THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS This edition is dedicated to the memory of Professor Alan Bryman (1947-2017) H undreds of thousands of students across six continents have been fortunate enough to learn from Alan’s publications Few contemporary UK academics have had such a profound effect on learning At Oxford University Press we are incredibly proud of Alan’s significant achievements over the many years we worked with him We thank him for everything he has done for research methods as a discipline, and for his tireless dedication to the pursuit of shining the light of understanding into the dark corners of students’ minds It was a real pleasure to work with him BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS Fifth Edition Emma Bell Alan Bryman Bill Harley 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Bell, Bryman and Harley 2019 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Second Edition 2007 Third Edition 2011 Fourth Edition 2015 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949231 ISBN 978–0–19–254590–9 Printed in Italy by L.E.G.O S.p.A Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work BRIEF CONTENTS PARTONE THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The nature and process of business research Business research strategies Research designs Planning a research project and developing research questions Getting started: reviewing the literature Ethics in business research Writing up business research PARTTWO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 17 44 75 89 109 137 161 8 The nature of quantitative research Sampling in quantitative research 10 Structured interviewing 11 Self-completion questionnaires 12 Asking questions 13 Quantitative research using naturally occurring data 14 Secondary analysis and official statistics 15 Quantitative data analysis 16 Using IBM SPSS statistics 163 185 207 231 252 272 294 310 333 PARTTHREE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 17 The nature of qualitative research 18 Sampling in qualitative research 19 Ethnography and participant observation 20 Interviewing in qualitative research 21 Focus groups 22 Language in qualitative research 23 Documents as sources of data 24 Qualitative data analysis 25 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis: using NVivo PARTFOUR MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and qualitative research 353 355 388 403 433 462 482 499 517 538 555 557 568 DETAILED CONTENTS Abbreviations xxvii About the authors About the students and supervisors xxviii xxx Guided tour of textbook features xxxii Guided tour of the online resources xxxiv About the book xxxvi Acknowledgements xlii Editorial Advisory Panel xliii PARTONE THE RESEARCH PROCESS Chapter 1 The nature and process of business research 3 Introduction 4 What is ‘business research’? Why business research? Business research methods in context Relevance to practice The process of business research Literature review Concepts and theories Research questions Sampling 11 Data collection 11 Data analysis 12 Writing up 12 The messiness of business research 13 Key points 15 Questions for review 15 Chapter Business research strategies 17 Introduction: the nature of business research Theory and research What is theory? Deductive and inductive logics of inquiry Philosophical assumptions in business research Ontological considerations Objectivism Constructionism Epistemological considerations A natural science epistemology: positivism Interpretivism Research paradigms 18 19 19 20 25 26 26 27 29 30 30 34 viii Detailed contents Developing a research strategy: quantitative or qualitative? Other considerations Values Practicalities Key points Questions for review Chapter 35 37 37 39 42 42 Research designs 44 Introduction 45 Quality criteria in business research 46 Reliability 46 Replicability 46 Validity 46 Research designs 48 Experimental design 48 Cross-sectional design 58 Longitudinal design 61 Case study design 63 Comparative design 68 Level of analysis 71 Bringing research strategy and research design together 72 Key points 73 Questions for review 73 Chapter 4 Planning a research project and developing research questions 75 Introduction 76 Getting to know what is expected of you by your university 76 Thinking about your research area 76 Using your supervisor 77 Managing time and resources 79 Developing suitable research questions 80 Criteria for evaluating research questions 85 Writing your research proposal 86 Checklist 87 Key points 88 Questions for review 88 Chapter Getting started: reviewing the literature 89 Introduction 90 Reviewing the literature and engaging with what others have written 91 Reading critically 92 Systematic review 92 Narrative review 97 Searching databases 98 Online databases 98 Keywords and defining search parameters 100 Making progress 102 Referencing 103 The role of the bibliography 104 628 Name index Sidani, S. 13 Silverman, D. 356, 357, 360–1, 458–9, 540, 563, 579 Simon, H A. 226 Sin, C H. 122, 123 Singh, G. 133 Singh, R P. 228 Sinkovics, R. 540 Skov, A M. 407–8 Smart, P. 93, 94, 95 Smeaton, D. 68 Smith, C B. 203 Smith, M. 379 Smyth, D. 236 Snyder, N. 279 Snyderman, B B. 201, 222 Sonenshein, S. 175 Spender, J. 448 Spicer, A. 407, 415 Spinath, F M. 180 Spradley, J P. 211, 437 Sprokkereef, A. 539, 540 Sprouse, M. 40 Sreedhari, D D. 297 Stacey, J. 419–20 Stake, R E. 63, 64, 65 Stanley, L. 540 Starkey, K. 6, Steenkamp, J.-B E M. 227 Stefani, L. 105 Stentz, J E. 572t, 582 Stephens, M. 280, 458, 566, 579 Steudel, H J. 575–6 Stewart, A J. 384 Stewart, F. 451–2, 473, 476 Stewart, K. 132, 474 Stewart, R. 246, 247, 578, 581 Stiles, D R. 224, 225, 575 Stiles, P. 583 Stockdale, A. 449 Stokes, D. 72t, 223, 469 Strathern, M. 429 Strauss, A L. 23, 27–8, 29, 358, 391–3, 394, 418, 521, 522, 523, 525, 528, 529–30, 560 Streiner, D L. 13 Suddaby, R. 24–5 Sudman, S. 217, 238, 259, 465 Sutton, R I. 584 Sweet, C. 474, 476 Symon, G. 133 T Tadajewski, M. 473, 477, 478–9 Tashakkori, A. 571 Taylor, S. 4, 5, 19 Taylor, S J. 32 Teddlie, C. 391, 571 Temple, B. 540 Thomas, R. 28 Thompson, P. 27, 295, 488, 489, 534, 559 Thorne, B. 122 Thorpe, R. 14, 19, 212, 439 Tight, M. 66 Tonelli, M J. 357, 405, 414 Tonge, J. 225 Townsend, K. 13 Tracy, S J. 23, 72t Tranfield, D. 6, 7, 93, 94, 95, 96 Trau, R N C. 242 Traugott, M W. 204 Trethewey, A. 384 Treviño, L K. 393, 394, 399, 442 Tripp, T M. 576 Truss, C. 580–1 Tsang, E. 559 Tse, A C B. 203, 245, 476 Tuhiwai Smith, L. 385 Turner, B A. 503, 504, 511, 522 Tyler, M. 471, 477 Tysome, T. 128 U Urban, A.-M. 416 Urry, J. 558 Usunier, J C. 69 Uy, M A. 249, 250 V Vaara, E. 490, 491 Van de Ven, A H. 368 van de Voorde, K. 266 Van Dijk, T A. 488 Van Maanen, J. 55, 111, 407, 411, 414, 426, 427, 428, 564 Van Selm, M. 242 van Veldhoven, M. 266, 267 Vaughan, D. 18, 63, 510–11 Venkatraman, N. 45 Venter, E. 395, 396 Vidaver-Cohen, D. 296 Vince, R. 281 Vincent, S. 559 W Waddington, K. 249, 250 Wagner, D T. 250 Wakefield, K. 452 Walker, J. 105 Wall, T D. 57 Walsh, D. 29 Walters, P. 69 Ward, B. 245 Warner, L S. 385 Warren, C. 420 Warren, C A B. 397 Warren, S. 129, 130, 369, 370, 501, 508 Wasko, J. 69 Watson, T. 83–4, 84f, 375, 407, 408, 412, 418, 420, 427, 430, 488 Wax, M L. 126 Weaver, A. 539 Webb, A. 438 Webb, E J. 227, 307, 308, 364, 574, 575 Weber, M. 22, 31, 32, 182, 366 Wei, Z. 305 Weick, K E. 490 Weinholtz, D. 583 Weinmann, T. 452 Weitzman, E A. 539 Welch, C. 235 Welsh, C. 64 Wengraf, T. 454 Westwood, R. 385 Westwood, S. 419 Wetherell, M. 483, 486, 487 White, H. 513 White, M. 68 White, P. Whitler, K. 54 Whittington, R. 20–1, 67 Whittle, A. 493 Whyte, W F. 434, 437 Wieder, D L. 246 Wilhite, A W. 134 Wilkins, A L. 70 Wilkinson, S. 465, 468, 472, 476, 477 Willems, T. 367, 405, 417 Williams, E A. 48, 575 Williams, M. 132, 398, 474 Willman, P. 436, 446 Willmott, H. 518 Wilson, F. 52, 383 Wittgenstein, L. 32 Wolcott, H F. 93, 145, 147, 406 Wolfe, E W. 242 Woodward, J. 53 Woolgar, S. 151, 429, 510 Wray Bliss, E. 123, 126 Wright, A L. X Xian, H. 450 Xie, J. 178 Y Yang, K. 200 Yasai-Ardekani, M. 180 Yauch, C A. 575–6 Yi, L. 235 Yin, R K. 63, 64, 65, 66, 70, 390 Yu, F. 391 Z Zamanou, S. 574–5, 578 Zhang, C. 203 Zhang, Z. 407, 415 Zimbardo, P. 53, 110, 112, 113, 114, 118 Zimmerman, D H. 246 Zinkhan, G M. 132 Zundel, M. 500–1, 502 SUBJECT INDEX Note: Tables and figures are indicated by an italic t and f following the page number A abductive reasoning 24 ABI/INFORM database 98, 99 abstract of dissertation 144 academic journals 90–1, 132–3 academic libraries 99 academic writing 138–40 Academy of Management (AOM) Code of Ethics (2005) 110, 114, 115, 134 Academy of Management Journal 575 access and ethnography 407–13 complete participant 410 finding a working role in the organization 408–9 gaining access through family or friends 407 instrumental access 412 key informants 413 ongoing access 411–13 overt vs covert roles 410–11 relational access 412 transactional access 412 acknowledgements in dissertation 144 acquiescence 227 action research 6, 38, 365, 379–81, 381f, 382f adjacency pairs 494 Administrative Science Quarterly 48, 575 admiration repertoire 487 affiliation and conflicts of interest 127–8 Affluent Worker research 534, 560 aide-mémoire 211, 246, 436 Amadeus 100 Amazon Mechanical Turk 203 analysis, level of 71 groups 71 individuals 71 organizations 71 societies 71 analytic induction 559 anecdotalism 540, 566 Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (ASHE) 298t anonymity 115–18, 126, 418, 535 online research 130, 132 self-completion questionnaires 245 virtual ethnography 425 visual research methods 129 answers, fixed-choice 181, 217 anti-obesity bias 47, 49–50 anti-realism 483–4, 488, 489 anything goes 111 appendices 146 archival data 307, 575 archival proxies and meta-analysis 304–5 arithmetic mean 194, 320, 343 ascendant paradigm 34 Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR) 130 Association of Qualitative Market Research Practitioners 465 Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) 133 Aston studies 52, 53, 72t, 180 asynchronous mode 451, 452, 473, 474 attached email surveys 240 attitude scales 562 see also Likert scales auditing approach 12, 365 Australian Data Archive 267, 302 Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council/Universities Australia Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research (2007) 110 Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (AWIRS) 295 authenticity 290, 363, 365 documents as sources of data 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506 author’s biography 39 autobiographies 502, 503 auto-ethnography 115 average leadership style approach 71 B bar chart 319, 319f, 320, 342, 342f behaviour vs meaning 562 bias 37–8, 93 anti-obesity 47, 49–50 documents as sources of data 502, 504 gender 10, 30 response 227 sampling in quantitative research 188, 189, 200 self-completion questionnaires 233, 235 social desirability 50, 227–8, 233, 264 structured interviewing 227 bibliographic software 104 bibliography 104 big data 13 biographical accounts 39 biographical approach 63 bivariate analysis 321–5, 322f contingency tables 322–3, 322t Cramér’s V 325 dichotomous method 322f interval/ratio method 322f means and eta comparison 325, 325t nominal method 322f ordinal method 322f Pearson’s r 323–4 phi coefficient 325 relationship, different types of 323 relationships, not causality 322–3 scatter diagrams 323, 324f, 324 Spearman’s rho 324–5 subgroup means, comparison of 325t blogs 423, 500, 501 body language 443, 451 Boolean searches 551 boxplots 320–1, 321f, 343 British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) 68, 297 British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey 298t, 302 British Sociological Association (BSA) Language and the BSA: Sex and Gender 142–3 business information 100–1 Business Register and Employment Survey (BRES) 298t business research, definition Business Source Premier/Complete database 99 C case studies 72t, 84, 575, 621 multiple 70 see also case study design case study design 11, 63–8, 72t alternative approaches 64 collective 64 critical 65–6 definition 63–4 descriptive 66 exploratory 66 instrumental 64 as intensive analysis 66–7 intrinsic 64 longitudinal 65, 67–8 multiple 67 of a person 63 positivistic approaches 63, 64 630 Subject index case study design (Cont.) reliability 64–5 replicability 64–5 representative or typical 66 revelatory 66 single event 63 single location 63 single organization 63 types of case 65–6 unique 66 validity 64–5 case-to-case transfer 398 category/categories 522, 523, 524, 528, 529 core 522 causal explanation 31 causality 52, 53, 177 internal validity 46–7 longitudinal design 62–3 census 188 central tendency, measures of 320 see also median Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) Ethics Guide (2015) 110 chatrooms 131 chi-square 325, 328–30, 343–4 chronology record 275 citation see referencing work claimant count (unemployment levels) 306 code 12, 512 code-and-retrieve process 539, 540 codes of conduct 463 codes of ethics 110, 115, 126 coding 12, 166–7, 530–4, 565 a closed question 254–5 context, loss of 533 critique 533–4 drag and drop function 545, 547f ethnographic 530 fragmentation of data 531–3 frame 210, 254 interpreting and theorizing data 534 manuals 285, 286–8, 287f, 290 open 522, 523, 528 an open question 253–4 schedule 254, 285, 286, 286f, 288f scheme 274, 275, 285, 288–90 steps and considerations 531 structured interviewing 210 see also coding in computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo; content analysis; grounded theory coding in computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo 542–50 Coding Query dialog box 550f coding stripes 549f, 549–50 in vivo 552 stages in importing documents 542, 542f see also nodes in computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo coefficient 173 of determination 324 coercive citation 134 Cohen’s kappa 278 coherence, intertextual 93 cohort study 62–3 collaborative enquiry/research 364 column percentages 322 commercial publishers 90 comparative design 68–71, 72t cross-cultural approaches 68–70 intercultural approaches 69 international research 69 and panel studies 71 comparison, logic of 58 competitive context 46 computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) 214–15 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis 530 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) 376, 533 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo 79, 538–54 Find Content dialog box 551f memos 552–3 opening an existing NVivo project 553 opening screen 541, 541f quantitative data analysis software, comparison with 539–41 saving an NVivo project 553 searching text 549f, 550–2 see also coding in computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo; nodes in computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) 214–15 concepts 8–9, 14t, 167–72, 369, 522, 524, 526, 529 first-order 536 multiple-indicator (multiple-item) measures 169–70, 172, 175, 227, 317 second-order 536 single-indicator measures 171–2 conclusion 13, 83, 145, 154, 360 conduct of research, influences on evidential factors 38 historical factors 38 organizational factors 38 personal factors 38 political factors 38 see also ethical issues conferencing software 474 confessional tales 426–7 confidence interval 194–5 confidentiality 115, 116–18, 506 agreements 117 online research 130, 132 qualitative data analysis 535 self-completion questionnaires 235, 245 visual research methods 129 confirmability 48, 363, 365 conflicts of interest and affiliation 127–8 conscious partiality 39 consent 535 form (sample study) 122 see also informed consent consequences, magnitude of 46 consistency 175, 278 Consortium for European Social Science Data Archives 302 constant 47 constructionism 26, 27–9, 156, 455, 510, 529–30, 558, 560, 561 discourse analysis (DA) 484 qualitative research 356 constructs 21, 175 construct validity see measurement validity contact record 275 contact summary sheet 563 content analysis 11, 58, 253, 280–91, 506, 561, 565 advantages 290 coding 285–90 inter-coder reliability in text messaging study 289–90 manual 285, 286–8, 287f schedule 285, 286, 286f, 288f, 288 schemes: potential pitfalls 288–90 communication 281 computer-aided 284 of courage and managerial decision making 283 definition 281 disadvantages 290–1 dispositions 284 efficiency and improvement 285 ethnographic 281 images 284–5 latent content 280, 284 manifest content 284 objectivity 280 qualitative 72t, 506, 511–12 quantitative research 169 rater bias avoidance in a coding scheme 280 research questions 281–2 sampling 282 dates sampling 282 media sampling 282 semiotics 281 significant actors (counting) 283 subjects and themes (counting) 284 of Swedish job advertisements 291 systematic 280 words (counting) 283–4 contents list 144 context 367–8, 533 Subject index contingency table 322–3, 322t, 325, 327t, 343–4, 348t with three variables 346–7 contingency theory 19 contingent repertoire 151 control group 50, 51 convergent parallel design 573–4, 573f conversation analysis (CA) 357, 493–6, 559 adjacency pairs 494 analysis is grounded in data 494 attention to detail 494 context 493 definition 493 indexicality 493 intersubjective understandings 494–5 linked phases 494–5 naturalism 493 pauses and emphases 494 reflexivity 493 talk is forged contextually 494 talk is structured 494 turn-taking rules 494 copyright 125–6 visual research methods 129, 130 corporate social responsibility 169–70 correlation 172, 173, 330, 344, 349t country institutional profile 22 covering letters/emails 235 covert research 110, 111, 112, 119, 121 online 132 crafting research 83, 84f Cramér’s V 325, 330, 343–4 Creative Club 100 Creative Commons licences 125 creative non-fiction 430 credibility 48, 290, 363–5 documents as sources of data 500, 502, 503, 504, 505 criterion 174 critical case 65–6 critical discourse analysis 488–9 critical incident technique 33, 222–3, 438 critical reading skills 92 critical realism 30, 489, 559, 560 Cronbach’s alpha 173, 176, 179 cross-cultural research 68–70, 299, 300 cross-national research 68 cross-sectional designs 58–61, 63, 64, 67, 70, 72t, 166 causality 177 data rectangle 61, 61f definition 59 ecological validity 59, 61 external validity 59 generalization 178 internal validity 59 measurement validity 59 multiple cases 58 non-manipulable variables 61 patterns of association 58–9 quantitative or quantifiable data 58 reliability 59 replicability 59, 61 and research strategy 61 at a single point in time 58 structure 61 survey research 59, 60 validity 59 D data, archival 307, 575 data analysis 12, 14t, 167 see also data analysis with SPSS; qualitative data analysis data analysis with SPSS 341–7 arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation, range, and boxplots 343, 344t bar chart 342, 342f Bivariate Correlations dialog box 349f Chart Builder 342, 342–3f, 350f chi-square 343–4 contingency table 343–4, 346–7, 348t Cramér’s V 343–4 Crosstabs Cell Display sub-dialog box 346f dialog box 343–4, 345f Statistics sub-dialog box 347f Frequencies dialog box 341, 341f, 342 frequency table 341–2, 341f histogram 343 means and eta comparison 346 Means dialog box 351f Output Viewer with Frequency table 341f Pearson’s r 344 pie chart 342–3, 343f Properties box 342, 343f scatter diagrams 345–6, 350f Spearman’s rho 344 data archives, accessing 302–4 database searches 98–101 learning from others 103 online databases 98–100 data capture 307 data collection 11–12, 14t, 245–6 error 202 methods 307, 379 data entry, self-completion questionnaires 245 data extraction 536 data fragmentation 531–3, 540 data management 124–5 data processing 210 error 202, 254 data rectangle 61, 61f data reduction 12 data saturation 393 datasets, hierarchical 301 data sources 307 Datastream 100 deception, preventing 123–4 decontextualizing data 476, 540 Dedoose 520 deductive approach/deductivism 8, 20–5, 21f, 30, 33, 35, 64, 67, 97, 167 definitive concepts 361 degrees of freedom 330 dependability 48, 363, 365 description and emphasis on context 367–8 diagrams 319–20, 319f see also scatter diagrams dialogical struggle 488 dialogic form of writing 429 diaries 58, 500–1, 502 see also diaries as form of selfcompletion questionnaire diaries as form of self-completion questionnaire 245–50 advantages 247–8 aide-mémoire 246 data collection 245–6 definition 246 diary study of emotional labour in a call centre 249 diary study of managers and their jobs 247 diary study of work-related gossip 249, 250f disadvantages 248 document, diary as 246 experience and event sampling 248–50 free-text 246–7 researcher-driven 245, 246 structured 246 time-use 246 diary-interview 246 DICTION 6.0 program 284 digital recording 417, 440–1, 450 dimensions (factor analysis) 33 direct quotation 140 discourse analysis (DA) 29, 483–9, 561 admiration repertoire 487 anti-realism 483–4, 488 codification resistance 486 constructionism 484 contextual understanding 486 definition 484 existing material, use of 486 features 484–6 as a form of action 484 idealization repertoire 487 interpretative repertoires and detailed procedures 486–8 not just speech 484–6 quantification rhetoric 487 sensitivity to what is unsaid 486 discriminatory language, avoidance of 142–3 discursive practice dimension 489 discussion 13, 145, 149–50, 153–4 discussion groups, online 130–2 dispersion, measures of 320–1 see also range (measures of dispersion) dispositions 284 631 632 Subject index documents as sources of data 499–516 authenticity 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506 autobiographies 502, 503 biases 502 confidential or potential sensitive documents 506 credibility 500, 502, 503, 504, 505 diaries 500–1, 502 ethical issues 506 interpretation 511–14 historical analysis (historiography) 512–14 qualitative content analysis 511–12 semiotics 512, 513 inter-textuality 510 letters 501–2 meaning 500, 504, 505 media outputs 506–7 online diaries (‘workblogs’) 500, 501 ontological status 510 organizational documents 504–6 personal documents 500–3 photographs 507–9 public documents 503–4 qualitative content analysis 506 reality of documents (documentary reality) 510 representativeness 500, 502, 504, 505, 506, 507 textual approach 510–11 visual documents 507–9 drop-off and collect approach 232 E EBSCO 99 Business Source Premier/Complete database 99 ecological fallacy 306 ecological validity 48 case study design 64–5 cross-sectional design 59, 61 experience sampling 250 quantitative research 172, 181 structured interviewing 209 Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) 534 Framework for Research Ethics (2015) 110, 118–19, 128 electric-shock experiments (Milgram) 112–13 elements, grounded theory 523, 524f email surveys 240 attached 240 comparison of modes of survey administration 243–4t, 244–5 embedded 240 embedded design 573f, 574 embedded email surveys 240 embedded methods argument 569–70 emergence (critical discourse analysis) 489 emergent-spontaneous approach 40–1 emerging hypotheses testing 524 emotional labour 36, 249, 361–2 emotion work theory (Hochschild) 36 empiricism 20, 151, 559 naive 20 end-justifies-the-means defence 111 EndNote 103, 104 Ephemera 90 epistemology/epistemological approach 5, 25, 29–33, 35, 40, 558, 559, 561–2 abductive reasoning 24 discourse analysis 483 and interpretivism 30–3 interviewing in qualitative research 438 mixed methods approach 570 and positivism 30 qualitative research 356, 367 and realism 31 e-research: internet research methods 99–100, 101 advantages and disadvantages 473–4, 475–6 asynchronous mode 451, 452, 473, 474 blogs 423 ethics 130–2, 131t focus groups 473–6 Google Scholar 101, 134 ‘lurking’ 132, 422, 424 netiquette 203, 236 netnography 422–3, 583 online interviews 451–2 qualitative research 451–2 search engines 99–100 Skype 452–3 synchronous mode 451, 452, 473, 474 virtual ethnography 421–5 webcam 452–3 see also computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI); computer-assisted qualitative data analysis; computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS); computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo; computerassisted telephone interviewing (CATI); online social surveys error 201f, 202 data collection 202 data processing 202, 254 non-sampling 188, 202 reduction due to interviewer variability 208–9 sampling 202 structured interviewing 210, 217, 220 Type I and Type II 328, 329f see also standard error of the mean eta and means comparison 325, 325t, 346 ethical and legal considerations 124–8 affiliation and conflicts of interest 127–8 copyright 125–6 data management 124–5 ESRC Framework for Research Ethics 126, 128 friends as respondents 127 funding controversy in university business school 128 reciprocity and trust 126–7 ethical issues 6, 39, 109–36, 506 anonymity 115–18 anything goes 111 choice, lack of 111 codes of ethics 110, 115 confidentiality 115, 116–18 confidentiality agreements 117 covert observation 110, 111 deception prevention 123–4 electric-shock experiments (Milgram) 112–13 end justifies the means, the 111 ethnography and participant observation 410–11, 418 fieldwork dilemma (example) 124 harm avoidance 114–18 harm to non-participants 114 importance 112–13 informed consent 114, 115, 118–23 interviewing in qualitative research 438, 443 and methods choice 38 obedience to authority studies 112–13 online research 130–2, 131t pervasiveness of ethical transgression 111 prison studies (Zimbardo) 112–13 privacy 123, 129 qualitative research 535 safety in research 115 secondary analysis 301 situation ethics (principled relativism) 111, 112 student research project 116, 118 universalism 111 university ethics form (sample) 120 virtual ethnography 424–5 visual methods 129–30 see also ethical and legal considerations ethics committees 113, 119, 122, 128 ethnographic content analysis see qualitative content analysis ethnography mainstream ethnography frame 154 virtual 132, 421–5 visual 425–6 ethnography and participant observation 357, 403–32 completion of ethnographic fieldwork 418 definitions 404 feminist ethnography 419–20 field notes 416–17 global and multisite ethnography 420–1 micro-ethnography 406 see also access and ethnography; ethnography/ethnographic methods; roles for ethnographers; writing up ethnography Subject index ethnography/ethnographic methods 72t, 73, 121, 281, 559, 561, 563 mixed methods research 581, 583 qualitative research 368, 369, 383, 384–5, 458 sampling in qualitative research 396, 399–400 ethnomethodology 493, 495 ethnostatistics 564 Eurobarometer 298t Europa 100 European Community Studies 298t European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) 298t evaluation research 57, 381 event sampling 248–50 evidence-based management 6–7 evidential factors and methods choice 38 experience sampling 248–50 experiential authority 426–8 experiment 49, 72t field 49–50 laboratory 49, 53–4 natural 54 experimental design 48–58, 64, 72t arrangements, reactive effects of 52 causality, establishing direction of 53 classic 51, 51f and validity 51–3 comparison, logic of 58 evaluation research 57 evaluation study of role redesign 57 experimenter effect 51, 55 field experiment 49–50 group 51 Hawthorne effect 55 laboratory experiment 49, 53–4 manipulation 49 quasi-experiment 54–7 significance 58 treatment 51 experimental group 51 explanatory sequential design 573f, 574 exploratory sequential design 573f, 574 external validity 47, 48, 52, 53, 61, 64–5, 66, 178 cross-sectional design 59 qualitative research 362, 363 sampling in quantitative research 202 F Facebook 119–20, 203, 501 facial expression 474 facilitators see mode rators factor analysis 33, 182, 183, 534 feedback 142 feedback loop 167 feminism/feminist research ethnography 419–20 focus groups 476, 478 interviewing in qualitative research 455–7 qualitative research 381–4 ‘reading with’ 92 field experiment 49–50 field notes 416–17 full 417 jotted (scratch) 417 mental 417 ‘file drawer problem 305 film 129 Financial Times 133 findings 83, 153, 167, 360 first-order analysis 528 flash card see show card flexibility 369 interviewing in qualitative research 448 focus groups 23, 72t, 211, 383, 434, 462–81, 563 asking questions 470–1, 471f beginning and finishing 471–2 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis 540 conformity 479 criticisms 465 decontextualization avoidance 476 definition 463 disagreement/differences of opinion 472 discussion 464 as emancipatory method 476–7 interaction in sessions 472–3 interview 464 limitations 478–9 moderator (or facilitator) 463, 464, 465, 466, 468–72, 473, 474, 475, 476, 478 natural groups 470 naturalism 476 number of groups 466–8 online 464, 466, 473–6 participant selection 470 recording and transcription 455, 465–6, 478 size of groups 468 stratifying criteria 467, 470 trade union representation of disabled employees 467 uses 464–5 fragmentation of data 531–3, 540 framing tools 492 frequency tables 318–19, 318–19t, 341–2, 341f F statistic 330 functionalism 34, 561 funding and sponsorship sources 127, 128 future criterion 174–5 G Gantt chart 79–80, 80f gap filling 576–8 gap spotting 82 gender bias in attitudes towards leaders 10, 30 General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR), EU 125 generalizability/generalization 52 analytic 398 case study design 65 comparative design 70 cross-sectional design 178 focus groups 465 limits 201–2 longitudinal design 178 mixed methods research 579, 580 moderatum 398 qualitative research 374–5, 389 from random sample to population 194–5, 194f sampling 187–8, 194–5, 198, 202, 389 structured observation 276 General Market Information Database (GMID) 100 General Social Survey (GSS) 297 generational differences of researchers 540 Global Disney Audiences Project 69 goals of study 148–9 ‘going native’ (over-identification) 414 Google AdWords 203 Google Scholar 101, 134 grand challenges grand/middle-range theory distinction 19 grounded theory 23, 521–30, 559, 560 category/categories 522, 523, 524, 528, 529 coding 521, 522, 523, 524, 528 axial 523, 526 different levels 533 open 526 selective 523 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis 530 concept(s) 522, 524, 526, 529 constant comparison 522 constructionist/constructivist theory (constructionism) 529–30 core processes 530 criticisms 525–30 documents as sources of data 503 elements 523, 524f emerging hypotheses testing 524 first- and second-order analysis 528 formal theory 522, 524, 529 hypotheses 522, 524 indicators 524 interviewing in qualitative research 440, 446 in vivo code 528 iterative approach 521 label 523 memos 524–5, 528–9 objectivist theory 529–30 outcomes 522–4, 525f processes 525f properties 522 recursive approach 521 sampling in qualitative research 391–4 633 634 Subject index grounded theory (Cont.) sociologically constructed codes 528 substantive 522, 524, 529 themes 526 theoretical sampling 524, 529 theoretical saturation 521–2, 524 theory 522, 529 tools 521–2 group control 50, 51 experimental 51 interview, nominal 463 treatment 51 see also focus groups H harm avoidance 111, 114–18, 132 Harvard method of referencing 103, 104 Hawthorne effect 55 Hawthorne studies (Western Electric Company) 21, 32, 47, 72t, 73 hegemony 489 hermeneutics 31, 32 HERMES Corporation 33 histogram 319–20, 319f, 343 historical analysis (historiography) 512–14 genealogical 514 historical factors and methods choice 38 history (experimental design) 51 history and treatment, interaction of 52 honorary authorship 133–4 Human Relations 147 hypothesis 5, 10, 20, 85, 522, 524 hypothesis-testing 559 I IBM 69, 116, 178 ICI 63, 65, 72t, 117, 457, 505 idealization repertoire 487 identity and ethnographic writing 430 idiographic approach 64 Implicit Association Test (IAT) 50 impressionist tales 427 incidents (observing behaviour) 275–6 incommensurable paradigm 34 indexicality 493 indicators 168–70, 524 definition 169 direct 169 indirect 169 indigenous methodologies 385 inductivism/inductive approach 8, 20–5, 30, 33, 35, 64, 67, 97, 167 qualitative data analysis 518 qualitative model, generic 394 qualitative research 356, 369 sampling in qualitative research 394 industry classification systems 193 information sheet (sample study) 121 informed consent 114, 115, 118–23 consent form 122 friends as respondents 127 information sheet 121 online research 130, 131, 132 qualitative interviews 458 INGENTA 99 insider research 409 inter-coder reliability in text messaging study 289–90 intercultural approaches 69 interdependency 56 inter-interviewer variability 209 internal validity 46–7, 48, 51–2, 53, 54–5, 57, 58, 61, 64–5 cross-sectional design 59 qualitative research 363 quantitative research 177, 178 International Network for Visual Studies in Organizations (in Visio) 372 international research 69 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 298t, 299, 300 International Sociological Association (ISA) Code of Ethics (2001) 110, 115, 134 internet 99–100, 101 big data 13 plagiarism 105 see also e-research: internet research methods inter-observer consistency 175, 278 interpretivism/interpretative approach 24, 30–3, 34, 36, 97, 558, 560, 561 discourse analysis 486–8 qualitative research 356, 366, 367 inter-rater reliability 288, 289 inter-rater variability 210 intersubjective understandings 494–5 inter-textuality 489, 510 interval/ratio variables 317t, 317, 318f, 318–19, 320, 322f, 323, 325 interviewers: ethnicity, gender, and social background 226–7, 233 interviewing computer-assisted personal 214–15 computer-assisted telephone 214–15 confessional 563 focused 211 group 212 see also focus groups guide 211 in-depth 211 informal 406 intensive (ethnographic) 211 life history 211 oral history 211 schedule 78 standardized 209 see also interviewing in qualitative research; semi-structured interviewing; structured interviewing; unstructured interviewing interviewing in qualitative research 211, 359, 360, 433–61 advantages 457–8 constructionism 455 conversational 436 criteria of successful interviewer 441 critical incident technique 438 digital audio recording and speech-recognition software 450 direct quotations: conventions 447 disadvantages 458–9 feminist 455–7 first time 442 flexibility 448 group/focus groups 434 intensive 434–5 interview guide 439–41, 443–5 learning interview techniques 438, 443 life history/life story (biographical) format 434, 454–5 location of interview 440 longitudinal 458 online 451–2 oral history format 436, 454–5 photo-interviewing 439 recording 445–50 retrospective 457 safety of interviewer 451, 453 Skype 452–3 telephone interviewing 451 transcription 444, 445–50 translation of interview data 450 types of questions 441–3 see also semi-structured interviewing; structured interviewing; unstructured interviewing intra-coder reliability 289 intra-interviewer variability 209 intra-observer consistency 278 intra-rater reliability 288, 289 intra-rater variability 210 introduction 13, 144, 148, 152–3 Investext 100 Iowa school 32 issue framing 46 items (statements) 220 iterative approach 23, 393, 521 J Job Characteristic Model 178 Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) 171, 178 Journal of Management 575 Journal of Mixed Methods Research 571 Journal of Organizational Behavior 572t journals 99 academic 90–1, 132–3 K kappa statistic 278 key informants 176, 413 keywords 100–1 Subject index L laboratory experiment 49, 53–4 Labour Force Survey (LFS) 297, 298t, 300, 302, 304 language in qualitative research 482–98 conversation analysis 493–6 discourse analysis 483–9 narrative analysis 489–91 rhetorical analysis 491–3 layout (self-completion questionnaires) 236, 237 leadership average leadership style approach 71 charismatic 182 distributed 67 studies 71 Leadership Quarterly 571, 572t least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale 257 legal considerations see ethics and legal considerations letters 501–2 libraries 99 life history approach/life stories 63, 73, 369, 434, 454–5, 489, 534, 559–60 Likert scales 170, 183, 220, 238–9, 562 quantitative data analysis 317 response formats 258 Likert-style items 260 liminal periods 357–8, 359 linguistic turn 429 listening 442–3 literature review academic journal 90–1 approaches 91 critical reading skills 92 database searches 98101 and development of research questions 92 making progress 102–3 narrative review 97–8 note-taking 92 plagiarism avoidance 105–7 qualitative research, articles based on 93 reasons for writing 98 referencing 103–4 steps 102f and supervisor involvement 94, 96, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104 systematic review 7, 92–8 longitudinal research 61–3, 65, 66, 67–8, 178, 297, 300 lottery as survey incentive 236 ‘lurking’ 132, 422, 424 M mail record 275 managerialism 7 manipulation (experimental design) 49 Market Research Society (MRS) Code of Conduct (2014) 114, 115 Research and Development Committee 197 Maslach Burnout Inventory 178, 179–80 maturation (experimental design) 51 mean, arithmetic 194, 320, 343 meaning vs behaviour 562 connotative 512 denotative 512 documents as sources of data 500, 504, 505 problem of 228–9 means and eta comparison 325, 325t, 346 means and statistical significance comparison 330 measurement error in asking questions 254 by fiat 181 quantitative research 168, 176–7 measurement validity 46, 48, 52, 61, 64–5, 174–5 cross-sectional design 59 structured observation 278–9 measures, definition 169 median 320, 321f, 343 media outputs 506–7 memos 524–5, 528–9, 552–3 messiness of business research 13–15 meta-analysis 94, 304–5 definition 305 meta-ethnography 94, 535–6 meta-narratives 429 metaphor 133–4f, 138, 151, 492–3 root 82 methods 149, 153 Microsoft Word 540 microstoria 490 middle-range theory 19, 20, 25 Mintel 100 missing data 245 mixed methods research 36, 37, 73, 568–87 convergent parallel design 573–4, 573f embedded design 573f, 574 embedded methods argument 569–70 explanatory sequential design 573f, 574 exploratory sequential design 573f, 574 gap filling 576–8 generality 579 interpretation of relationship between variables 579–81 netnography and online surveys 583 outcomes of research 583–4 paradigm argument 570 philosophical version of debate 570 priority decision 571–3, 572f, 572t puzzle solving 583–4 qualitative research facilitates quantitative research 576, 577 quality issues 585–6 quantitative research facilitates qualitative research 576, 577 research issues and participants’ perspectives 579 635 rise of 571 sequence decision 571–3, 572f, 572t static and processual features 578 studying different aspects of a phenomenon (macro and micro levels) 581–3 technical version of debate 570 triangulation 574–6 mode 320 mode and mode research moderated relationship 326–7 moderators 445, 463, 464, 465, 466, 468–72, 473, 474, 475, 476, 478 monetary incentives 236 Motivating Potential Score (MPS) 171 multi-strategy research 569 multivariate analysis 302, 326–7 contingency table 327t intervening variable 326 moderated relationship 326–7 spurious relationship 326, 326f N narrative analysis 97, 454, 489–91, 513, 533 narrative flow 540 narrative review 97–8 narrative turn 429 National Organizations Survey (NOS) 297 National Society for Quality through Teamwork 70 natural experiment 54 naturalism 48, 273, 356, 368, 451, 458, 493, 563 focus groups 465, 476 naturally occurring data see quantitative research using naturally occurring data natural science model 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 558–60 nature of business research 18–19 naysaying effect 227 neo-positivism 559 netiquette 130, 203, 236 netnography 422–3, 583 newsgroups, online 130–2 newspapers 99, 100 nodes in NVivo 542–52 in coding process 545–9 Collaborative Organisations project 543 definition 543 free node 543, 551 hierarchically organized nodes 543, 544–5, 546f non-hierarchically organized nodes 543, 544, 545f single node, search for occurrences of 549f, 550–1 tree node 543 two nodes, search for intersection of 550f, 551 workspace 544f 636 Subject index nomothetic approach 64 non-academic institutions 99 non-directive interviewing see unstructured interviewing non-observational methods 415 non-probability sampling 183, 188, 197–201, 389 convenience sampling 197–9 error, sources of in social survey research 201f quota sampling 198–201 non-response 189, 196–7, 203 normal distribution 194 note-taking 92 null hypothesis 328, 329, 330 NVivo see computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo O obedience to authority studies 112–13 obesity discrimination 47, 49–50 objective reality 26, 27, 29, 35, 426 objectivism 26–7 objectivist approach 34, 35, 36, 529–30, 560 objectivity 29, 30, 48, 280 observation contrived 307 non-participant 406 schedule 274, 275 simple 307 unstructured 275, 279 see also participant observation; structured observation Office for National Statistics (ONS) 302 official statistics 58, 306–8 ecological fallacy 306, 308 as form of unobtrusive measure 308 reliability and validity 308 Omnibus Survey 302 online databases 98–100 online diaries (‘workblogs’) 500, 501 online interviews 451–2 online social surveys 240–2, 583 comparison of modes of survey administration 242, 243–4t, 244–5 email surveys 240 response rates, improvement of 235–7 sampling issues 202–4 website-based surveys 241–2 ontology/ontological considerations 5, 25, 26–9, 35, 40, 356, 510, 558, 561–2 constructionism 27–9 discourse analysis 483 interviewing in qualitative research 438 objectivism 26–7 open questions 245 operational definition (concept measurement) 168 operationalization 164, 489 opportunism 40 oral histories 211, 436, 454–5 Organizational Culture Inventory 576 Organizational Culture Scale (OCS) 578 organizational developments 82 organizational documents 504–6 organizational factors and methods choice 38 organizational narratives 490 organizational politics 38 organizational post mortem research 503–4 organizational problems 82 outliers 320, 321f P panel conditioning effect 63 panel study 62–3, 68, 71 paradigm 7, 34 argument 570 ascendant 34 incommensurable 34 radical humanist 34 participant observation 11, 36, 84, 558, 563 interviewing in qualitative research 438 mixed methods research 578 vs qualitative interviewing 457, 458, 459 see also ethnography and participant observation participatory organizational research 380 Passport GMID 100 pathos 492 patterns of association 58–9 Pearson’s r 323–4, 330, 344 perceived social consensus 46 performativity 12 periodicals 99 personal documents 500–3 personal factors and methods choice 38 personal interest/experience 81 personal values 37–9, 40 phenomenalism 30, 167 phenomenology 31–2, 367 phi coefficient 325, 330 philosophy of social science 25–6 photo-elicitation 223–5, 370, 372 photographs 507–9 copyright 130 ethics 129–30 photo-interviewing 439 physical traces (observation) 307 pictorial methods 223–5 pie chart 319, 319f piloting 289 plagiarism 134 avoidance 105–7 definition 105 planned-systematic approach 40 planning a project and research questions development 75–88 criteria for evaluation of questions 85 development of research questions 84, 85 expectations of university 76 finding a research area 83 Gantt chart 79–80, 80f importance of planning 86 reasons for embarking on projects 77 research area 76 steps in question selection 82f supervisors, working relationships with 77–8, 79, 85, 86, 87 time and resource management 76–7, 79–80 ‘what, why, and how’ framework for crafting questions 84f writing research proposal 86 planning a social survey 186f political context 132–4 ‘exotic creature’ metaphor 133f ‘great wild beast’ metaphor 134f and methods choice 38 polysemy 512 population 11, 61, 188 heterogeneity 197 Population Census (UK) 298t positivism/positivistic approach 7, 20, 32, 33, 35, 97, 133, 167, 365, 366, 558–9 case study design 63, 64 natural science epistemology 30 postal questionnaires 232, 233, 234, 235–7 comparison of modes of survey administration 242, 243–4t, 244–5 post-coding see content analysis postcolonial and indigenous research 384–5 postmodernism/postmodernist approach 27, 28, 156, 428, 429, 559 practical considerations 37, 37f, 39–41 precision 195–6 pre-coding 254 pre-testing 52 preunderstanding of the setting 38 primary data 12 principled relativism 111 prison studies (Zimbardo) 112–13, 118 privacy 123, 129 probability sampling 276, 389 generalizing from random sample to population 194–5, 194f industry classification systems 193 internet research methods 203 multi-stage cluster sampling 192–3 qualitative research 389 qualities 193–5 quantitative data analysis 327, 328 quantitative research 177–8, 183, 188, 189, 191–5, 196, 200, 201, 202 Subject index and sample size 196 simple random sampling 191 stratified random sampling 192 systematic sampling 191–2 probing 219–20, 445 problematization 82, 93 process of business research 8–13, 14t, 368–9 concepts and theories 8–9, 14t data analysis 12, 14t data collection 11–12, 14t literature review 5, 8, 13, 14t research questions 9–11, 14t sampling 11, 14t writing up 12–13, 14t Procite 103 professional associations 90, 110 professional self-interest 123 projective methods, pictorial methods, and photo-elicitation 223–5 prompting 220–1, 445 proofreading 146 properties (in categories) 522 pseudonyms 116, 117 public documents 503–4 publishers 90, 99 purposive sampling 389, 391–7, 399, 400 approaches 390 a priori 394, 400 definition 389 fixed 391, 394 generic 394–5 stratified 390, 393 puzzles 82, 583–4 Q Qualidata 534–5 qualitative and quantitative research combined see mixed methods research qualitative content analysis 72t, 281, 506, 511–12 qualitative data analysis 12, 517–37 coding 530–4 grounded theory 521–30 inductive research strategy 518 meta-ethnography 535–6 quasi-experiment 56 secondary analysis 534–6 thematic analysis 519–20 see also computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) using NVivo qualitative interviewing 357 qualitative research 23, 35–7, 39, 40, 72–3, 355–87 articles based on 93 authenticity 363, 365 case study design 63, 64, 65, 66 collection of further data (step 5b) 360, 361 collection of relevant data (step 3) 358 comparative design 68, 70 concepts and theory grounded in data 369 conceptual and theoretical work (step 5) 358–9 confirmability 363, 365 credibility 363–5 critique 374–5 cross-sectional design 61 definitive concepts 361 dependability 363, 365 description and emphasis on context 367–8 emotional labour 361–2 ethics 115, 116–17, 118, 122 online research 132 ethnography/participant observation 357 experimental design 57 flexibility and limited structure 369 generalization 374–5 general research questions (step 1) 357–8 interpretation of data (step 4) 358 interviewing see interviewing in qualitative research language see language in qualitative research main steps 357–60, 358f naturalism 356, 368, 451, 458 online focus groups 473–6 online personal interviews 451–2 politics 133 practice-based learning 367 process 368–9 and quantitative research contrasts between 376–7, 377t similarities between 378–9 reciprocity 126 reliability 362–6 replication 374 research questions 357–8, 359–60 development 80–1, 85 respondent (member) validation 363–4 sampling see sampling in qualitative research seeing through the eyes of those being studied 366–7 selection of relevant site(s) and subjects (step 2) 358 sensitizing concepts 361 Skype interviews 452–3 strategy 72t structured interviewing 209 subjectivity 374 systematic review 94, 96, 97 theory and research 357, 360–1 tighter specification of research question(s) (step 5a) 359–60, 361 transferability 363, 365 transparency 375 triangulation 364–5 trustworthiness 363, 365 validity 48, 362–6 visual research 369–74 writing up see writing up qualitative research see also quantitative/qualitative divide; researcher–participant relationships quality criteria 5–6, 46–8 naturalism 48 reliability 46 replication 46 validity 46–8 variables (definition) 47 quality issues 585–6 Quality of Work and Life in Changing Europe project 166 quantification rhetoric 487 quantitative and qualitative research combined see mixed methods research quantitative data analysis 12, 310–32 bivariate analysis 321–5 missing data 313, 316 multivariate analysis 326–7 quasi-experiment 56 questionnaire, completed and processed 312–13 small research project 311–16 software, and computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS), comparison with 539–41 statistical significance 327–30 survey data 314–16 univariate analysis 318–21 variable, types of 316–17, 317t, 318f quantitative/qualitative divide 557–67 artificial vs natural contrast 563 behaviour vs meaning 562 epistemological and ontological considerations 561–2 natural science model and qualitative research 558–60 numbers vs words distinction 562–3 qualitative analysis of quantitative data 565–6 quantification in qualitative research 565–6 anecdotalism: combating through limited quantification 566 quasi-quantification in qualitative research 566 thematic analysis 565 quantitative analysis of qualitative data 565 quantitative research and constructionism 561 quantitative research and interpretivism 560 reciprocal analysis 564–5 theory tested in research vs emergent from data 562 637 638 Subject index quantitative research 35–7, 39–40, 72–3, 163–84 case study design 63, 64, 65, 66 causality 177 classic experimental design and validity 52 comparative design 68, 70 concepts 167–72 criticism 181 critique 180–1 cross-sectional design 61 ethics 115–16 experimental design 58 factor analysis 183 feminism 383 generalization 177–8 indicators 168–70 and interpretivism 560 measurement 168, 176–7 multiple-indicator measures 169–70, 172 politics 133 processes/main steps 164–7, 165f and qualitative research contrasts between 376–7, 377t similarities between 378–9 reciprocity 126 reliability 172–3, 175, 176, 182–3 replication 178–80 research questions development 80, 85 reverse operationism 182 selection of research sites and sampling respondents: Quality of Work and Life in Changing Europe project 166 specification of dimensions of a concept: job characteristics 171 strategy 72t structured interviewing 209 systematic review 96 validity 48, 167, 174–5, 176, 179–80, 182–3 validity testing 182–3 through replication: burnout 179–80 see also quantitative research using naturally occurring data; sampling in quantitative research; writing up quantitative research quantitative research using naturally occurring data 272–93 see also content analysis; structured observation quasi-experimental research 50, 54–7, 73 quasi-quantification 563, 566 question banks 267 questionnaires 4, 22, 187, 561 comparative design 113 completed and processed 312–13 cross-sectional design 58, 59, 60 postal 232, 233, 234, 235–7 comparison of modes of survey administration 242, 243–4t, 244–5 see also self-completion questionnaires questions in qualitative interviewing catch-all (doorknob) 443 direct 441–2, 444 follow-up 441 indirect 442 interpreting 442 introducing 441 probing 441 silence 442 specifying 441 structuring 442 questions in surveys 252–71 about attitudes 256 about beliefs 256 closed 209, 210, 253, 254–6 advantages 254–5 disadvantages 255–6 processing 254–5 common mistakes 261–2 double-barrelled 259 existing questions, use of 265–8 factual about others 256 filter 214, 215, 217, 218 fixed-choice 209, 210 help in designing questions 268 informant factual 256 about knowledge 256 matching questions and answers 260 about normative standards and values 256 open 210, 253–4, 261 advantages 253 coding 253–4 disadvantages 253–4 personal factual 256 piloting and pre-testing questions 265 pre-coded 209, 210 questionnaire designed by another researcher, use of 267 response formats for scales 257 rules for design of questions 258–63 closed questions, matching questions and answers in 260 general rules of thumb 258 specific rules 258–63 scales developed by other researchers, use of 266–7 types of 256–7 vignette 263–5 yes/no 262 quota sampling 197, 198–201 quotations 153, 154 R radical humanist paradigm 34 radical structuralist humanist paradigm 34 random assignment 50 random selection 177 range (measures of dispersion) 320, 343 ranking systems 133 rapport 216, 256 rater bias avoidance in a coding scheme 280 ‘Rate Your Boss’ survey (United States) 10 reactive effect 50, 55, 111, 279, 458, 485 reactivity 307, 308, 414 realism/realist approach 29, 30, 31, 427, 428, 558, 559 empirical 31 ethnography and participant observations 425, 426–8 experimental 54 mundane 54 qualitative research 363, 365 see also critical realism realist tales 426–8 reciprocal analysis 564–5 reciprocal translation analysis 536 reciprocity 126–7, 419, 420 recontextualization 489 recording 79, 417, 440–1, 445–50, 465–6 continuous 276 recursive approach 521 referencing work 103–4, 146 bibliographic software 104 bibliography 103, 104 Harvard method 103, 104 note or numeric method 103–4 secondary 104 reflexivity/reflexive approach 28, 39, 153, 156, 493 direct quotations 140 ethnography and participant observation 425, 427 regulatory assumptions 34 relationships negative 323 non-spurious 326 positive 323 spurious 326, 326f see also researcher–participant relationships relevance of business research 6–8 reliability 46, 48 asking questions 266 case study design 64–5 comparative design 70 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis 539 Cronbach’s alpha 173 cross-sectional design 59 definition 172 external, in qualitative research 362 focus groups 465 inter-coder 289–90 internal 172, 173, 176, 362–3 inter-rater 172, 173, 288, 289 interviewing 435 intra-coder 289 intra-rater 288, 289 longitudinal design 62 official statistics 308 qualitative research 362–6 Subject index quantitative research 167, 168, 172–3, 175, 176, 182–3, 435 split-half 173 stability 172–3, 175 structured observation 278, 279 reminders (self-completion questionnaires) 236 repetition (thematic analysis) 519 replicability 53 case study design 64–5 comparative design 70 cross-sectional design 59, 61 replication 46 longitudinal design 62 qualitative research 374 quantitative research 178–80 and validity testing 179–80 representation (constructionism) 561 representativeness 66, 177–8 content analysis 290 documents as sources of data 500, 502, 504, 505, 506, 507 focus groups 465 sampling in qualitative research 400–1 reputation 104 Reputation Institute, RepTrak® survey 296 research designs 44–74, 85, 86 analysis, level of 71 comparative 68–71, 72t longitudinal 61–3, 65, 72t and research strategy 72–3, 73t see also case study design; cross-sectional designs; experimental design; quality criteria researcher–participant relationships 379– 85 action research 379–81 feminism 381–4 postcolonial and indigenous research 384–5 research issues and participants’ perspectives 579 research literature 82 see also literature review research questions 9–11, 14t, 80–6, 82f, 84f, 378 content analysis 281–2 criteria for evaluation of questions 85 development and literature review 92 development of 85 qualitative research 357–8, 359–60 quantitative research 169 writing up 141, 144, 145 research strategy 35, 61 development 35–7 Respect project 125 respondent (member) validation 363–4 response bias 227 response formats for Likert scales 257 binary response 257 bipolar numerical response 257 frequency 257 numerical response 257 verbal 257 response rates 197 online surveys 203–4 personal vs telephone interviews 213 self-completion questionnaires 235–7, 245 response sets 227–8 acquiescence 227 identification of in Likert scale 239 social desirability bias 227–8 results 13, 144–5, 149 retroduction 560 Reuters Business Insight 100 revelatory case 66 reverse operationism 182 rhetoric 81, 138, 487, 488, 491 statistics as 564 rhetorical analysis 491–3 charismatic leadership 491–3 metaphor 492–3 pathos 492 rhetorical strategy 151 role congruity theory 10, 148 role duality 38 roles for ethnographers 413–16, 413f, 415t active/passive participation 414–15 apprentice role 415t arriving phase 415–16 complete observer 413f, 414 complete participant 413, 413f, 414 confidant role 415t consultant role 415t ‘going native’ (over-identification) 414 leaving phase 416 observer-as-participant 413f, 414 participant-as-observer 413–14, 413f shadowing 415–16 Rorschach inkblot test 224 S safety in research 115, 451, 453 salience (self-completion questionnaires) 236 sampling 11, 14t, 22 ad libitum 277 behaviour 277 cluster 192–3, 195 content analysis 282 convenience 197–9 error 194, 195, 196, 327 event and experience 248–50 focal 277 fraction 191 internet 11 online social surveys 202–4 quantitative research 183 quota 197, 198–201 random 66, 189, 192, 200 representative 11, 47, 48, 62, 177–8, 187–9 scan 277 simple 191, 192 size 196 snowball 470 stratified 192, 193, 195 structured observation 276–7 systematic 191–2 theoretical 524, 529 theory 178 time 250, 276 see also sampling in qualitative research; sampling in quantitative research sampling in qualitative research 388–402 a priori 391, 400 contingent 391 criterion 390 critical case 390 ethnographic research 399–400 extreme or deviant case 390 fixed 391 grounded theory 391–4 levels of 390, 391t maximum variation 390 non-sequential 391 opportunistic 390, 396–7 probability 398 quota 389 sampling frame 389 sequential 391 size of sample 397–9 snowball 389, 390, 395–7, 400 statistical 393 stratified 390, 391t, 395 theoretical 389, 390, 391–4, 393f, 396 theoretical saturation 392, 393–4, 399 time and context 399–400 typical case 390 see also probability sampling; purposive sampling sampling in quantitative research 183, 185–206 administration modes of a survey 187f basic terms and concepts 188 bias 188, 189 census 188 error 188, 189–90, 190f, 201f, 202 generalization, limits to 201–2 non-random 189 online surveys 202–4 planning a social survey 186f population 188 representative 187–9 sampling frame 188, 189 size of sample 195–7 absolute and relative 195–6 heterogeneity of population 197 non-response 196–7 response rate 197 time and cost 196 see also non-probability sampling; probability sampling scale 170 see also Likert scales 639 640 Subject index Scandinavian Journal of Management 152 scatter diagrams 323, 324f, 324, 345–6, 350f Scholarly Open Access (Beall’s List) 91 scientific approach Scott coefficient of agreement 278 search engines 99–100 see also Google Scholar search parameters 100–1 secondary analysis 22, 294–309 advantages 296–301 cost and time 296 cross-cultural analysis 300 high-quality data 296–7 longitudinal analysis 297, 300 more time for data analysis 300–1 reanalysis may offer new interpretations 301 subgroup or subset analysis 300 university ethical clearance procedures 301 wider obligations of business researcher 301 age and work-related health: methodological issues using Labour Force Survey 300 archival proxies and metaanalysis 304–5 corporate reputation in three Scandinavian countries 296 corporate social responsibility and performance in East Asia 305 cross-national comparison of work orientations 299 data archives, accessing 302–4 definition 295 ecological fallacy 306 limitations 301–2 complexity of data 301 key variables, absence of 302 lack of familiarity with data 301 no control over data quality 301–2 and primary data combined 297 of qualitative data 534–6 results of a search 303f UK and European datasets, suitability of 298–9t UK Data Service ‘Discover’ Catalogue 303f, 534 unobtrusive measures 307 workplace gender diversity and union density: WERS data 299 secondary data 12 second-order analysis 528 selection (experimental design) 51, 52 self-completion questionnaires 36, 61, 62, 166, 231–51 advantages over structured interview 233–4 comparison of modes of survey administration 242–5, 243–4t design 237–40 clear instructions on how to respond 239–40 clear presentation 237–8 closed questions and answers, vertical/horizontal 238–9 not cramp presentation 237 keep questions and answers together 240 Likert scale, formatting 239 response sets, identification of in Likert scale 239 disadvantages in comparison to structured interview 234–5 email and online surveys 240–2 follow up on questionnaire survey 236 quantitative research 168, 181 response rates to postal questionnaires, improvement of 235–7 sampling in quantitative research 186, 197 and structured interviews, combination of 233 see also diaries as form of selfcompletion questionnaire self-ethnography 409 self-plagiarism 134 semiotics 281, 512, 513 semi-structured interviewing 11, 12, 84, 211, 215, 222, 563 cross-sectional design 61 ethnography and participant observation 406, 414 and flexibility 437 interview guide 436 mixed methods research 575, 578 qualitative research 368, 434, 436, 438, 444, 455, 456 sampling in qualitative research 400 sampling in quantitative research 201 sensitizing 361, 369 sentence completion test 224 setting and treatment, interaction of 52 sexist language, avoidance of 142–3 shadowing 415–16 show card 220–1 sign 512 sign-function 512 signified 512 signifier 512 situation ethics 111, 112 Skype 452–3 small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), competitive position of 19, 21 Social and Community Planning Research 217 social desirability bias 50, 227–8, 233, 264 social entities 27 social phenomena social practice dimension 489 Social Research Association (SRA) Ethical Guidelines (2003) 110, 123 Social Science Japan Data Archive 302 Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) 99 social surveys 191 design see cross-sectional designs see also online social surveys Spearman’s rho 324–5, 330, 344 speech-recognition software 450 sponsorship and funding sources 127, 128 SPSS software 79, 288, 539 quantitative data analysis 311, 313, 319, 320, 321, 322, 325, 327, 330 Release 24: 311, 334 see also SPSS Statistics SPSS Statistics 333–52 Analyze 335 basic operations 334–5 Chart Editor 335 Compute 335 computing a new variable 340f, 340 Data Editor 334, 335, 340 Data Viewer 334, 335–7, 336f, 340 entering data 335–7, 336f getting started 335–40 Graphs 335 Missing Values 334, 337, 337f, 338f Output Viewer 334 printing output 351 Recode 334, 339f, 339 recoding variables 338–40, 339f retrieving data 351 saving data 347 Value Label 334, 337, 338f Variable Label 334 Variable Name 334 variables: variable names, missing values, variable labels, and value labels 337–8, 337–8f Variable Viewer 334, 335, 337, 337f see also data analysis with SPSS stability (reliability) 172–3, 175 stamped addressed envelope 235 standard deviation 320, 343 standard error of the mean 194–5, 200, 328 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) system 193 standardized interviewing see structured interviewing static and processual features 578 statistical significance 327–30 chi-square test 328–30 and correlation 330 definition 328 level of 329 and means comparison 330 Type I and Type II errors 328, 329f statistics 12 see also official statistics; SPSS Statistics; statistical significance storytelling method 138, 140, 490 Strategic Management Journal 571, 572, 572t, 586 strategies 17–43 epistemological considerations 29–33 mixed methods research 36, 37 nature of business research 18–19 ontological considerations 26–9 paradigm 34 philosophical assumptions 25–6 Subject index quantitative vs qualitative research 35–7 research paradigms 34 theory and research 19–25 values and practical considerations 37– 41 stratification 192, 193, 195, 390, 391t, 467, 470 structure, limited 369 structured interviewing 11, 207–30, 438, 439, 440, 456 accuracy and ease of data processing 210 characteristics of interviewers 226–7 comparison of modes of survey administration 243–4t, 244 computer-assisted 214–15 conducting interview 215–26 asking questions 216–17 filter questions 218 instructions, clear 217 introductory statement, topics and issues for inclusion 216 leaving the interview 221 probing 219–20 prompting 220–1 question order 217–19 rapport 216 recording answers 217 scheduling, familiarity with 215 sequence of questions 219 show card 220–1 training and supervision 221–2 contexts of interviewing 212–15 more than one interviewee 212 more than one interviewer 212 critical incident method 222–3 cross-sectional design 58, 59 definition 209 error 208–9 longitudinal design 62 meaning, problem of 228–9 in person or by telephone 212–14 problems 226–9 projective methods, pictorial methods, and photo-elicitation 223–5 and qualitative interview, differences between 435 qualitative research 369 quantitative research 168, 181 response sets 227–8 sampling in quantitative research 186, 187, 197 schedule 166 and self-completion questionnaires combination of 233 comparison of 232–7 variable 208–9 verbal protocol approach 226 structured observation 58, 72t, 166, 273–80 advantages 280 Cohen’s kappa 278 criticisms 279 definition 274 managerial work 274–5 Mintzberg’s categories of basic activities involved in managerial work 274 reactive effect 279 reliability 278, 279 sampling 276–7 of one 277 people 276 in terms of time 276 schedule 168, 275 strategies for observing behaviour 275– validity 278–9 Study of Australian Leadership (SAL) 59, 60, 61, 72t, 168, 193, 233 subgroup or subset analysis 300 subjectivity 34, 374 summary 154 supervisor involvement and support 77–8, 79, 85, 86, 87, 142 literature review 94, 96, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104 Survey Monkey 241 survey research 59, 60, 186 administration modes 187f symbolic interactionism 27, 31, 32, 367 focus groups 465 synchronous mode 451, 452, 473, 474 synthesis method 536 systematic observation see structured observation systematic review 7, 92–8 conducting review 95 context 95 definition 94 intervention 95 mechanisms 95 outcomes 95 reasons for doing a 94–5 reporting and dissemination 96 specifying question and planning review 95 in student research project 96 supervisor, help from 94 T technological implications approach 565 telephone interviewing 451 comparison of modes of survey administration 243–4t, 244 testing (experimental design) 51 test–retest method 172 test room method 72t text dimension 488 texts, discourse analysis 486 textual approach 510–11 thematic analysis 12, 519–20, 565 theme 519 theoretical saturation 392, 393–4, 399, 466–7, 521–2, 524 theory 5, 8–9, 14t, 82, 167 formal 522, 524, 529 generation 66–7 see also grounded theory; theory and research theory and research 19–25, 357, 360–1 connection 35, 64 deductive and inductive logics of inquiry 20–5 distinction 30 empiricism 20 nature of theory 19–20 relationship 5, 33 theory-testing 24, 67, 559, 562 thick descriptions 365, 368 three-dimensional framework 488–9 tick-box approach 122, 123 time and context 399–400 time management 76–7, 79–80 timing (experimental design) 51 title page of dissertation 143 total design method (TDM) 236 total quality management (TQM) 19, 21 training and supervision 221–2 transcription 12, 79, 254, 444, 445–50, 465–6, 467, 478 trans-disciplinarity 7 transferability 48, 363, 365 transient affective states 248 translation 235 transparency 375, 420, 540 treatment and selection, interaction of 52, 53–4 treatment group 51 triangulation 307, 364–5, 574–6 tropes 491 trustworthiness 48, 126–7, 363, 365, 408, 410 Twitter 501 U UK Census 302 UK Data Archive (UKDA) 125, 267, 296, 302–4 UK Data Service 303f Data Open Access Policy 304 ‘Discover’ online catalogue 302, 303f, 534 UK National Centre for Research Methods 129 UK National Statistics 100 Understanding Society 68, 298t unique case 66 United States data archive 302 univariate analysis 318–21 bar chart 319, 319f, 320 boxplot 320–1, 321f central tendency, measures of 320 diagrams 319–20, 319f, 319f dispersion, measures of 320–1 frequency tables 318–19, 318–19t histogram 319–20, 319f pie chart 319, 319f universalism 111 unobtrusive measures 304, 307, 308 641 642 Subject index unsolicited accounts 448 unstructured interviewing 61, 211, 215, 563 qualitative research 368, 434, 436–8, 455 V validation 363–4 validity 46–8, 52, 54, 64–5, 174, 181 asking questions 266 case study design 64–5 and classic experimental design 51–3 comparative design 70 computer-assisted qualitative data analysis 549 concurrent 174, 176 convergent 174, 175 cross-sectional design 59 definition 174 discriminant 174, 175 face 52, 174 interviewing in qualitative research 435 longitudinal design 62 official statistics 306, 308 predictive 174–5, 176 qualitative research 48, 362–6 quantitative research 48, 167, 174–5, 176, 179–80, 182–3 sampling in quantitative research 198 structured observation 278–9 testing 182–3 through replication: burnout 179–80 see also ecological validity; external validity; internal validity; measurement validity value-free research 38 values 6, 37–9, 37f, 40, 320 variability 209, 210, 254, 255 variables 316–17, 317t categorization 318f confounding 326 definition 47 dependent 47, 168, 177 dichotomous 317t, 317, 318f, 325 independent 47, 61, 168, 177 interpretation of relationship between 579–81 intervening 326 nominal (categorical) 317t, 317, 318f, 320, 325 non-manipulable 61 ordinal 317t, 317, 318f, 320, 324–5 see also interval/ratio variables variance 330 variation 58 verbal protocol approach 226 verbatim quotations, use of from interviews 153, 154, 155t Verstehen approach 31, 32, 366, 367 vertical dyadic linkage model 71 video 129 video diaries 500–1, 502 virtual ethnography 132, 421–5 visual documents 507–9 visual ethnography 425–6 visual research 369–74 action research 380, 381f, 382f dialogical 370–2, 370–1f ethics 129–30 practice-oriented 372, 373f vulnerable persons (including children) 115 W webcams 452–3 Web of Knowledge 104 Web of Science 99 website-based surveys 240, 241–2 comparison of modes of survey administration 243–4t, 244–5 wicked problems Williams, M. 130 word-of-mouth marketing (WOMM) 423 workblogs 500, 501 workplace, personal, researching 41 Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS) 71 secondary analysis 295, 296–7, 299t, 299, 301 World Bank 304 World Values Survey 22 writing up business research 12–13, 14t, 86, 137–59, 167 abstract 144 academic writing 138–40 acknowledgements 144 appendices 146 argument constructing an 143f importance of 142 conclusion 145 contents list 144 direct quotations 140 discriminatory language, avoidance of 142–3 discussion 145 ethnography see writing up ethnography feedback 142 introduction 144 length, challenges and constraints of 146 literature review 144 be persuasive 141 proofreading 146 qualitative research see writing up qualitative research quantitative research see writing up quantitative research references 146 reflexivity 156 research methods 144 results 144–5 rhetoric 139 start early 141 structure your writing 143–7 supervisor involvement and support 142 title page 143 writing differently 156–7 writing up ethnography 426–30 auto-ethnography 429–30 confessional tales 426–7 experiential authority 426–8 identity 430 impressionist tales 427 interpretive omnipotence 428 linguistic turn 429 native’s point of view 428 organizational ethnography and realism 427 realist tales 426–8 typical forms 428 writing up qualitative research 147, 152–6 discussion 153–4 findings/conclusions (step 6) 153, 360 identity in business schools 153 introduction 152–3 lessons learned 155–6 methodology 153 summary and conclusion 154 verbatim quotations, use of from interviews 153, 154, 155t writing up quantitative research 147–51 contingent repertoire 151 discussion 149–50 empiricist repertoire 151 goals of study 148–9 introduction 148 lessons learned 150 methods 149 results 149 rhetorical strategy 151 role congruity theory 148 Y yeasaying see acquiescence ... of research, so that you can plan your research and think about such issues as how your research methods will connect with your research questions • Training in research methods provides you... process of business research 3 Introduction 4 What is ? ?business research? ??? Why business research? Business research methods in context Relevance to practice The process of business research Literature... research 109 Writing up business research 137 CHAPTER THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH Introduction 4 What is ? ?business research? ??? 4 Why business research? 4 Business research methods in
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