General Editor: Patrick McNeill SOCIETY NOW Research Methods Second Edition Other books in the Society Now series Age and Generation Mike O’Donnell Family Adrian Wilson The Sociology of Schools Karen Chapman Whose Welfare? Tony Cole Media Sociology David Barrat Official Statistics Martin Slattery Gender Stephanie Garrett Deviance Peter Aggleton Work, Unemployment, and Leisure Rosemary Deem Social Class and Stratification Peter Saunders Health Peter Aggleton Patrick McNeill RESEARCH METHODS Second Edition London and New York First published 1985 by Tavistock Publications Ltd This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.” Second edition published 1990 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street New York, NY 10001 © 1985, 1990 Patrick McNeill All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-203-13372-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-17563-8 (Adobe e-Reader Format) ISBN 0-415-04126-0 (Print Edition) Contents Preface to First Edition vi Preface to Second Edition vii Acknowledgements viii Research methods in sociology Social surveys 11 Experiments and the comparative method 33 Ethnography 42 Secondary data 64 Theory, science, and values 74 Appendix: Reading sociological research 85 References 88 Index 93 Preface to First Edition Good social science, like all science, is based on good evidence That is why research methods are important I hope that this book will help you to distinguish between good evidence and poor evidence, in sociology and in everyday life I have included a very large number of references to published studies Some students may find this a bit daunting, but I would stress that you are not expected to read more than one or two yourself It has taken me twenty years to have read this many, and you have not got that long The reason for mentioning so many is that it helps you decide which ones look interesting, and also gives you a sporting chance of actually getting hold of a copy of at least one There are suggestions for study activities scattered throughout the book They can be carried out either individually or in pairs or groups Group work is often more valuable than individual work, and always more fun Lastly, I wish to thank the staff of St Albans College library, especially Joyce Omasta, for their help over the years They provide a university-standard library service on FE college resources Patrick McNeill Preface to Second Edition I have made a number of changes for this revised edition, some prompted by the weaknesses of the first edition and others by changes in the way that ‘A’ level sociology is taught and examined In response to comments, I have broken up chapter (‘Other research methods’) and relocated the sections at more appropriate points in the rest of the book I have included nearly fifty new references, some of which would have been in the first edition if there had been room and/or if I had known of their existence, and others of which have appeared in the last five years I have, however, adhered to a guiding principle of the first edition, i.e referring wherever possible to texts which students can reasonably expect to get hold of, rather than to texts which will impress teachers as to my knowledge of obscure studies Many have also been chosen in the hope that they will stimulate students to replicate or adapt them for their own research Coursework projects, once an optional extra at ‘A’ level, are rapidly becoming de rigueur as an element in assessment schemes This book is a discussion of research methods rather than an instruction manual, but I have altered the emphasis here and there and made other modifications to take account of this change, particularly in the discussions of the ethics of research While I am a strong supporter of students doing their own research, I have reservations as to whether they are always properly briefed as to this aspect of their work Tutors, at least, should look at Barnes (1975) and Bulmer (1982) For those looking for a ‘how-to-do-it’ book to accompany this one, look at the references cited at the end of chapter Incidentally, despite what at least one reviewer has said, Gomm and McNeill (1982), which is often referred to in the Activities sections of this book, is not out of print For a stimulating discussion of the same range of topics as is covered in this book, see Shipman (1988) Thanks again to the librarians at St Albans College, and also to Martin Bulmer for the conversation which guided part of pp 7–8 Thanks too to Sharon Witherspoon, Steve Taylor, Geoff Payne, Peter Woods, Pat Mayhew, and Eileen Barker for the discussions which formed the basis of articles printed in New Society and in New Statesman and Society Much of the material which had to be cut from those articles has informed the revision of this book Patrick McNeill Acknowledgements The author and publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: in Figure Questions in social surveys, Oxford University Press for extracts from A.H.Halsey et al Origins and Destinations, 1980; A.D Peters & Co Ltd for extracts from J.M and R.E.Pahl Managers and Their Wives, Penguin, 1971; George Allen & Unwin for extracts from J and E.Newson Infant Care in an Urban Community, 1963 and S.Edgell Middle-class Couples, 1980; University of Chicago Press for extracts from H.S.Becker et al Boys in White, 1961; Cambridge Univesity Press for extracts from J.H.Goldthorpe et al The Affluent Worker in the Class Structure, 1969; Hutchinson Publishing Group Ltd for Figures and reproduced from P.McNeill and C.Townley Fundamentals of Sociology, 1986, Figures and 4; and Penguin Books Ltd for Figure reproduced from P.Worsley (ed.) Introducing Sociology, 2nd edn 1977, p 89, Figure (© Peter Worsley and contributors 1970, 1977) Appendix Reading sociological research 87 If the research is mainly of the survey type, what does the researcher say about: Sampling methods; questionnaire design; training interviewers and standardizing interviews; doing a pilot survey; data analysis? Is the questionnaire reproduced in the book? What you think of the questions? Are they clear? Unambiguous? Are they the right questions? What other questions would you have asked? If the research is mainly of the ethnographic type, what does the researcher say about: Joining the group being studied; adopting a role that is acceptable to the group; overt or covert research; leaving the group; ‘going native’? What has been left out of the account of how the research was done? How frank and honest you think the researcher has been in this account? Do you think the research really went as described? What other problems would you expect the researcher to have had? How might a researcher with different theoretical assumptions have tackled this research? What methods might have been used? How might the results have differed? Above all, you have a clear idea of why this research topic was chosen? Why these methods were adopted? How the research was carried out? And how the conclusions were reached? Do you have any view on whether the research report gives a true picture? 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Vogler, C (1988) Social Class in Modern Britain London: Hutchinson Mass Observation (1987) The Pub and the People London: Cresset Library Mayhew, P., Elliott, D and Dowds, L (1989) The 1988 British Crime Survey London: HMSO Mead, M (1935) Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies New York: William Morrow Milgram, S (1965) Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority Human Relations 18:57–74 Newby, H (1977) The Deferential Worker London: Allen Lane Newson, J and Newson, E (1963) Infant Care in an Urban Community London: George Allen & Unwin —(1968) Four Years Old in an Urban Community London: George Allen & Unwin Oakley, A (1979) From Here to Maternity Harmondsworth: Penguin Okely, J (1983) The Traveller-Gypsies Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Oppenheim, A.N (1966) Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement London: Heinemann Osborn, A.F., Butler, N.R., and Morris, A.C (1984) The Social Life of Britain’s Five Year Olds London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Osborn, 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Limitations of Social Research London: Longman Sissons, M (1970) The Psychology of Social Class Bletchley: Open University Press Slattery, M (1986) Official Statistics London: Tavistock Smith, D.J (1977) Racial Disadvantage in Britain: The PEP Report Harmondsworth: Penguin —(1983) Police and People in London London: Policy Studies Institute Stacey, M (1960) Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury Oxford: Oxford University Press —(1975) Power, Persistence and Change: A Second Study of Banbury London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Taylor, L (1984) In the Underworld Oxford: Basil Blackwell Taylor, L and Mullan, B (1986) Uninvited Guests: The Intimate Secrets of Television and Radio London: Chatto; Coronet, 1987 Thomas, W.I and Znaniecki, F (1919) The Polish Peasant in Europe and America Chicago: University of Chicago Press Townsend, P (1957, 1963) The Family Life of Old People London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; Harmondsworth: Pelican —(1979) Poverty in the United Kingdom Harmondsworth: Pelican Townsend, P and Davidson, N (1982) Inequalities in Health: The Black Report, published as Part One of Inequalities in Health Harmondsworth: Pelican Tunstall, J (1962) The Fishermen London: McGibbon & Kee Wallis, R (1976) The Road to Total Freedom: A Sociological Analysis of Scientology London: Heinemann Whitehead, M (1988) The Health Divide, published as Part Two of Inequalities in Health Harmondsworth: Pelican Whyte, W.F (1955) Street Corner Society Chicago: University of Chicago Press Willis, P (1977) Learning to Labour Farnborough: Saxon House Willmott, P (1966) Adolescent Boys of East London London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Willmott, P and Young, M (1960) Family and Class in a London Suburb London: Routledge & Kegan Paul References 92 Woods, P (1988) Researching in schools New Statesman and Society 24 June Worsley, P (1977) Introducing Sociology Harmondsworth: Penguin Young, M and Willmott, P (1957) Family and Kinship in East London London: Routledge & Kegan Paul —(1973) The Symmetrical Family London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Index Abrams, P 13, 76, 77, 82, 84, 86 access 71, 74–6, 79, 91, 134 action research 10–11, 59 adolescents 67, 68, 80–1 Aggleton, P 59 alienation 117–18 anonymity 41, 80–1, 92, 104, 110, 136 anthropology 3–4, 65–8 applause 96 Argyle, M 24–5 Atkinson, J.M 96 Atkinson, M 96, 97 Atkinson, M.W 54–5 authority 53–4, 75–6 autobiographies 4, 85, 109 Baldwin, J 55 Banks, C 54 Barker, E 59, 75, 79, 84, 123 Barnes, J.A viii Barrat, D 48 Bates, P 27 Becker, H.S 32, 69, 75, 80, 84, 85–6, 125, 131 Bell, C 93, 129 Bell, J 20, 48, 112 Bendix, R 62 Benson, S 71, 84 Berger, P 120–1 Black Report 11, 100, 103, 110 Blauner, R 99, 117 Blythe, R 87 Booth, C 3, 5, 12, 65 Borrill, C 81, 84 Bosk, C 71, 84 Bott, E 47 Bottomley, K 108 British Crime Survey 19, 38, 46, 104 Brook, L 22, 34, 38, 39, 46, 47, 125 Bulmer, M viii Burgess, R.G 6, 7, 129 Butler, N.R 44 Index 94 Calvinism 60–1, 119 capitalism 60–1, 107–8, 117, 119 case studies 87–8, 99, 125 Census 44, 46, 100–1, 123 Chicago School 3, 4, 68–9, 85, 90, 119 child-rearing 30–2 children’s books 112–13 choice of method 9, 124–6, 134 choice of topic 11–13, 20, 70–1, 125–6, 130, 132, 134 class 24, 57, 107–8; working- 24, 107 Coffield, F 81, 84 Cohen, S 42, 123 Cole, T 48 Coleman, C 108 communes 76, 82 Community Charge Register 36 community studies 8, 64, 89–93; Institute of comparative method 2–3, 49–63 Comte, A 59–60 confidentiality 41, 109 consciousness 69, 116, 119 content analysis 112–14 conversational analysis 95–6 Corrigan, P 76, 84 crime 19, 41, 72–4, 80, 82, 104–6, 111 criminals 20, 42, 70, 72, 73, 74, 81 Cuff, E.C 94, 95, 130 Cumberbatch, G 27 Curtice, J 34 Dalgaard, J.B 54–5 Dalton, M 76 data 5, 6, 15, 96, 122, 128; primary 8, 99, 111, 112, 117, 135; processing and storage 8, 42, 100, 124; qualitative 120, 121, 136; quantitative 5, 117, 120, 121, 136; secondary 8, 99–114, 125, 135 Davidson, N 11, 100, 103, 110 Davie, R 44 descriptive research 9–10, 19, 64–5, 83, 134; see also ethnography development 62 deviants 4, 20, 70, 72, 131; see also crime; criminals diaries 4, 109, 129; see also time-budgeting Index 95 Dickens, C 111 discrimination 57 Ditton, J 72–3, 78, 82, 84 doctors’ lists 36 documents 4, 86, 123; personal 8, 87, 109, 112; public 4, 8, 90, 109–12 Douglas, J.W.B 43, 45 drugs 59 Durkheim, E 2, 60, 61–2, 116, 117, 118, 119 eavesdropping Economic and Social Research Council 8, 11, 100 Edgell, S 31–2, 34, 41 education 10–11, 23, 111; see also schools Educational Priority Areas 10–11 elderly 11, 102 electoral registers 36 empirical 1–2, ethics 13, 58, 72–4, 79, 80, 92, 97, 136 ethnography 45, 64–98, 120, 121–2, 124, 125, 135, 136 ethnomethodology 5–6, 58, 94–7, 121 evaluative research see action research Evans, J 108 Evans-Pritchard, D.T 3, 66, 67 experiment 9, 49–63, 117, 135; -al effect 55–6; disruptive 95; -er effect 56; field 56–8; natural 58–9; quasi- 58–9; retrospective 59 explanatory research 9–10, 12, 19, 134 feminist research 7, 11, 131 Ferguson, M 113 Festinger, L 73, 92 field experiment see under experiment fieldwork 5, 6, 124; see also ethnography; observation, participant Flanders, N.A 98 Fogelman, K 44 Forster, E.M 111 Fox 44, 46 Frankenberg, R 92, 93 Freeman, D 68 funding 11–12, 45–6, 83, 125, 126, 134 Index Gans, H.J 78, 82, 90, 91, 93 Garfinkel, H 94–5 Gavron, H 11, 30, 34 gender 67, 112–13 Glasgow University Media Group 113 Glueck, S and E 118 Goffman, E 69 ‘going native’ 82, 136 Gold, R.L 81–2 Goldblatt 44, 46 Golding, P 113 Goldthorpe, J.H 11, 33, 34, 39 Gomm, R 48, 69, 85, 87, 93, 97, 110, 124 Gordon, R 111 Gouldner, A.W 131 Griffin, J.H 84 guided conversation see interview, unstructured Halsey, A.H 12, 28, 130 Hammond, P 129 Haney, C 54 Hargreaves, D 6, 76, 84 Harris, M 28 Harrison, C Hawthorne Effect 55–6 health 11, 100, 105 Heath, A 34 Heath, A.F 12, 28, 130 Hill 27 Holdaway, S 73–4, 84 Home Office Research Unit homosexuality 72 Hough, M 19, 22, 34, 36, 38, 46, 47 Humphreys, L 72, 84 Husserl, E 120 hustlers 75 hypothesis 21, 50–2, 83, 117, 118 hypothetico-deductive method 50–2, 58, 117, 127 indicators 24, 25 interaction analysis 98 interpretive sociology 118–21, 123, 124, 126, 134 interview 4, 20, 47, 67, 70, 90, 91, 125; effect 47; group 41–2; joint 41; preparatory 22–3; schedule 23–34, 47; 96 Index standardized 23; structured 23, 69–70; unstructured 5, 22, 23, 67, 68, 79–80, 85, 89 interviewer; training 39–40; effect 39, 47 Irvine, J 108 Jones, T 19, 38, 47 Jowell, R 22, 34, 38, 39, 46, 47, 125 juvenile delinquency 69, 86, 118 Keating, P 65 Kessel, N 54–5 key information 79, 90, 91, 92 knowledge 127–8, 129–32 Kuhn, T.S 127 laboratory see experiment Lacey, C 6, 75, 76 Lane, T 88 Langley, P 48 Lansley, S 25, 34 laws 61; causal 51, 52, 129; of societal development 60, 116, 118, 129 Lazarsfeld, P letters 109 Lewis, O 86 Liebow, E 74–5, 79, 84 life-history 4, 85–7, 109 life styles Lipset, S.M 62 Llewellyn, R 111 Lockwood, D 11, 33, 34 longitudinal studies 43–6 Luckmann, T 120–1 Lynd, R.S and H.M 90 McConville, M 55 McCulloch, A 13, 76, 77, 82, 84, 86 Mack, J 25, 34 Maclean, B 19, 38, 47 McNeill, P 48, 50, 69, 85, 87, 93, 97, 105, 110, 124 Madge, C Malinowski, B 3, 4, 66, 129 management 76 Mann, P 2, 27, 48, 112 market research 17–18 marriage 29–32, 41 97 Index 98 Mars, G 39 Marshall, G 22, 34, 36 Marshall, M 81, 84 Marx, K 2, 60, 116, 117, 118 mass media 111, 113–14 Mass Observation Matza, D 69 Mayhew, T 12 Mayhew, P 19, 22, 34, 36 38, 46, 47 Mayo, E 55–6 Mead, G 119 Mead, M 66, 67–8 meaning 6, 69, 83, 94–6, 119, 126 mental hospitals 56 methodology 1–16, 115–26, 134–7 Middleton, S 113 Milbank, J 44 Miles, I 108 Milgram, S 53–4, 58 Mill, J.S 59 Mills 88–9 Moonies 59, 75 Morris, A.C 44 Mullan, B 42 multiple methods 5, 7, 121–3 naturalism 69–70 neutrality see objectivity Newby, H 22, 34, 36, 37, 93, 123, 129 news coverage 111, 113–14 Newson, J and E 30–1, 34, 40, 44 note-taking 77–8, 80 novels 111 Oakley, A 47 objectivity 5, 6, 23, 46, 49, 109, 112, 116, 117, 118, 121, 132, 135 observation 81–2, 97–8; mass 4; participant 4, 5, 6, 14, 66–85, 89–93, 120, 123, 124, 131 Okely, J 70–1, 84 operationalizing 23–6, 135 opinion polls 17–18 Oppenheim, A.N 27 oral history 86–7, 123 Osborn, A.F 44 Osborn, R 44 Pahl, J.M 29, 34, 41 Pahl, R.E 29, 34, 41, 123 panel studies see longitudinal studies paradigm 127 Index 99 Park, R.E 4, 68–9 Parker, H.J 80–1, 84 participant observation see observation Patrick, J 81, 82, 84 Payne, G.C.F 94, 95, 130 Pearson, D 37 Pearson, G 111 phenomenology 118–21, 126 pilfering 72–3 Plant, M.A 39, 84 Plowden Report 10 Plummer, K 87 Polsky, N 67, 74, 75, 77, 82, 84 police 73–4, 104–6 population 21–2, 35–6, 46, 100–1 positivism 116–18, 124, 128, 129, 134 Post Office Address File 36 poverty 5, 25, 62, 107, 111, 113 power 20, 53–4 practical reasoning 96 press 111, 113 prison 42, 54 problems: social 5, 9–10; sociological 9, 10 Project Headstart 11 Protestant ethic 60–1, 119 Pryce, K 78, 82, 84, 91 public opinion polls see opinion polls publication 42, 80–1, 92, 124, 129 questionnaire 6, 15, 20, 21, 23–35, 40–1, 47, 67, 69, 70, 89, 90, 100, 104, 122, 124, 136 questions 26–35; closed 26–7; open 26–7, 42 race 57, 74–5, 84 Radcliffe-Brown, A.R 3, 66 radio 111 Rapoport, R, and R 88 reality 120–1, 133 registration 36, 101 Reid, I 24 reliability 14, 46, 83, 104–8, 112, 118, 121, 129, 136 religion 24–5, 61 representativeness 15–16, 71, 87–8, 112, 121–2, 135 resistance to investigation 13, 135; see also access response rate 40–1 reviewing the literature 20, 41, 72, 133–7 Ridge, J.M 12, 28, 130 Index 100 Rieken, N 73, 92 Roberts, E 87 Roberts, H, 7, 129 Roberts, K 47, 88 Roberts, R 109 role 53–4, 91–2, 97, 136; covert 72–4; overt 72–4 Rose, D 22, 34, 36 Rosenhan, D.L 56, 58 rules 94–7 Sacks, H 95 sampling 15–16, 35–9, 43–5, 71, 78, 135; frame 36, 37; multistage 38; purposive 39; quasi-random 37; quota 38; random 36, 37, 38; snowball 39; stratified 37–8; unit 36 Scarman Report 110 Schachter, P 73, 92 Schegloff, E 96 Schofield, M 47 schools 6, 10–11, 20, 28, 36, 38, 41, 75–6, 98 Schutz, A 120 science 83, 129–30, 135; natural 5, 49–52, 59, 115–19 passim, 126–9; social 12, 52–8, 116, 118–21, 126–32 self-report studies 104 Shaw, C 85–6 Shipman, M 58, 68, 128 Sissons, M 57 Slattery, M 108 Smith, D.J 23, 57, 84, 123 Social and Community Planning Research 8, 38 social mobility 7, 62 social policy 5, 9–10, 19, 102, 116–17, 134 Stacey, M 90–1, 92, 93, 125 statistics 5, 19, 23, 26, 42, 46, 98, 103, 117, 124; official 8, 100–8, 123 strikes 88 suicide 55, 61–2 survey 3, 5, 6, 15, 17–48, 70, 73, 99, 104, 117, 121–3, 124–5, 135, 136; pilot 34; state 100–8, 123 Index Taylor, L 42 television 111, 113–14 Thomas, W.I 85, 109 time budgeting 88–9 Townley, C 50, 105 Townsend, P 11, 19, 26, 34, 100, 103, 110, 124 traveller-gypsies 70–1 triangulation 123 Trow, M Tunstall, J 131 unemployment 21, 107 Unification Church 59, 75 validity 15, 26, 28, 41, 47, 55, 83, 121–2, 129, 135 values 12–13, 116, 117, 118, 129–32, 135 variables 52, 57–8, 59, 61, 118 victim surveys 104 video-nasties 27 videotape 96, 97, 113 Vogler, C 22, 34, 36 Wallis, R 123 Webb, S and B 12 Weber, M 60–1, 118–19, 126, 130 Whitehead, M 11, 44, 100 Whyte, W.F 77, 82–3, 84, 92–3 Willis, P 84 Willmott, P 34, 40, 47, 88–9, 93 Witherspoon, S 22, 34, 38, 39, 46, 47, 125 Women 7, 108, 113 Woods, P, 97 Worsley, P 122 Young, J 19, 38, 47 Young, M 34, 47, 88–9, 93 Zimbardo, P 54 Znaniecki, F 85, 109 101 ... a fuller account see Harris 1984) Research methods 18 Social surveys Figure Questions in social surveys 19 Research methods 20 Social surveys 21 Research methods 22 Social surveys 23 Activity... science, is truth Action research In most social research the researcher aims to be detached and not to affect or interfere with that which is being studied In action research the researcher is actively... approach The choice of research topic is not made in a vacuum, but is influenced both by the researcher and by the context in which the research is to be done Research methods This does not automatically