432 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 193 Bruni, Leonardo, 208 Brunswick, duke of, 278, 279 Buddenbrooks (Mann), 484 Bulgaria: collapse of communism in, 539; World War I and, 439 Burial at Ornans (Courbet), 351 Burke, Edmund, 318 Bush, George H W., 536 Bush, George W., 552, 554, 556, 557 Business innovations, 231–232 Byron, Lord George Gordon, 311 Calvin, John, 201 Calvinism, 201, 202, 221 Cambodia, 527 Canary Islands, 226 Candide (Voltaire), 256, 258–259 Cape of Good Hope, 226 Cape Town, 393 Capital (Marx), 355 Capitalism: development of, 233–235; industrial, 235; Marxism and, 357–358; mercantile, 233–235; merchant, 231–232; Protestant Reformation and, 207 Capitalist market economy, growth of, 211–212, 225 Carbonari, 332, 333 Cartwright, Edmund, 296 Cassirer, Ernst, 314, 488 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart Viscount, 328 Castro, Fidel, 525 Catherine de Medici, 218 Catherine of Aragon, 203 Catherine the Great of Russia, 260 Catholic Center Party (Germany), 375 Catholic Church: censorship in, 205–206; Fascists and, 470; French state and, 217–218, 269, 277, 285; Galileo and, 243; and Martin Luther, 197–200; religious persecution by, 255; response to Protestant Reformation, 204, 205–206; sale of indulgences by, 198–199 See also Christianity; Papacy Catholic Reformation, 204, 205–206 Catholics: Bismark and, 375; in Ireland, 373 Cavour, Camillo Benso di, 341–342 Ceausescu, Nicholae, 539 Censorship, 205–206, 255 Central Asia, 543 Central Europe See also specific countries: after 1989, 543–546; authoritarianism in, 480 Chagall, Marc, 486 Chamberlain, Neville, 500 Charismatic leaders, 408 Charles Albert of Italy, 338 Charles I, King of England, 218, 221, 222, 250 Charles II, King of England, 222 Charles III, King of Spain, 260 Charles IX, King of France, 218 Charles V, Holy Roman emperor, 200, 214–216, 223 Charles X, King of France, 332–333 Chartist reform movement, 302–303 Chechnya, 541–542 Cheka, 460 Chiang Kai-shek, 385 Child labor, laws against, 302, 360 Index China: Boxer Rebellion in, 385, 389; European domination of, 388–389; Japan and, 510; nationalism in, 389; Open Door policy and, 389; Opium War and, 388; Sino-Japanese War and, 388–389; Taiping Rebellion in, 388 Chirac, Jacques, 548 Christian Democrats (Italy), 529 Christian missionaries, 385 Christian Socialist Party (Austria), 382 Christianity: anti-Semitism and, 214; Darwinism and, 353; Enlightenment and, 249–250; morality of, 399; Nazism and, 476; Protestant Reformation and, 215; Scientific Revolution and, 247–248; world-view of, 487 See also Catholic Church; specific religions Church and state, separation of, 260, 290 Church of England, 203 Churchill, Winston, 371, 503, 522 Cicero, 189–190 Circumnavigation of globe, 227 Cities, industrial, 298 City-states, in the Renaissance, 186 Civil Constitution of the Clergy (France), 277 Civilization: See also Western civilization Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud), 404 Class conflict, Marxism and, 357 Clemenceau, Georges, 374, 441 Clement XIII, Pope, 255 Code Napoléon, 285, 287 Colbert, Jean Baptiste, 220 Cold War: chronology of, 524; confrontations of, 525–527; Cuban Missile Crisis and, 525; end of, 535–536; Germany and, 530; Korean War and, 525; maps pertaining to, 537; mobilization, 523, 525; origins of, 523; Vietnam War and, 525–527 Cole (destroyer), 552 Colloquies (Erasmus), 195 Columbus, Christopher, 227 Combination Acts (1799-1800), 304 Commercial development: in England, 232; in France, 232–233; in the Netherlands, 232; in Spain, 232–233 Communards, 374 Communications, advances in, 368 Communism: collapse of, 536–540; in Eastern Europe, 523, 533–535; in Germany, 470–471; intellectuals and, 486–487; in Russia, 446–448; in Soviet Union, 359, 458–465, 486–487 Communist International (Comintern), 459, 461 Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels), 355, 358 Communist Party, 459–461 Comte, Auguste, 352 Concentration camps, 507–509 Concert of Europe, 331 Concordat of 1801, 285 Condorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat), 256, 258, 261 Congo, 527, 558 Congo Free State, 391 Congregation of the Index, 243 Congress of Vienna, 328, 331, 335; issues at, 328; settlement, 329–330; statesmen at, 328 Congress Party (India), 388 Conrad, Joseph, 394 Conscription, French Revolution and, 280, 291 Conservatism, 311; French Revolution and, 318–319; in Germany, 344; origins of European, 318–319; social stability and, 319 ❖ I-3 Constitutional monarchy, 220–223, 251 Constitutions: France, 277; U.S., 261, 320 Containment policy, 523 Continental System, 287, 288 Conversos, 214 Convertible husbandry, 230 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 240–241, 243, 244, 247 Copyhold, 229–230 Cortés, Hernando, 226, 227–228 Cotton gin, 296 Cotton industry, 296 Council of Trent, 206 Counter-Reformation, 205–206 Courbet, Gustave, 350, 351 The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo), 194 Creationism, 352 Crimean War, 341 Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 315 Croatia, 544 Croats, 338, 340 Crompton, Samuel, 296 Cromwell, Oliver, 222 Crystal Palace exhibition, 303 Cuban Missile Crisis, 525 Cubism, 410–411 Czech Republic, 544 Czechoslovakia, 338, 441, 442; collapse of communism in, 539; German takeover of, 500–501; middle class in, 480; Soviet invasion of, 533, 534 Da Gama, Vasco, 226 Dada, 484–485 Daimler, Gottlieb, 368 Daladier, Édouard, 500 Dali, Salvador, 485 D’Annunzio Gabriele, 468 Dante’s Inferno (Blake), 312 Dardanelles, 437–438 Darfur, 558 Darkness at Noon (Koestler), 486–487 Darwin, Charles, 352–353, 362 Darwin, Erasmus, 352 Darwinism, 352; Christianity and, 353; natural selection and, 352–353; social, 353–355, 384–385, 414, 426 David (Michelangelo), 193 Dawes Plan, 472 Dawson, Christopher, 487 Dayton Agreement, 544 D-Day, 513, 517 De Gaulle, Charles, 503, 529 Decembrist uprising (Russia), 377 Declamation Concerning the False Decretals of Constantine (Valla), 190 Declaration of Independence, 251, 259, 261, 272 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 272, 276, 277, 290, 291, 320 “Declaration of the Rights of Women” (Gouges), 361 The Decline of the West (Spengler), 483 Decolonization, 527–528, 529 Deductive method, 245–246 A Defense of Liberty against Tyrants, 217–218 Deists, 244–245, 250 I-4 ❖ Index Delacroix, Eugène, 334 Democracy: liberalism and, 321; in Middle East, 557; Rousseau and, 253–254; spread of, 558; Western, 480–482 Denmark, 343–344 Descartes, René, 245–246, 263–264 Descent of Man (Darwin), 353, 362 Despotism, 252, 260; enlightened, 284–285 Dialectical materialism, 356 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Galileo), 243 Dias, Bartholomeu, 226 Dickens, Charles, 351 Dictatorship, 457; in Soviet Union, 459–461 See also Totalitarianism Diderot, Denis, 248, 250, 254, 255, 259 Diesel engines, 368 Discourse on Method (Descartes), 246, 263–264 Disraeli, Benjamin, 371 Diu, naval battle of, 226 Divine right of kings, 220, 221 Dix, Otto, 486 A Doll’s House (Ibsen), 351 Donatello, 193 Donation of Constantine, 190 Don’t Cry Mother (Evergood), 486 Dore, Gustave, 299 Double-entry bookkeeping, 232 Drama, in the Renaissance, 195–196 Dreams, interpretation of, 403 Dresden, 420 Dreyfus, Alfred, 374 Dreyfus affair, 374, 393, 481 Drumont, Edouard, 381 Duchamp, Marcel, 485 Durkheim, Émile, 406–407 Dutch empire, 232 Dutch Republic, 216 The Dying Slave (Michelangelo), 193 East Germany, 530, 534–535, 538 East Indies, trade with, 232 Easter Rebellion, 373 Eastern Europe See also specific countries: after 1945, 532; after 1989, 543–546; authoritarianism in, 480; collapse of communism in, 536–539; communism in, 533–535; postWorld War II, 515; Soviet occupation of, 523 Ebert, Friedrich, 470 Economic boom, post-World War II, 528 Economic crisis, 2007-2008, 558 Economic disparities, 557–558 Economics: laissez-faire, 257–258, 304, 360; liberalism and, 304–305 Edict of Nantes, 202, 218, 220 Education: in Britain, 303–304; Enlightenment and, 254–255; in France, 285; in Soviet Union, 464 Education Act (1870), 304 Edward VI, King of England, 203, 221 Edward VII, King of England, 373 Ego, 403–404 Egypt: British control of, 385, 391; Suez Canal and, 391 Einstein, Albert, 413 Elba, 289 Eliot, T S., 482, 483, 487 Elites, 407, 415 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 203, 216, 221 Émile (Rousseau), 254–255 Empiricism, 315 Empyrean, 239 Enclosures, 230, 295 Encyclopedia (Diderot), 255, 256, 261 The End of the World (Grosz), 485 Energy, 413 Engels, Friedrich, 355, 357 England: agriculture in, 229–230; civil war in, 221–223; commercial development in, 232; Congress of Vienna and, 330; constitutional monarchy in, 220–223; French and Indian War and, 259; Hundred Years’ War and, 220; Napoleon and, 287; Protestant Reformation in, 203, 221; religion in, 221; Spanish invasion of, 216; Tudor, 220–221; War of the Roses and, 220 See also Great Britain English humanism, 195–196 The English Letters (Voltaire), 253, 255 English Revolution, 205, 221–223 Enlightened despotism, 260, 284–285 Enlightenment: American Revolution and, 259–260; chronology of, 240; conflicts and politics and, 259–260; French Revolution and, 272–273, 290; modern age and tradition of, 414–416; modern mentality and, 260; overview of, 248–249; political thought during, 250–254; search for natural religion and, 249–250; social and economic thought and, 254–259 Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Hume), 315 Enragés, 281–282 Entente Cordiale, 427 Epicycles, 239 Epistemology, 254–255 Equality, Protestant Reformation and, 207 Erasmian humanism, 194–195 Erasmus, 194–195 Ernst, Max, 485 Española, 227 Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 254 Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions (Maistre), 324–325 Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 304 Estates General, 217, 274 Esthetics, of modernism, 408–409 Estonia, 539 Ethiopia, 391, 394, 498 Ethnic cleansing, 544 Europe: anti-Semitism in, 381–384; domination of Asia by, 385–391; expansion to Africa by, 391–394; expansionism, 225–228; Muslim immigration to, 549–550; Napoleon and, 285–287; new imperialism in, 384–385; population growth in, 229; post-Cold War, 537; post-World War I, 440; postWorld War II, 523–525, 526, 528–530 See also specific countries European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 528 European Community (EC), 528 European Economic Community (EEC), 528 European Union (EU), 546–549 Evangelical churches, Nazis and, 476 Evergood, Philip, 486 Evolutionary theory, 352–353 Excommunication, 199 Index Existentialism, 400, 482, 488–490 Exploration: overseas, 225–226; Portuguese, 226–227; Spanish, 227–228 Expressionism, 484 Factories: assembly-line, 368; in second-half on nineteenth century, 368; working conditions in, 300–301, 302 Factory Act (1833), 302 Factory Act (1847), 302, 371 Factory system, 296, 308 Factory workers, 299, 300, 368, 370 Farming See Agriculture Fascism: in France, 480, 481–482; intellectuals and, 487–488; irrationalism and, 398; in Italy, 468–470; nationalism and, 378; nature and appeal of, 466–468; romanticism and, 314; Sorel and, 402; Spanish Civil War and, 499–500 See also Authoritarianism; Totalitarianism Federalist Papers, 261 Feelings, romanticism and, 311–313 Feminist movements: emergence of, 361–362; in Great Britain, 372–373 Ferdinanc of Aragon, 213–214 Ferdinand I, King of Italy, 332 Ferdinand II, Archduke, 225 Ferdinand II, King of Italy, 338 Ferry, Jules, 391 Final Solution, 507–509 First Battle of the Marne, 433 First Estate (France), 269 Flaubert, Gustave, 351 Fluit, 232 Flyboat, 232 Flying shuttle, 296 Ford, Henry, 368 Fourier, Charles, 305–306 Fourteen Points, 439, 441 France: in Africa, 391, 393; American Revolution and, 259; anti-Semitism in, 381; appeasement policy and, 497; civil wars in, 218; commercial development in, 232–233; Concert of Europe and, 331; Congress of Vienna and, 329–330; decolonization by, 529; education in, 285; Fascist movements in, 480, 481–482; First Estate in, 269; Franco-Prussian War and, 373–374, 426; French and Indian War and, 259; German unification and, 344–345; Great Depression in, 481–482; Huguenots in, 217–218; imperialism of, 384; inefficient administration and financial disorder in, 271–272; July Ordinances in, 332–333; in the Middle Ages, 217; monarchial power in, 217–220; Muslim immigration to, 549–550; Napoleon Bonaparte and, 283–289; nobility in, 269–270, 273–274; occupation of Germany by, 471–472; Old Regime in, 269–272, 277; post-World War II, 528–529; Protestant Reformation in, 202–203; religion and, 217–218; revolution of 1830 in, 333; Second Estate in, 269–270; in second-half on nineteenth century, 373–374; Third Estate in, 270–271, 274; Thirty Years’ War and, 218; Treaty of Versailles and, 441–442, 443; twenty-first century, 548; World War I and, 429, 431–432, 433, 436, 441; World War II and, 502–503, 513 See also French Revolution of 1789 France, Anatole, 374 Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 423, 428 Francis I, King of France, 217, 218 ❖ I-5 Francis II, King of France, 218 Francis Joseph of Austria, 338, 347 Franco, Francisco, 480, 499 Franco-Prussian War, 342, 345, 373–374, 379, 423, 426 Frankfurt Assembly, 335, 340 Franklin, Benjamin, 259 Frederick, elector of Saxony, 199 Frederick II (Frederick the Great) of Prussia, 250, 252, 259, 260 Frederick William III of Prussia, 289 Frederick William IV of Prussia, 335 Free Corps (Germany), 471 French and Indian War, 259 French humanism, 195 French Revolution of 1789: administrative and financial disorder and, 271–272; American Revolution and, 272–273; bourgeois and, 273–274; chronology of, 270; conscription during, 280, 291; conservatism and, 318–319; Enlightenment and, 272–273, 290; fall of Robespierre and, 282–283; foreign invasion and, 278–279; Great Fear and, 275–276; impact of, 311; Jacobins and, 279–280, 282; liberalism and, 320; meaning of, 289–291; moderate stage of, 274–277; National Assembly and, 274, 276–277; nationalism and, 280, 291, 322; October Days and, 276; Old Regime and, 269–272; radical stage of, 277–283; reforms during, 276–277, 290–291; Reign of Terror and, 262, 280–282; Republic of Virtue and, 280–282, 292; Robespierre and, 280–282, 292; sans-culottes and, 278, 281, 283; storming of Bastille and, 274–275; Thermidoreans and, 283 French Revolution of 1830, 333 French Revolution of 1848, 333–335 Freud, Anna, 403 Freud, Sigmund, 313, 402–406 Fronde, 218 Front National (France), 529 Fukuyama, Francis, 540 Galen, 240 Galileo, Galilei, 241–243 Gandhi, Mohandas, 385, 388 Gargantua and Pantagruel (Rabelais), 195 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 342 Gentile, Giovanni, 469 George, David Lloyd, 371, 442 Georgia, 542, 543 Germany: in Africa, 394; alliances, in World War I, 426–427; anti-Semitism in, 381, 383–384, 473; Bismark and, 375–376, 426–427; Congress of Vienna and, 330, 335; economic crisis in, 471–472; fear of, 427; French occupation of, 471–472; Holy Roman Empire and, 223–225; idealism in, 315–318; imperialism of, 384; Jews in, 383–384; liberalism in, 335, 337, 340; middle class in, 340; Napoleon and, 288–289; nationalism in, 322–323, 335, 340, 344, 379–381; Nazi regime in, 457, 475–480; pogroms in, 477; post-World War I, 441– 442, 451; post-World War II, 529–530; Protestant Reformation in, 197–200; in the Renaissance, 194, 197; reunification of, 548–549; revolution of 1848 in, 335, 337; rise of Hitler in, 472–475; in second-half on nineteenth century, 374–376; Spartacist revolt in, 471; support for Austria by, 428–429; Treaty of Versailles and, 441–442, 443; Triple Entente and, 427–428; in twenty-first century, 548–549; unification of, 342–345, 426; War of Liberation, 288–289; Weimar Republic in, 470–472; working class in, 376; World War I and, I-6 ❖ Index 429–432, 433, 435–439; World War II and, 496–506, 512, 513 See also Hitler, Adolf; Holy Roman Empire; Nazis Germany and the Next War (Bernhardi), 451 Gestapo, 476, 478 Ghettos, 382 Gide, André, 483 Giotto, 193 Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride (van Eyck), 194 Girondins, 279–280 Gladstone, William, 371 Glasnost, 535, 536 Global economy: emergence of, 235; imperialism and, 394 Globalization, 552 Glorious Revolution, 222–223, 320 Goa, India, 227 Goebbels, Joseph, 476, 477 Goering, Hermann, 503 Gold, in New World, 227–228 Goldmann, Felix, 474 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 535–536, 539 Gordon, Charles, 391 Gouges, Olympe de, 361 Goya, Francisco, 290 Granada, 213, 214 Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 288 The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck), 484, 486 Graves, Robert, 448–451 Gravity, 244 Great Britain: in Africa, 391, 393–394; American Revolution and, 259; appeasement policy and, 497; electoral reform in, 301–302, 371; enclosure movement in, 295; European Union and, 547; feminist movement in, 372–373; Great Depression in, 481; in India, 385–388; Industrial Revolution in, 295–297, 301–304; Irish question and, 373; post-World War II, 528– 529; social reform in, 371–372; under Thatcher, 528–529; World War I and, 429, 432, 436–437, 438; World War II and, 500–501, 503–504, 512 See also England Great Depression: in Britain, 481; in France, 481–482; in Germany, 472, 475; in United States, 480–481 Great Fear, 275–276 Great Trek, 393 Greece: revolution of 1821 in, 332 See also Ancient Greeks Greek language, 187 Green, Thomas Hill, 360–361 Greens (Germany), 530 Grey, Edward, 433 Grimké, Angelina, 361 Grimké, Sarah, 361–362 Gropper, William, 485–486 Grosz, George, 485 Guernica (Picasso), 486, 498 Guesde, Jules, 371 Guilds, 232–233 Guise, 202 Gulags, 463, 465 Halabiyah, Ahmed Abu, 551 Hamas, 551 Hapsburg Empire: dissolution of, 337–338, 347, 442; map of, 224; nationality problems in, 345–347; in New World, 215–216; revolution of 1848 and, 337–338 Hapsburgs: Austrian, 214, 225, 337–338, 346–347; Holy Roman Empire and, 223; Spanish, 213–217, 225; Thirty Years’ War and, 225 Hard Times (Dickens), 351 Hardenberg, Karl von, 328 Hargreave, James, 296 Harvey, William, 245 Havel, Václav, 539 Hegel, G.W.F., 316–318, 356 Heidegger, Martin, 489 Heine, Heinrich, 477–478, 479 Heisenberg, Werner, 413 Heliocentric theory, 240–241, 244 Helvetius, Claude-Adrien, 255 Hemingway, Ernest, 484 Henry II, King of England, 218 Henry II, King of France, 202 Henry III, King of France, 218 Henry IV, King of England (Henry Navarre), 202 Henry IV, King of France, 218 Henry Navarre (Henry IV), 202 Henry the Navigator, Prince, 226 Henry VII, King of England, 220–221 Henry VIII, King of England, 195, 203, 221 Herder, Johann Gottfried, 322 Heym, George, 423 Himmler, Heinrich, 478, 507 Hindenburg, Paul von, 475 Hiroshima, 514 History: Hegel’s view of, 317; Marx’s view of, 355–356; romanticism and, 313–314 History of His Own Times (Bruni), 208 Hitler, Adolf, 380, 471; aim of, 466; background of, 472–473; dictatorship of, 457, 476–477; Holocaust and, 507–509; mass support for, 479–480; Nazis and, 473, 476–477; rise of, 473, 475; suicide of, 513; World War I and, 451, 473; World War II and, 496–505, 512, 513; world-view of, 473–475 Hitler Youth, 477–478 H.M.S Beagle, 352 Ho Chi Minh, 525, 526 Hobbes, Thomas, 250–251 Hobhouse, L T., 360 Hobson, J A., 360 Hoess, Rudolf, 508 Holbach, Paul Henri, 258 Hollingdale, R.J., 323 Holocaust, 507–509, 516 Holy Roman Empire: Charles V and, 215–216; France and, 220; Germany and, 223–225 See also Germany Honecker, Erich, 535 House of Commons (Britain), 301, 302, 372 House of Lords (Britain), 301, 302, 372 Huber, Ernst, 492 Huguenots, 202, 217–218 Huizinga Johan, 483 Human nature: Christian view of, 261; conservative view of, 318– 319; Freud’s view of, 402–406; Hobbes’ view of, 251; Locke’s view of, 254; philosophes and, 254, 261 Humanism: Erasmian, 194–195; French, 195–196; in the Renaissance, 189–190, 194–196 Humanitarianism, 255–257 Index Hume, David, 249, 256, 262, 315 Hundred Years’ War, 220 Hungary, 340; after 1989, 544; collapse of communism in, 536–537; Magyars of, 338, 346; post-World War I, 442; Soviet domination of, 534 Hunger strikes, by suffragists, 373 Hus, Jan, 197 Hussein, Saddam, 555, 556 Iberian Peninsula, 213, 226 Ibsen, Henrik, 351 Id, 403 Idealism: German, 315–318; Hegel and, 316–318; Kant and, 315–316 Immigration, Muslim, 549–550 Imperialism: in Africa, 391–394; in Asia, 385–391; causes of, 384– 385; emergence of new, 384–385; forces behind, 368; legacy of, 394–395; resistance to, 385; World War II and, 515 Index of Prohibited Books, 205–206 India: British rule of, 385–388; Gandhi and, 388; independence for, 388; Portuguese in, 226–227; Sepoy Mutiny in, 385, 386 Indian National Congress, 388 Individualism, 296, 305; heroic, 400–401; Protestant Reformation and, 207; in the Renaissance, 188–189 Indochina, 529 Inductive method, 245 Indulgences, 198–199 Industrial capitalism, 235 Industrial cities, 298 Industrial Revolution: chronology of, 296; events leading to, 295; in Great Britain, 295–297; impact of, 304–307; overview of, 294–295; reforms instituted by, 301–304; Second, 368–369; societal transformation and, 297–301; technological changes and, 296–297 Industrialization: centralization and, 367–368; liberalism and, 304–305; responses to, 304–307; in second-half on nineteenth century, 368–371; socialism and, 305–307; societal transformation and, 297–301; in Soviet Union, 460, 461–464; urbanization and, 298 Industry, expansion of, 231–233 Inertia, 244 Infectious disease, 228, 235 Inflation, in sixteenth century, 229 An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Smith), 257–258 Inquisition, 205, 249 Institutes of the Christian Religion (Calvin), 201 International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa, 391 Iran, 385 Iraq War, 547, 548, 556–557 Ireland, home rule for, 372, 373 Irish revolt of 1919-1920, 373 Iron industry, 297 Irrationalism, 398, 414; Bergson and, 401–402; Nietzche and, 398–401; Sorel and, 402 Isabella d’Este, 187 Isabella of Castile, 213–214, 227 Isabey, Jean Baptiste, 331 Islam: anti-Semitism and, 550–551 See also Muslims Islamism (Muslim extremism), 550–551 ❖ I-7 Italy: in Africa, 394; Austria and, 341–342; Fascism in, 468–470; imperialism of, 384; invasion of Ethiopia by, 498; under Mussolini, 457, 468–470; postwar unrest in, 468; post-World War II, 529–530; Renaissance in, 186–187; revolution of 1820 in, 331–332; revolution of 1848 in, 338–339; in secondhalf on nineteenth century, 376; secret societies in, 332; unification of, 340–342; World War I and, 437–438; World War II and, 512–513 Izvolsky, Alexander, 427 Jacobins, 279–280, 282 James I, 221–222 James II, 222–223 Jameson, Leander, 394 Japan: European domination of, 389–391; Meiji Restoration in, 389–390; nationalism in, 390–391; Sino-Japanese War and, 388–389; war with Russia, 390; World War II and, 510–512, 513–514 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 534, 536 Jaspers, Karl, 482, 489 Jefferson, Thomas, 251, 259 Jesuits (Society of Jesus), 205 Jews: as Devil, 474; European, 382; in France, 277; German, 383–384; German nationalism and, 323; Hitler and, 473, 474; Holocaust and, 507–509, 516; Nazis and, 476–477; pogroms against, 382, 459, 477; resistance to Nazis by, 510; Spanish Inquisition and, 214; successes of, 382 See also Anti-Semitism; Hebrews; Judaism Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek), 385, 389, 510 Jihad, 558–559 John Paul II, Pope, 534 Johnson, Lyndon B., 525 Joint-stock companies, 232 Joseph II of Austria, 260 Joyce, James, 408, 483 Julius Caesar (Shakespeare), 195 July Ordinances (France), 332–333 June Days (France), 333–335, 347 Jung, Carl Gustav, 482–483 Junkers, 343, 375 Kádar, János, 534 Kafka, Franz, 408, 483–484 Kandinsky, Wassily, 411, 412 Kant, Immanuel, 315–316 Kapp, Wolfgang, 470–471 Karzai, Hamid, 553 Kay, John, 296 Kazakhstan, 543 Keats, John, 313 Kennedy, John F., 525 Kepler, Johannes, 243–244 Kerensky, Aleksandr, 445 Khmer Rouge, 527 Khrushchev, Nikita, 525, 531, 533, 534 King Lear (Shakespeare), 195 Kings See Monarchy Klee, Paul, 410 Koestler, Arthur, 486–487 Kohl, Helmut, 530, 548 Kollwitz, Käthe, 449, 485 I-8 ❖ Index Korea, 390 Korean War, 525 Kornilov, Lavr, 445–446 Kosovo, 544–546 Kossuth, Louis, 338 Kulturkampf, 375 La Gioconda (Leonardo da Vinci), 193 Labor laws, 302 Labor unions: in Britain, 304; in Germany, 376 Labour Party (Britain), 371, 547 Lafayette, Marquis de, 273 Lagarde, Paul de, 383 Laissez-faire economics, 257–258, 304, 360 Land enclosure, 230 The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci), 193 Lateran Accords, 470 Latvia, 539 Laud, William, 222 Law, rule of, 252–253 Lawrence, D H., 408, 451, 482, 483, 491 Le Pen, Jean Marie, 548 Leader-state, 476–477 League of Nations, 439, 442, 482, 498 Legislative Assembly (France), 277 Leisure activities, of factory workers, 300 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 446–448, 459, 460, 461 Leo XIII, Pope, 375 Leonardo da Vinci, 189, 192, 193 Leopold II, King of Belgium, 391 Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (Picasso), 411 Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (Grimké), 361–362 Leviathan (Hobbes), 250–251 Liberalism: democracy and, 321; Fascism and, 466; in Germany, 335, 337, 340, 344; T H Green and, 360–361; individual liberty and, 320–321; industrialization and, 304–305; Lock and, 251; Marxism and, 355; Mill and, 359–360; modern age and, 414–415; nationalism and, 323, 344, 378; nineteenth century, 311, 319–321, 335, 337, 359–361; sources of, 320; in transition, 359–361 Liberia, 391 Liebknecht, Karl, 471 Liebknecht, Wilhelm, 371 Lippmann, Walter, 515 Literature: modernist, 408–409; post-World War I, 483–484; realism in, 350–351; in the Renaissance, 194–196; Romantic Movement and, 313; socialist realism in, 464 Lithuania, 539 Livingstone, David, 391 Locke, John, 250–251, 254, 259, 261, 320 Long Parliament, 222 Lorenzo the Magnificent (Medici), 186 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 335, 339, 341, 373 See also Napoleon III, Emperor of France Louis Phillipe of France, 333 Louis XIII, King of France, 218 Louis XIV, King of France, 218–220, 260, 271, 272 Louis XVI, King of France, 274, 276, 278, 279 Louis XVIII, King of France, 289, 332 Loyola, Ignatius, 205 Ludendorff, Erich, 438, 439 Lueger, Karl, 382, 473 Luther, Martin, 196, 197–200, 206 Lutheranism, 197–201 Luthernan Reformation, 215 Luxemburg, Rosa, 471 MacArthur, Douglas, 525 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 190–191 MacShane, Denis, 550 Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 351 Madeira, 226 Mafia, 529 Magellan, Ferdinand, 227 The Magic Mountain (Mann), 484 Maginot Line, 497 Magyars, 338, 346, 347 Maistre, Joseph de, 324–325 Major, John, 547 Malthus, Thomas, 304 Manchu dynasty, 388 Manchuria, 390, 498 Mann, Thomas, 408, 432–433, 483, 484 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), 389, 525 Marcel, Gabriel, 489 Maria Theresa, Queen of Austria, 259, 260 Maritain, Jacques, 487 Market economy, growth of, 211–212, 225 Marshall, George C., 523 Marshall Plan, 523 Martineau, Harriet, 361 Marx, Karl, 318, 355–359 Marxism, 355; capitalism and, 357–358; class conflict and, 357; critics of, 358–359; discrediting of, 540; Fascism and, 467; liberalism and, 355; Russian Revolution and, 446–447; universality and, 262 Mary I, Queen of England, 203, 221 Mary II, Queen of England, 223 Masaccio, 193 Masses, 407, 487–488 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Newton), 244 Mathematics: Newton and, 244; Pythagoras and, 240; universe and, 242–243 Maximilian I, 223 Mazarin, Cardinal, 218 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 341 Medici, Cosimo de, 186 Medici family, 186 Medvedev, Dimitri, 542 Meiji Restoration, 389–390 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 473, 497 Meinecke, Friedrich, 432 Mensheviks, 447 Mercantilism, 233–235, 258 Merchant capitalism, 231–232 Merkel, Angela, 549 Metternich, Klemens von, 328, 337 Mexico, Spanish in, 227–228 Michelangelo Buonarroti, 186, 193 Middle Ages, 217; agriculture in, 229–230; monarchy in, 212; national state formation in, 212; romantics view of, 314; society of, 225; socioeconomic system, 211; world-view of, 239, 246–247 See also Papacy Index Middle class: in Britain, 295; in Germany, 340; growth of, 358; growth of, and industrialization, 298–299; liberalism and, 321; rise of, 369–370 Middle passage, 229 Migration (Gropper), 485–486 Mill, Harriet, 362 Mill, John Stuart, 320, 340, 359–360, 362, 372 Milosevic, Slobodan, 544–545 Mines Act (1842), 360 Ministry of Popular Enlightenment (Germany), 477–478 Miro, Joan, 485 Missionaries, 385 Mitterand, Franỗois, 529, 548 Model T, 368 Modern age: early modernity, 398; Enlightenment tradition and, 260, 414–416; Freud and, 402–406; irrationalism and, 398–402, 414; late modernity, 398; physics and, 411–414; predicament of, 490–491; Protestant Reformation and, 206–208; and the Renaissance, 196; sociological thought and, 406–408 Modern art, 314, 410–411 Modern Man in Search of a Soul (Jung), 482–483 Modernism, 408; in art, 314, 410–411; esthetics of, 408–409 Moldova, 543 Moltke, Helmuth von, 433 Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci), 193 Monarchy: absolute, 206, 219–220, 250–251, 277; constitutional, 220–223, 251; divine right and, 220; in England, 220–223; enlightened despotism and, 260; European expansion and, 226; in France, 217–220; in Holy Roman Empire, 223; in Middle Ages, 212; in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 212 Mondrian, Piet, 411 Montenegro, 545–546 Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secondat), 251–252, 256, 261, 320 Montgomery, Bernard L., 512 More, Sir Thomas, 195 Morel, Edward D., 391 Moses (Michelangelo), 193 Motion, 413; laws of, 244 Multiculturalism, 550 Munch, Edvard, 404 Munich Conference, 500 Munich Pact, 500 Municipal Corporations Act (1835), 302 Muslim immigration, 549–550 Muslims: anti-Semitism and, 550–551; in Spain, 213, 214; terrorism and, 552–557 See also Islam Mussolini, Benito, 407, 451, 457, 466, 468–470, 513 The Myth of the State (Cassirer), 488 Nagasaki, 514 Napoleon Bonaparte: background and career of, 283–285; career chronology, 283; enlightened despotism and, 284–285; in exile, 288, 289; fall of, 287–289; France and, 285–287; legal, educational, and financial policies of, 285 Napoleon III, Emperor of France, 341–342, 344, 373 National Assembly (France), 274, 276–277, 320 National Convention (France), 279 National Life from the Standpoint of Science (Pearson), 354 National Socialist German Worker’s Party See Nazis National states, emergence of, 211–213 ❖ I-9 Nationalism, 368; in Austria, 345–347; Chinese, 389; chronology of surge of, 330; emergence of modern, 322–323; French Revolution and, 280, 291, 322; German, 322–323, 335, 340, 344, 379–381; in Japan, 390–391; liberalism and, 323, 378; nineteenth century, 321–323; racial, 378–384, 395; revolutions of 1848 and, 340; Romantic Movement and, 314–315, 322–323; World War I and, 423–426 Nationalist Association (Italy), 378 Native Americans, infectious diseases and, 228 The Natural History of Religion (Hume), 249 Natural rights, 251, 259, 277, 320, 414–415 Natural selection, 352–353 Naturalism, 350–351 Nature: ancient ideas of, 240; new views of, 240–244; romanticism and, 313–314 Navigation Acts, 232 Navy, German, 427 Nazis: anti-Semitism of, 474, 497; Christianity and, 476; culture of, 478; exploitation and terror by, 506–507; Fascism and, 466; Hitler and, 473; Holocaust and, 507–509, 516; ideology and policies of, 475–480; impact of, 515; intellectuals and, 488; Jews and, 476–477; mass support for, 479–480; Nietzche and, 401; propaganda of, 474–475, 477–478, 497; resistance to, 509–510; rise of, 473, 475; social Darwinism and, 355; World War II and, 501–506 See also Hitler, Adolf Nazi-Soviet Pact, 501 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 385 The Netherlands: commercial development in, 232; Spanish involvement in, 216 Neurosis, 403 New Deal, 481 New Economic Policy (NEP), 459 New Model Army, 222 New World: discovery of, 225, 227–228; overseas expansion and, 235; slavery in, 228–229, 235; Spanish empire in, 228 Newgate Prison, 257 Newton, Isaac, 242, 244–245, 248 Newtonian physics, 244, 412, 413 Nicholas I of Russia, 332, 338, 377 Nicholas II of Russia, 378, 444, 458 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 487 Nietzche, Friedrich, 398–401, 415, 416–417, 448, 491 The Night (Beckmann), 485, 486 Night of the Broken Glass, 477 Nihilism, 399–400, 490–491 1984 (Orwell), 488 Ninety-five Theses (Luther), 199 Nivelle, Robert, 437 Nixon, Richard M., 525–526 Nobility See Aristocracy North Korea, 525, 558 Northern Africa, World War II and, 512 Northern Ireland, 529, 547 Obama, Barack, 557 O’Connor, Feargus, 302 October Days (French Revolution), 276 Old Regime (France), 269–272, 277 Omaha Beachhead (Historical Division U.S war Department), 517 On Crimes and Punishments (Beccaria), 255–256 On Liberty (Mill), 359 On Painting (Alberti), 193 I-10 ❖ Index On the Mind (Helvetius), 255 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (Copernicus), 241 Open Door policy, 389 Open-field system, 230 Opium War, 388 Optics, 245 Orange Free State, 393 Oration on the Dignity of Man (Pico), 190 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 528 Origin of Species (Darwin), 353 Original sin, 254, 405 Ortega y Gasset, José, 487–488 Orwell, George, 484, 488 Otto I, 223 Ottoman Empire, World War I and, 437 Overman, 400 Overseas exploration, 225–226 Owen, Robert, 306–307 Paine, Thomas, 250, 256 Pakistan, 388, 554, 558 Palace of Versailles, 219 Panama Canal, 305 Pan-German Association, 381 Pan-German League, 395, 473 Pankhurst, Christabel, 373 Pankhurst, Emmeline, 373 Pankhurst, Sylvia, 373 Pan-Serbian policy, 431 Pan-Slavism, 377 Papacy: France and, 217; the Protestant Reformation and, 196–205 See also Catholic Church Papen, Franz von, 475 Pareto, Vilfredo, 407, 415 Paris Commune, 374 Parliament: Charles I and, 222; electoral reform and, 301–302; English monarchy and, 222–223 Parliament Act of 1911, 372 Pascal, Blaise, 247 Paulus, Friedrich, 512 Peace of Augsburg, 200 Peace of Paris, 441–442 Peace of Westphalia, 216 Pearl Harbor, 510 Pearson, Karl, 354 Peasant Festival (Teniers the Younger), 234 Peasants, in France, 271 Peasants’ Revolt, 200 Perestroika, 535, 536 Perry, Matthew C., 389, 390 Peru, Spanish conquest of, 228 Pessimism, after World War I, 482–483 Petition of Right, 222 Petrarch, 189–190 Phalansteries, 306 Philip II, King of Spain, 216, 228 Philosophes: criticism of, 262; humanitarianism of, 255–257; liberalism and, 320; romanticism and, 311–313, 314; views of, 248–250, 254–256, 258, 260–261, 405 Philosophy: existentialist, 488–490; modern predicament and, 490–491 Physics: experimental, 241; modern, 411–414; Newtonian, 244, 412, 413; quantum, 412–413 Picart, Bernard, 249 Picasso, Pablo, 410, 411, 486, 498 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 190 Pillars of Society (Ibsen), 351 Pius IX, Pope, 338, 339 Pius XI, Pope, 470 Pizarro, Francisco, 228 Planck, Max, 412 Planetary motion, laws of, 243–244 Plato, 240 Plea for the Citizenship of Women (Condorcet), 256 Poetry, romanticism and, 313 Pogroms, 382, 459, 477 Poincaré, Raymond, 471–472 Pol Pot, 527 Poland, 340, 441, 442; after 1989, 544; collapse of communism in, 536; German invasion of, 501–502; Hitler and, 501; resistance in, during World War II, 510; resistance to Soviets un, 534; Solidarity in, 534, 536; Soviet domination of, 534 Political thought, in Enlightenment, 250–253 PrisPope Leo X with Two Cardinals (Raphael), 194 Popular Front (France), 481–482 Popular Front (Spain), 480 Population, world, 557 Portraiture, 187 Portugal, authoritarianism in, 480 Portuguese Empire, 226–227 Positivism, 351–352, 491 Potatoes, 235 Poverty, 300–301, 304, 557–558 Power, balance of, 212–213 Power loom, 296 Praise of Folly (Erasmus), 195 Presbyterians, 222 Price revolution, 229, 234 Primogeniture, 235 The Prince (Machiavelli), 191 Princip, Gavrilo, 428 Private enterprise, 234 Privy Council, 221 Progress, idea of, 258–259, 261 Proletariat, 357–358 See also Working class Propaganda: Fascist, 470; Nazi, 474–475, 477–478, 497 The Proportions of Man (Leonardo da Vinci), 192 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Weber), 207 Protestant Reformation: background of, 196–197; Calvinism and, 201; and Catholic Response, 205–206; in England, 203, 221; in France, 202–203; French state and, 217; Hapsburgs and, 215; Holy Roman Empire and, 223; map of spread of, 204; Martin Luther and, 197–200; modern age and, 206–208; radical reformers and, 203–205; spread of, 200–201 Protestantism, 200–205, 217–218 The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 381, 383 Proust, Marcel, 408, 483 Prussia: Congress of Vienna and, 329–330; French Revolution and, 278–279, 289; German unification and, 342–345; Seven Years’ War and, 259 Ptolemy, 239 Public Health Act (1848), 302 Index Public schools, in Britain, 303–304 Pubs, 300 Puritanism, 221, 222, 259 Putin, Vladimir, 541–543 Putting-out system, 232 Pythagoras, 240 Quadruple Alliance, 331 Quantum theory, 412413 Rabelais, Franỗois, 195 Racial nationalism, 395; anti-Semitism and, 381–384; Hitler and, 473–474; rise of, 378–384; Volklish thought and, 380–381 Racism: social Darwinism and, 354; Volkish thought and, 380–381 adioactivity, 412 Railroads, 297, 298, 368, 378 Raphael Santi, 186, 188, 193 Rationalism, 262, 311, 398, 407–408, 487–488, 491 Reagan, Ronald, 536 Realism, 350–351 Realpolitik, 341 Reconquest, 213, 226 Red Army, 458–459 Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke), 318 Reform Bill of 1832 (Britain), 302, 371 Reform Bill of 1867 (Britain), 371 Reform Bill of 1884 (Britain), 371 Reformation See Protestant Reformation Reign of Terror (France), 262, 280–282 Relativity, theory of, 413 Religion: communism and, 460; in England, 221; French state and, 217–218; role of in European expansion, 226; search for natural, 249–250; in Soviet Union, 464 Religious beliefs, romanticism and, 313–314 Religious persecution, 255 Remarque, Erich Maria, 484 Renaissance: architecture in, 193; art in, 187, 191–194; humanism in, 189–190; Italy and, 186–187; literature in, 194–196; modern age and, 196; origin of term, 186; outlook of, 187– 189; overview of, 185–186; political thought and, 190–191; Scientific Revolution and, 240; spread of, 194–196; women in, 187 Republic of Virtue (France), 280–282, 292 The Revolt of the Masses (Ortega), 487–488 Revolutionary mentality, 291 Revolutions: between 1820-1829, 330–332; between 1830-1832, 332–333; bourgeois, 273–274; Enlightenment thought and, 259–260; socialist, 358–359 Revolutions of 1848: assessment of, 339–340; in Austria, 337–338; in France, 333–335; in Germany, 335, 337; in Italy, 338–339 Rhineland, remilitarization of, 498–499 Rhodesia, 393 Ricardo, David, 305 Richelieu, Cardinal, 218 Risorgimento, 341 Ritchie, D G., 360 The Rite of Spring (Stravinsky), 409 The Road to Wigan Pier (Orwell), 484 Romanov dynasty, 445 Robespierre, 262 Robespierre, Maximilien, 280–282, 291, 292 ❖ I-11 Roentgen, William Konrad, 412 Roland, Paladin, 226 Roman Catholic Church See Catholic Church Roman Empire: See also Rome Roman Republic: See also Rome Romania: anti-Semitism in, 381–382; collapse of communism in, 539 Romanians, 340 Romanticism: cultural orientation of, 311–315; exalting imagination and feelings and, 311–313; impact of, 314–315; nationalism and, 314–315, 322–323; nature, God, history and, 313–314 Rome: and the Renaissance, 186 See also Roman Empire; Roman Republic Rommel, Erwin, 512 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 481 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 253–256, 313 Row houses, 299 Rule of law, 252–253 Rushdie, Salman, 550 Russia: anti-Semitism in, 382; Bolshevik revolution in, 437; Bosnia and, 427; Chechnya and, 541–542; Congress of Vienna and, 330; Decembrist uprising in, 377; emancipation of serfs in, 377; Lenin and the rise of Bolshevism, 446–448; Napoleon and, 288; pogroms in, 459; post-communist, 540–543; revolution of 1825 in, 332; revolution of 1905 in, 378; in second-half on nineteenth century, 376–378; Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and, 437, 443, 448; tsarist autocracy in, 376–378; War Communism and, 459; war with Japan, 390; World War I and, 428–429, 431–432, 433, 437, 443–445, 458–459 See also Soviet Union Russian Revolution of 1917, 437, 448; as inspiration, 461; overview of, 443–445; provisional government and, 445–446 Russo-Japanese War, 427 Saakashvili, Mikhail, 542, 543 Saar Basin, 442 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, 202, 218 Saint Helena, 289 Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine de, 291 Saint-Simon, Henri Comte de, 305, 306 Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, 480 Samurai, 389 Sans-culottes, 278, 281, 283 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 548 Sartre, Jean Paul, 489 Schlieffen, Alfred von, 433 Schmalkaldic League, 223 Schöenberg, Arnold, 409 Scholasticism, 190 Schönerer, Georg von, 382, 473 The School of Athens (Raphael), 188 Schröder, Gerhard, 548 Schweitzer, Albert, 482 Science: laws of, 315–316; modern physics and, 411–414; Scripture and, 243 Scientific method, 245–246 Scientific Revolution: Bacon and, 245; chronology of, 240; Copernicus and, 240–241; Descartes and, 245–246; Galileo and, 241–243; Kepler and, 243–244; meaning of, 246–248; new view of nature during, 240–244; Newton and, 244–245; Renaissance and, 240; transformation of medieval view by, 239 I-12 ❖ Index Scientific uncertainty, 315 The Scream (Munch), 404 Second Battle of the Marne, 438 Second Estate (France), 269–270 Second French Revolution, 277–283 Second Industrial Revolution, 368–369 Secularization of society, 290, 291 Seko, Mobutu Sese, 527 Self-determination, 442 Self-interest, 304 Separation of powers, 252, 261 Sepoy Mutiny, 385, 386 September 11, 2001, 552–553 Serbia, 427, 428; after 1989, 544, 545; World War I and, 429, 431 Serbs, 338, 424, 426, 427, 544 Serfdom: enlightened despotism and, 260; in France, 271; in Russia, 377 Servants, 300 Settlement of 1867, 347 Seven Weeks’ War, 343 Seven Years’ War, 259 Shakespeare, William, 195–196 Shelly, Percy Bysshe, 362 Shipping, 297, 368 Ships: Dutch, 232; gunned, 226 Sicily, 529 Siemens, William, 297 Sieyés, Abbé, 274 Silver, in New World, 227–228, 229 Sinn Fein, 547 Sino-Japanese War, 388–389 Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (Condorcet), 258 Sketches (Turgenev), 350 Slave trade, 228–229, 236 Slavery, 235; Britain and, 302; cotton gin and, 296; Marxism and, 357; in New World, 228–229; philosophes and, 256, 260 Smith, Adam, 256, 257–258, 260, 304 Smith, William B., 354 The Social Contract (Rousseau), 253 Social Darwinism, 353–355, 384–385, 414, 426 Social Democratic Party (Germany), 375, 376 Social reform, in Great Britain, 371–372 Socialism: early, 305–307; Fourier and, 305–306; growth of, 370– 371; Owen and, 306–307; Saint-Simon and, 305 Socialist parties, rise of, 370–371 Socialist realism, 464 Socialist revolution, 358–359 Society of Jesus (Jesuits), 205 Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (China), 389 Sociology: Montesquieu and, 251–252, Durkheim and, 406–407; Pareto and, 407; Weber and, 407–408 Solidarity (Poland), 534, 536 Sonntag, Louis, Jr., 370 Sorel, Georges, 381, 402 South Africa: Boers in, 393–394; British in, 393–394 South Korea, 525 South Slavs, 426, 428 Sovereignty, concept of, 212 Soviet Union: agriculture in, 462–464; Cold War and, 523–527; collectivization in, 462–464; communism in, 359, 458–465, 486–487; disintegration of, 539–540; Eastern Europe and, 533–535; Five-Year Plans, 461–462; former republics of, 543; German invasion of, 504–506; Gorbachev and, 535–536; gulags in, 463, 465; industrialization in, 460, 461–464; Nazi Germany and, 501; New Economic Policy, 459; one-party dictatorship in, 459–461; post-World War II, 515, 523, 530–533; show trials in, 465; Stalin and, 461–465, 530–531; totalitarianism in, 457–465; War Communism and, 459; World War II and, 512, 514 See also Russia Spain: authoritarianism in, 480; commercial development in, 232–233; Hapsburg, 213–217; Muslims in, 213, 214; Napoleon and, 287–288; Reconquest of, 213; revolution of 1820 in, 331; in sixteenth century, 214–216; Thirty Years’ War and, 216, 225 Spanish Armada, 216, 221 Spanish Civil War, 499–500 Spanish Empire, 227–228 Spanish Inquisition, 214 Spartacists, 471 Spengler, Oswald, 483 Spinning jenny, 296 Spinning mule, 296 Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu), 251–252, 256 Stalin, Joseph, 447, 460; Cold War and, 523, 525; last years of, 530–531; policies of, 461–464; ruthlessness of, 461; terror campaign by, 464–465; totalitarianism of, 464–465; World War II and, 506 Stanley, Henry, 391 The Starry Night (Van Gogh), 410 State building, 367 States: emergence of modern, 211–213; national, 211 Statism, 317 Stauffenberg, Claus von, 510 Steam engine, 297 Steam-powered ships, 368 Steel, 297 Steinbeck, John, 484, 486 Stravinsky, Igor, 409 Stream of consciousness, 409 Stresemann, Gustav, 472 Strindberg, August, 408 Subconscious, 403 The Subjection of Women (Mill), 362 Sub-Saharan Africa, 558 Sudan, 385, 391, 558 Sudetenland, 500 Suez Canal, 305, 391 Suffragists, 361–362, 372–373 Suicide (Durkheim), 406 Suicide bombings, 555 Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen), 385, 389 Superman, 400 Surrealism, 485 The Survivors (Kollwitz), 449 “The Tables Turned” (Wordsworth), 313 Taff Vale decision, 371, 372 Taiping Rebellion, 388 Taiwan, 390 Taliban, 552–554 Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, 328 Index Tanganyika, 385 Taylor, A J P/, 450 Taylor, Harriet, 362 Technological advances: in cotton industry, 296; industrialization and, 296–297; in second-half on nineteenth century, 368 Telescope and Galileo, 241 Tenements, 371 Terrorism: Chechen, 541–542; by Muslim fundamentalists, 552–557; September 11, 2001 and, 552–553 Tetzel, John, 198–199 Thatcher, Margaret, 528–529, 547 Theology, 247–248 Theory of relativity, 413 Thermidoreans, 283 Thiers, Adolphe, 374 Third Estate (France), 270–271, 274 Third French Republic, 374 Third Reich, 476–480 See also Germany; Nazis; World War II Third Section, 377 Thirty Years’ War, 216, 218, 225 Thodes, Cecil, 393 Thompson, William, 362 Thomson, J.J., 412 Tillich, Paul, 487 Tocqueveille, Alexis de, 334, 347 Tolstoy, Leo, 350 TruthTorture, 255–256, 260 Total war, 291 Totalitarianism, 406–407, 456–457; in Communist Russia, 458–465; in Germany, 475–480; in Italy, 468–470; nature of, 457–458 See also Authoritarianism; Fascism Trade: with Asia, 226–227; by Dutch, 232; expansion of, 226, 231–233 Trade unions See Labor unions Transatlantic slave trade, 228–229 Transportation, advances in, 297 Trans-Siberian Railroad, 378 Transvaal, 393 The Treason of the Intellectuals (Benda), 487 Treatise of Human Nature (Hume), 315 Treaty of Augsburg, 223 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 437, 443, 448 Treaty of Nanking, 388 Treaty of Versailles, 441–442, 443, 497, 498 Treaty of Westphalia, 225 Treitschke, Heinrich von, 423 Trench warfare, 433, 435 The Trial (Kafka), 483 Triple Alliance, 426 Trotsky, Leon, 447, 459, 460, 465 Trotskyites, 458 Truman, Harry S., 514 Truman Doctrine, 523 Tsarist autocracy, 376–378 Tucci, Cardinal, 550 Tudors, 220–221 Tunisia, 385 Turgenev, Ivan, 350 Turkmenistan, 543 Two Treatises of Government (Locke), 251 Tzara, Tristan, 484 Tzu-hsi, Empress of China, 389 ❖ I-13 U-boats, 438 Ukraine: famine in, 462–463; pogroms in, 382; post-Cold War, 543; Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and, 448 Ulbricht, Walter, 535 Ulster Volunteers, 373 Unconscious, 313, 403, 409 Unions See Labor unions United East India Company, 232 United States: Cold War and, 523–527; Enlightenment tradition and, 261; Great Depression in, 480–481; invasion of Iraq by, 547; Iraq War and, 556–557; post-World War II, 515, 523; Revolutionary War and, 259; September 11, 2001 and, 552–553; slavery in, 229; Vietnam War and, 525–527; war on terror and, 552–557; World War I and, 438; World War II and, 510, 512 Universe: Galileo’s view of, 241–243; heliocentric theory of, 240– 241; laws of planetary motion and, 243–244; medieval view of, 239, 246–247; modern physics and, 411–414; modern view of, 247; Newtonian physics and, 244 University of France, 285 Urban laborers, in France, 271 Urbanization: acceleration in, 369–370; industrialization and, 298 U.S Constitution, 261, 320 Utopia (More), 195 Utopianism, 291 Uzbekistan, 543 Valéry, Paul, 482 Valla, Lorenzo, 190 van Eyck, Jan, 194 Van Gogh, Vincent, 410 Verdun, 436 Versailles, 219, 276 Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, 469 Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont, 342 Victoria, Queen of England, 373 Vietnam War, 525–527 Vindication of the Rights of Women (Wollstonecraft), 257 Volkgeist, 322 Volkish thought, 380–383 Voltaire, 250, 252–253, 254, 255, 256, 258–259 Voting rights: in Britain, 302, 372–373; nineteenth century, 321; for women, 372–373 Wages, iron law of, 305 Walesa, Lech, 534, 536 War and Peace (Tolstoy), 350 War Communism, 459 War of Liberation (1813), 288–289 War of the Roses, 220 Warsaw Pact, 532, 534, 536 Washington, George, 259 The Waste Land (Eliot), 482 Water frame spinning machine, 296 Watt, James, 297 Wealth of Nations (Smith), 257–258, 260 Weapons, advances in, 451 Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), 556 Weber, Max, 207, 407–408 Weimar Republic, 470–472 Wellesley, Arthur, 288 Wellington, duke of, 288, 289 I-14 ❖ Index West Africa: Portuguese in, 226; slave trade and, 228–229 West Germany, 530 Western Europe, post-World War II, 528–530 Western expansion: chronology of, 369; motives for, 225–226 White collar workers, 370 White Crucifixion (Chagall), 486 Whitney, Eli, 296 For Whom the Bell Tolls (Hemingway), 484 The Will to Power (Nietzche), 416–417 William I of Prussia, 343, 344, 345, 375 William II, Kaiser, 426–427 William IV, King of England, 302 William of Orange, 222–223 Wilson, Edmund, 486 Wilson, Woodrow, 438, 439, 441, 443 Windischgrätz, Alfred zu, 338 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 257 Wolter, Jan, 550 Woman’s Suffrage Movement, 362 Women: philosophes and, 256–257; in the Renaissance, 187 Women’s movements, emergence of, 361–362 Wordsworth, William, 313 Working class: capitalism and, 357–358; German, 376; industrialization and, 299–301; living conditions of, 371; socialist parties and, 370–371; standard of living for, 368 Working conditions, in factories, 300–301, 302 World economy, emergence of, 225 World Islamic Front, 558 World War I: American entry into, 438; assassination of Francis Ferdinand and, 428; Balkan Wars and, 427; Bosnian crisis and, 427; casualties of, 437, 449–450; as celebration, 432–433; chronology of, 424; collapse of central powers in, 438–439; disillusionment following, 450; Eastern front in, 437–438; European consciousness and, 448–451; events and issues preceding, 423; fall of France and, 502–503; German alliances and, 426–427; German support for Austria and, 428–429; Holocaust and, 507–509, 516; impact of, 448–451; imperialism and, 394; last offensive in, 438–439; map of, 434; nationalist tensions in Austria-Hungary and, 423–426; peace negotiations following, 439–444; pessimism following, 482–483; reparations for, 442; responsibility for, 429–432; settlement following, 441–442; stalemate in West and, 433–437; as total war, 451; trench warfare in, 433, 435; Triple Entente and, 427–428; underlying conditions for, 415; veterans of, 450–451 World War II: appeasement policies and, 497–498; Battle of Britain and, 503–504; casualties of, 514; defeat of Axis Powers in, 512–514; events leading to, 497–501; exploitation and terror during, 506–507; Hitler and, 496–505; Holocaust and, 507– 509; invasion of Poland and, 501–502; invasion of Russia and, 504–506; Japan and, 510–512, 513–514; legacy of, 514–516, 522–523; maps pertaining to, 504, 511; resistance during, 509–510; responsibility for, 497 World-view: Christian, 487; of Hitler, 473–475; medieval, 246–247; philosophes’, 261–262 Wycliffe, John, 197 Yeats, William Butler, 414 Yeltsin, Boris, 539, 540–541 Young Hegelians, 318 Yugoslavia, 442, 510, 539, 544 Zaire, 527 Zarqawi, Abu Musab al, 555 Zhivkov, Tedor, 539 Zhongshan Sun (Sun Yat-Sen), 385 Zhukov, Georgi, 512 Zimbabwe, 393 Zola, Émile, 351, 374 Zollverein, 343 Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life (Darwin), 352 ... and western Austria, and the Apennine range in Italy Also included are the mountain ranges of the Balkan Peninsula, the Carpathian Mountains in Slovakia, Poland, and Romania, and the Caucasus... foreshadowing of Christianity and was essentially in harmony with it (Stanza della segnaturna, Vatican Palace, Vatican State/Art Resource, N.Y.) monastic withdrawal and asceticism and of the scholastics’... Spain); the Apennine (Italy); the Balkan (Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and parts of the former Yugoslavia and Turkey); the Scandinavian (Norway and Sweden); and Jutland (Denmark) Ireland and the United