Research Design Research Design provides a practical overview of the central issues involved in the design of social and economic research Covering both theoretical and policy research, Hakim sets out the key features, strengths and limitations of eight main types of study, with illustrations from real-life research of the kinds of questions each can best be used to answer In addition, this book offers a more general pragmatic discussion of strategies for choosing between one design and another, and how different types of study can be successfully combined in wider ranging research programmes In this expanded second edition, the author has added new material on areas of contemporary significance across the social and economic sciences Among these new additions are: • • • a chapter on cross-national comparative studies more examples throughout the text of comparative research both within Europe and across modern societies discussions of student theses, advocacy research, selection effects and collaborative research This book will be an indispensable and accessible guide to research design for students, for professional social scientists and for those who commission and use social research Catherine Hakim is Senior Research Fellow at the London School of Economics Social Research Today Edited by Martin Bulmer The Social Research Today series provides concise and contemporary introductions to significant methodological topics in the social sciences Covering both quantitative and qualitative methods, this new series features readable and accessible books from some of the leading names in the field and is aimed at students and professional researchers alike This series also brings together for the first time the best titles from the old Social Research Today and Contemporary Social Research series edited by Martin Bulmer for UCL Press and Routledge Martin Bulmer is Professor of Sociology and Co-Director of the Institute of Social Research at the University of Surrey He is also Academic Director of the Question Bank in the ESRC Centre for Applied Social Surveys, London Other series titles include Principles of Research Design in the Social Sciences Lindsay Paterson Social Impact Assessment Frank Bechhofer and Henk Becker The Turn to Biographical Methods in Social Science Chamberlayne, Joanna Bornat and Tom Wengraf Edited by Prue Quantity and Quality in Social Research Alan Bryman Research Methods and Organisational Studies Alan Bryman Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual In the Field: An Introduction to Field Research Measuring Health and Medical Outcomes Methods of Criminological Research Robert G Burgess Robert G Burgess Edited by Crispin Jenkinson Victor Jupp Information Technology for the Social Scientist Edited by Raymond M Lee An Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Research Tim May and Malcolm Williams Surveys in Social Research (4th edition) Researching the Powerful in Education David de Vaus Edited by Geoffrey Walford Research Design Successful designs for social and economic research Second edition Catherine Hakim London and New York First edition 1987 by Unwyn Hynman Ltd, London Second edition 2000 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group Transferred to Digital Printing 2005 © 1987, 2000 Catherine Hakim The right of Catherine Hakim to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Typeset in 10/12pt Times by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN (Ml5-22312-1 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-22313-X (pbk) For WRH Contents Preface Key to abbreviations Introduction Rationale for a focus on research design Theoretical research and policy research A classification of study types Qualitative and quantitive research 12 The presentation of study types 14 Choices, strategies and practicalities 16 xi xv PART I Types of research study 19 Research reviews, meta-analysis and secondary analysis Research reviews 21 Meta-analysis 23 Secondary analysis 24 Population census studies 27 Cross-national comparative studies 29 Practical considerations 31 21 Qualitative research Depth interviews andfocus groups 35 Some illustrative examples 38 Cross-national comparative studies 40 Overlaps and combinations 40 Practical considerations 42 34 viii Contents Administrative records and documents Varieties of records-based research 48 The nature and quality of data from administrative records 50 Computerisation of administrative records 53 Record linkage 54 Documentary analysis 56 Cross-national comparative studies 56 Overlaps and combinations 57 Practical considerations 57 46 Case studies Individual case histories 63 Community studies 65 Case studies of social groups 66 Case studies of organisations and institutions 68 Case studies of events, roles and relationships 70 Cross-national comparative studies 71 Overlaps and combinations 72 Practical considerations 72 59 Ad hoc sample surveys Surveys of individuals 79 Survey research on roles and relationships 83 Survey research on organisations 85 Cross-national comparative studies 86 Overlaps and combinations 88 Practical considerations 89 76 Regular surveys Gross and net change 96 Types of regular survey 98 Cross-national comparative studies 102 Overlaps and combinations 105 Practical considerations 106 95 Contents ix Longitudinal studies Multi-purpose studies: panels and cohorts 114 Studies focused on specific groups or issues 119 Inter-generational studies 120 Retrospective studies 120 Cross-national comparative studies 121 Overlaps and combinations 123 Practical considerations 123 109 Experimental social research Experiments in real-life settings 132 Natural experiments 135 Experiments in artificial settings 137 Simulation and modelling 139 Cross-national comparative studies 141 Overlaps and combinations 142 Practical considerations 142 127 PART II Putting together a research design 145 10 Choices and combinations Student dissertations and theses 149 Trading down to a cheaper design 150 Trading up to a more complex design 152 Simultaneous replication 153 Units of analysis: time, space and social units 156 147 11 Research programmes Strategies for research programmes 166 Focused sampling 170 Selection effects 172 Multiple triangulation 172 Conflicting interests 174 Multi-disciplinary research 176 Programme organisation and management 179 Presentation of reports 181 164 246 Bibliography Webber, R.J and Craig, J (1978) A Socio-Economic Classification of Local Authorities in Great Britain, OPCS Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No 35, London: HMSO Weber, R.P (1990) Basic Content Analysis, Newbury Park: Sage Weiss, C.H (ed.) 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(1983) Crime and Public Policy, San Francisco: ICS Press/ Transaction Press Wolfgang, M.E et al (1972) Delinquency in a Birth Cohort, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wolfgang, M.E et al (1985) From Boy to Man - From Delinquency to Crime: Follow-up to the Philadelphia Birth Cohort of 1945, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wrench, J and Lee, G (1982) ‘Piecework and industrial accidents: two contemporary case studies’, Sociology, 16: 512-25 Wright, E.O (1985) Classes, London: Verso Wright, E.O (1997) Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wright, J.D et al (1979) After the Clean-Up: Long Range Effects of Natural Disasters, Beverly Hills: Sage Bibliography 247 Wright, ID., Rossi, RH and Daly, K (1983) Under the Gun: Weapons, Crime and Violence in America, Hawthorne NY: Aldine Wrigley, E.A (ed.) (1972) Nineteenth Century Society: Essays in the Use of Quantitative Methods for the Study of Social Data, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wrong, D.H (1961) ‘The over socialised conception of man in modern sociology’, American Sociological Review, 26: 184-93 Yin, R.K (1993) Applications of Case Study Research, Newbury Park: Sage Yin, R.K (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Beverly Hills: Sage Zeisel, H (1982) ‘Disagreement over the evaluation of a controlled experiment’, American Journal of Sociology, 88: 378-96 Zeisel, H (1985) Say it With Figures, London: Harper & Row Author index Abeles, R.P 124, 216 Abel-Smith, B 170,216 Aberbach, J.D 79, 84, 156, 160, 216 Abramson, M.A 184, 216 Abramson, P.R 204, 216 Abt, C.C 7, 198-9, 216 Ackoff,R.L 6, 184,216 Ahlstrand, B.W 63, 216 Almond, G.A 156, 203-4, 216 Alwin, D 205, 216 Andrisani, P.J 118-19, 121, 125, 216 Anker, R 30,201,216 Antonides, G 37, 141, 178, 216 Apostle, R.A 79,81,216 Archer, D 56,217 Argyle, M 37, 217 Atkinson, A.B 16,120,217 Aubel, J 43, 217 Axelrod,R 140-1,217 Bailey, G 159,217 Baldridge, J.V 195, 217 Banaka,W.H.42,217 Banton, M 178,217 Barbour, R.S 43, 217 Barker, E 64, 87,217 Barnes, S.H 79,217 Bateman, F 48, 217 Bateson, N 94, 217 Batstone, E 29, 136,217 Baxter, J 87, 217 BBC 91, 217 Bechhofer, F 73, 217 Becker, H.S 15,217 Behrman, J.R 55, 217 Bell, C 190, 198, 217 Berelson, B 58, 217 Berger,J 169,218 Berk, R.A 49, 134-5, 156, 172, 218 Berkman, L.F 113,218 Bernstein, I.N 184-5, 198, 218 Berthoud,R 179,218 Bianchi, S.M 29, 246 Bielby,W.T 111,116,118,218 Birnbaum, P.H 177,218 Black, J 67, 218 Blackler, F.H.M 136, 189,218 Blake, J 32,218 Blalock, H.M 198,218 Blau, P.M 49, 62-3, 67, 155, 190, 218 Blaug,M 47, 161,214,218 Blaxter,M 74,218 Block, R 101,218 Blossfeld, H-P 112, 122, 125, 218 Blumstein,A 52, 70, 219 Bogdan, R 64, 219 Boh, K 201,219 Booth, T 199, 219 Boruch,R.F 58, 132, 143,219 Boserup, E 29, 219 Boudon, R 34, 219 Bradbury, K.L 27, 143, 219 Braithwaite, J 22-3, 52, 219 Brook, L 98, 107, 219 Brown, C 80-1, 88, 135, 142, 158, 219 Brown, C.A 136,189,218 Brown, G 143, 219 Brown, G.W 37, 81, 165,219 Brown, M 179, 219 Brown, R.K 189,219 Bryman,A 10,42,219 Bulmer, M 94, 99, 165, 181, 184-5, 190, 198,210,219 Burgess, R.G 10, 42, 64, 74, 220 Bursik, R.J 58, 220 Burtless,G 133,220 Buxton, N.K 32, 220 Bynner,J 184,220 Byrne, D 13,130,178,220 Author index Cain, G.G 7, 220 Cain, M.T 87, 220 Cain, P.S 56, 220 Calder, A 39, 44, 220 Callender, C 84, 174, 220 Campbell, D.T 49, 60,128-31,143,173, 220 Capen,M.M 115,220 Caplow,T 61,65,220 Cardoso, F.H 203, 220 Carter, P.G 32, 220 Cartwright, A 84, 88, 221 Castles, F.G 201,221 Centre for Human Resource Research 116,221 Chambers, G 102, 221 Champagne, D 75, 221 Chelimsky, E 7, 221 Cherlin, A 25, 221 Chiplin, B 49, 221 Chowdhury,G 115,221 Christensen, H.T 54, 113, 221 Clarke, R.V.G 135, 170, 177-8, 185, 198, 221 Cleland, J 87, 205, 221 Cochran, W.G 143, 221 Cohen, D.K 8,24, 131,221 Coleman, J.S 6, 7, 85-6, 159-60, 221 Colledge,M 151,221 Cook, J.D 32, 222 Cook, T.D 49, 128-9, 131, 143, 222 Cooper, H.M 31,222 Cooper, J 71,222 Corcoran, M 115,231 Couper, M 92, 222 Covello,V.T 160,222 Cox, K.R 66, 190, 222 Cragg, A 37, 39, 41, 44, 168, 171, 222 Craig, J 27, 222 Crain,R.L 21-2, 24, 131,222 Crawford, E 184-5, 198, 222 Cully, M 96, 98, 107, 114, 160, 176, 193, 222 Cunningham, D.E 177, 222 Dale, A 32, 55, 116, 119, 159, 222 Dalton,M 74, 188,222 Daniel, W.W 16, 84, 113, 119, 153, 174, 176,222 Das Gupta, P 27, 223 Davies, C 56, 223 Davis, J.A 98, 107, 223 Deal,T 195,217 de Boer, C 31,223 Denham, A 9, 223 249 Denzin, N.K 10, 12,42, 45, 61, 64, 143, 153,173-4,190,223 Department of Employment 101, 223 Deutscher, I 73, 223 Dex,S 111,125,163,168,223 Dexter, L 73, 79, 82, 85, 223 Dillman, D.A 92, 223 Dilnot, A.W 140, 223 Ditton, J 67, 223 Dogan, M 26, 223 Donnison, D 27, 223 Donovan, P 32, 137,223 Dooley, D 22, 223 Douglas, J 74, 196, 224 Drake, M 41, 165-6, 180, 182, 224 Drever, F 55, 224 Duncan, G.J 52, 97, 113-14, 224 Earl, P 37, 178, 224 Eccles, M 140, 167, 224 Eckstein, H 74, 224 Edwards, P 49, 224 Eichorn,D.H 113, 119,224 Einstein, A 177,224 Elder, GH 115,224 Elias, N 70, 224 Elias, P 54, 224 Engerman, S.L 28, 48, 225 Englander, F 134, 224 Epstein, C.F 70, 224 Erikson, R 30, 142, 161, 210, 224 Eurostat 122, 224 Fagin,L 60, 171,224 Faletto, E 203, 220 Faraday, A 64, 225 Farkas, G 55, 225 Farrington, D.P 113, 129, 135, 225 Feagin, J.R 12, 74, 225 Featherman, D.L 30, 225 Ferber, R 132, 225 Ferree, M.M 27, 225 Ferri, E 116,225 Fevre, R 190, 225 Fielding, N 45, 56, 225 Fields, GS 139, 225 Finch, J 90, 225 Fischer, C 79, 225 Fiske, D.W 173, 220 Flaherty, D.H 58, 225 Flaim, P.O 96, 100, 106, 225 Flanders, A 63, 225 Fogel, R.W 28, 48, 225 Fogelman, K 116, 124, 169, 225 Form, W H 89, 225 Forth, J 84, 174, 225 250 Author index Foster, J 48, 226 Fowler, F.J 91, 94, 226 Freeman, H.E 7, 199, 226 Freeman, R.B 26, 106, 140, 165, 167, 185,226 Frey, J.F 92, 226 Fruin, W.M 50, 226 Furet, F 48, 58, 226 Gallie, D 71,179,226 Galtung,J.1,226 Gamson,W.A 138,226 Ganzeboom, H.B.G 210, 226 Garofalo, J 99, 101,107,226 Garrett, E.M 28, 226 Gartner, R 56,217 Gauthier, A.H 133,226 Genovese, M.A 71, 226 Gershuny, J 91,226 Gerson, K 40, 227 Gibbons, M 3, 5, 184-5, 199, 212, 215, 227 Gieryn, T.F 56, 177, 198, 227 Gilbert, N 9, 139-41, 198, 227 Gilmartin, K.J 27, 227 Glaser, B.G 37, 62, 170, 227 Glasgow University Media Group 56, 227 Glass, G.V 31,227 Glenn, N.D 98, 113,227 Goldstein, H 113, 125,227 Goldthorpe, J.H 30, 61, 142, 158-9, 161,210,227 Goode, W.J 74,91,227 Gospel, H.F 71,227 Gottfredson, M.R 102, 111, 228 Goyer, D.S 32, 228 Grandjean, B.D 49, 228 Granovetter, M 161, 228 Greenbaum, T.L 43, 228 Greenberg, D 125, 133, 220 Gregg, P 123, 228 Gregory, M.B 54, 228 Griliches,Z 21, 47, 140,228 Groves, R.M 92, 228 Gustman, A.L 140, 228 Guttentag, M 21,228 Hakim, C 6, 9, 11, 21-3, 25, 27-9, 32, 48, 51-2, 55-6, 58, 80, 82, 99, 105, 116,119,122,157-9,163,166,168, 172,178,180,201,210,228-9 Hammersley, M 45, 74-5, 178, 229 Hammond, P.E 198, 229 Hannan, M.T 124-5, 244 Hanson, R.H 107, 113,229 Hantrais, L 206, 229 Harbury, C.D 48, 229 Hareven, T.K 48, 66, 229 Harris, T 37, 219 Harrop,M 89, 151,229 Haug, M.R 89, 229 Hauser, R.M 30, 54, 225 Hausman,J.A 132, 143,229 Hechter,M 178,229 Heclo,H.68-9,71,201,229 Hedges, B.M 80, 229 Heidenheimer, A 201, 229 Heller, T 70, 229 Hellevik, O 94, 230 Heron, J 43, 230 Herriott, R.E 137,230 Hershberg, T 48, 230 Hill, M.S 115,230 Himmelweit, H.T 113-14, 118, 165, 178,230 Hindelang, M.J 52, 99, 107, 230 Hinds, P.S 45, 230 Hirsch,W.Z 132,225 Hirschi,T 94, 111,230 Hoaglin, D.C 8, 58, 139-40, 143, 212, 214, 230 Hobcraft, J 87, 205, 221 Hodson,R 25, 161,230 Hofferth, S.L 115,230 Hofstede, G 79, 82, 88, 230 Hoinville,G 37,91,94,230 Holdaway, S 67, 230 Home Office 53, 230 Hood, J.C 40-1, 230 Hope, T 102, 230 Hough, M 102, 163, 230 Huberman, A.M 10,42, 74, 235 Humphrey, R 138,230 Hunt, A 160,230 Hunter, IE 31,231 Husbands, CT 163,231 Hutchby, 1.70, 231 Hyman, H.H 26-7, 32, 94, 157, 231 Inglehart,R 103,204,231 Jack-Roller, The 65, 231 Jagodzinski, W 87,231 Jahoda,M 65,231 Jefferys,M 61,69,231 Jennings, M.K 113,120,231 Job, B.C 106, 231 Johnson, J.D 201, 208, 231 Johnson, J.M 10,74,231 Jones, C 201-2, 208, 231 Author index Joshi,H 111, 116, 163, 168,231-2 Jowell, R 37, 91, 94, 98, 103, 207, 232 Kagan,R 61,69,232 Kalachek, E 100, 232 Kalleberg, A.L 17,104,232 Kandiah, M.D 184,232 Keller, U 45, 232 Kelman,H.C 128,139,232 Kemsley, W.F.F 107, 232 Kessler, R.C 125, 232 Kessler-Harris, A 22, 232 Kimberly, J.R 74, 113,232 King,G 13,232 King,S 151,232 Klein, L 189,198,232 Kogan, M 184, 198, 232 Kohn, M.L 169, 201-2, 209, 232 Kollock,P 70, 159,232 Komarovsky, M 165, 232 Krausz, E 6, 136, 143, 184, 232-3 Krueger, R.A 43, 233 Kuechler, M 103, 137, 208, 233 Lacey,C 59,61,69,74,233 Lattimore, P.K 134,233 Lavin,D.E 136-7,233 Lawton, R 48, 233 Lazarsfeld, P.F 185,233 Leach, J.W 71,233 Leggatt,T 163,233 Lein, L 59-60, 233 Lester, D 22, 233 Levi, M 70, 233 Lieberson,S 13,21,27,113,172, 233 Lievesley, D 97, 106, 114,233 Light, R.J 31,233 Lightfoot, S.L 69, 233 Lincoln, Y.S 10, 12, 42, 45, 223 Lindblom, C.E 131,233 Lipset, S.M 26, 61-2, 74, 233 Littler, C.R 70-1,234 Lloyd, C.B 115,234 Lloyd,J 176,234 Luker, K 37, 234 Lundberg,S 133,234 Luszki, M.B 176-7,234 Lynch, K.A 32, 246 Lynd, R.S 65, 234 Mackie, T 32, 234 Maital, S 141,178,234 Majchrzak, A 3, 5, 22, 175, 190, 199, 234 Marin, G 208, 234 251 Marmot, M 172, 234 Marsden, D 29, 241 Marsh, C 11, 32, 55, 79, 94, 159, 234 Marshall, G 87, 161,204,234 Martin, J 79, 84, 88, 106, 112, 121, 168, 234 Martin, S.E 61, 70, 234 Maunder, W.F 32, 234 Mawby, R 52, 235 Mayhew, P 102, 163, 235 McCann, K 92, 235 McClelland, D 203, 235 McCloskey, D.N 7, 235 McDill, E.L 86, 235 McGovern, J.R 59, 235 McGrath, J.E.P 173,235 McKnight, A 9, 235 McRae, D 199, 235 Mednick,S.A 113,135,235 Melkas,H 30, 201,235 Merton, R.K 199, 235 Metz, D.L 67, 235 Miers, S 71,235 Miles, M.B 10, 42, 74, 235 Milgram, S 128,139,235 Miller, D.C 6,32, 184,235 Miller, W.L 92, 94, 235 Millward, N 96, 106, 114, 176, 193, 235 Milner, D 22, 235 Mirlees-Black, C 52, 98, 101, 235 Mitchell, D 30, 104, 235 Mitchell, J.C 62, 74, 236 Moore, B 202, 236 Moore, D.P 189,236 Moore, S.F 24, 236 Morgan, D.L 43, 236 Morrison, D.E 7, 236 Moser, C.A 94, 236 Mott, EL 113,117-18,236 Moylan,S 54, 113, 119,236 Moyser, G 73, 82, 85, 236 Mueller, C.F 25, 48, 55, 111, 163, 236 Murphy, J 7, 86, 236 Myers, J.L 143, 236 Nagi, S.Z 198, 236 Namenwirth, J.Z 96, 160, 236 Naoi, A 169, 202, 236 Narendranathan, W 119, 236 Nathan, R.P 133,199,236 Nazroo, J.Y 165, 236 Newton, P.J 49, 135,218 Ni Bhrolchain, M 125, 236 Nicholson, W 143, 236 Nickell,S 115,221 Norris,G.M 170,236 252 Author index O’Barr, W.M 210, 236 OECD 87, 107, 206, 237 Olsen, M.E 199, 237 ONS 55, 126, 237 Oppenheim, A.N 91, 94, 237 Orlans,H 181,184,198,237 Orne,M.T 138,237 Osterman,P 118, 151,237 OToole, R 184-5, 196, 198, 237 Oyen,E 201,203,209,237 Ozouf, J 48, 58, 226 Padavic, I 22, 238 Pahl, J 67, 237 Parcel, T.L 25, 56, 111, 115, 163, 237 Parker, J 49, 237 Parnes, H.S 113, 116-19, 124, 237 Patton, M.Q 7, 10,42, 74, 237 Payne, G 89, 151,196,237 Peil, M 94, 210, 237 Percy, A 102,237 Phelps Brown, E.H 165-6, 238 Phillips, D.P 48, 154, 157,238 Pilling, D 64, 119, 123, 171,238 Pinder,J 181,198,238 Piatt, J 58, 73, 184, 190, 196, 198, 238 Piatt, S 48, 238 Plummer, K 58, 64-5, 73, 238 Portocarero, L 30, 224 Przeworski, A 156, 201, 209, 238 Psacharopoulos, G 113, 238 Punch, M 67, 238 Putnam, R.D 156,216 Ragin, C.C 12-13, 49, 201, 209, 238 Reskin, B 22, 238 Reuss-Ianni, E 70, 238 Rexroat, C 118,238 Rindfuss, R.R 26, 238 Ritchie, J 39, 238 Robins, P.K 133,156,239 Robinson, R.V 31,239 Robinson, W.S 98, 162, 213, 239 Robson,C.91,94,239 Rockman, B.A 156,239 Rohwer,G 112,125,218 Rogers, D 61,69,239 Rokkan, S 201-3, 207-10, 239 Roos, PA 31,239 Rose, D 90, 239 Rose, E.IB 158,239 Rose, M 25, 239 Rose, R 177, 239 Rosen, B 139,189,239 Rosenbaum, J.E 49, 239 Rosenberg, M 94, 239 Rosenthal, R 21, 23-4, 31, 129-30, 138, 170,180, 239 Rosner, M 136, 239 Ross, C.E 208, 239 Ross,H.L 24, 115,240 Rossi, P.H 7-9, 22, 81, 89, 94, 134, 137, 156,161,184-5,190,240 Rossi, R.J 27, 114,240 Roth, J.A 151,196,240 Rubery, J 206, 240 Rubinstein, W.D 48, 240 Ruhm,C 141,240 Runciman, W.C 34, 240 Runyan, W.M 64, 240 Rutter,M 86, 111,121,163,240 Ryder, N.B 112,240 Salaff, J.W 67, 240 Saris, W.E 92, 240 Saunders, C 29, 241 Saunders, P 119,241 Saxe, L 143, 241 Sayer, A 1, 34,47, 130-1, 157, 213, 241 Scase, R 44, 241 Schaie,K.W 113,241 Schelling, T.C 178,241 Schooler, C 169, 202, 232 Scott, C 87, 205, 221 Scott, J 205, 241 Scott, R.A 3, 241 Semin,G.R 34, 121,241 Sen, A 160,241 Sewell, W.H 54, 241 Shamdasani, P.N 42-3, 243 Shapiro, D 113,241 Shaw, C.R 65, 241 Shaw,L.B 113,241 Shehan,C 118,238 Sherman, L.W 134,241 Sieber, S.D 74, 241 Siebert, W.S 49, 241 Siemiatycki, J 52, 92, 241 Silverman, D 42, 241 Simon, R.J 26, 241 Simons, H 74, 241 Simpson, I.H 27, 241 Sklair, L 203, 241-2 Skocpol,T 141,202,242 Slomczynski, K.M 169, 202, 242 Small, S 89, 165, 169,242 Smeeding, T 30, 104, 242 Smelser,N 185,201,209,242 Smith, D 66, 242 Smith, D.H 203, 242 Smith, D.J 67, 81, 84, 89, 158,163, 165, 169, 242 Author index Smith, H.W 173, 242 Smith, J.P 123, 242 Smith, S.I 106, 242 Southgate, P 102, 242 Spain, D.S 28, 242 Spenner,K.I 74, 159,242 Sproat,K 113,116,118,242 Stacey, M 65, 94, 243 Stanley, J.C 49, 60, 129, 131, 220 Statistics Netherlands 122, 243 Steele, S.F 199, 243 Stevens, P 50, 243 Stewart, D.W 32, 42-3, 243 Stolzenberg, R.M 172, 243 Storey, D.I 179, 243 Stouffer, S.A 6, 128, 243 St Pierre, R.G 184, 198,243 Strauss, A.L 37, 227 Strong, P.M 70, 159,243 Sudman, S 62, 91, 152, 158, 243 Sykes,R.E 70, 159,243 Szalai,A.90-l,243 Szekelyi, M 119,243 Szreter, S 28, 243 Tajfel,H 138,243 Tallman, I 142, 243 Tanur, J.M 55, 91, 107, 143, 243 Taub, R.P 66, 244 Taylor, C.L 32, 244 Taylor, M 122, 244 Terkel, S 39, 44, 244 Thomas, P 198, 244 Thompson, B 50, 113,244 Thompson, D 143, 179, 244 Thompson, P 79, 244 Thomson, A.W.I 54, 228 Thornberry, T.R 52, 113, 130, 244 Todd, IE 125, 244 Tomlinson, S 22, 244 Torode,B 70, 159,244 Tourangeau, R 80, 244 Townsend, P 85, 157, 160, 170, 244 Traugott, M.W 55, 244 Treiman, D.I 56, 210, 244 Trinder, C.G 16, 217 Tuma,N.B 124-5,133,244 253 Udy, S.H 75, 244 Useem, M 184, 196, 244 Van Dijk, I 104, 245 Van Maanen, I 74, 245 Veevers, J.E 38,44, 245 Verba, S 13,156,203-4,216 Voorhees-Rosen, D.I 136, 245 Waldfogel.J 118,137,245 Walker, M.A 52, 58, 245 Walker, R 42, 245 Wall, WD 113,245 Walsh, E.J 159,245 Walton, I 22, 66, 245 Warwick, D.P 94, 99, 201, 209-10, 245 Wasserman, I.M 48, 154, 157-8, 245 Webb, E.I 58, 173,245 Webber, R.I 27, 189, 246 Weber, R.P 56, 58, 70, 246 Weiss, C.H 8, 185, 199,246 West, D.J 113, 246 Westie, F.R 174, 246 White, M 88, 106, 113, 119, 157, 163, 246 Whitfield, K 74,141, 209, 246 Whyte, M.K 72, 246 Whyte, W.F 67-8, 137, 190, 246 Wiersma, G.E 71, 246 Wildavsky, A 68-9, 229 Williams, C.L 70, 246 Willigan, J.D 32, 246 Willis, C.E 50, 243 Wilson, J.Q 22, 246 Wise, L.L 124, 216 Wolfgang, M.E 113,246 Wrench, J 49, 246 Wright, E.O 86-7, 161, 201, 204, 246 Wright, J.D 6, 22, 246-7 Wrigley, E.A 48, 247 Wrong, D.H 34, 64, 247 Yin, R.K 11-13, 24, 60, 62-3, 67, 70, 74,247 Zeisel,H 94, 134,247 Subject index administrative records 46-58, 82-3, 91, 123,152, 170 advocacy research 8-9, 206 archives 32-3,44-5, 70, 74, 77, 94, 108 area-based studies 111, 163 arrests 49, 81,88, 124 artificial experiments 137-9, 142; see also social experiments attitudes, values and motivations 34-45, 77, 80, 82, 88, 96-8, 101-3, 118, 208 audiences for research results 4, 7-8, 174-6, 181-2 Australia 101, 104,204 Austria 65-6 Bangladesh 103 BCS 52, 101-2 Belgium 87, 103, 124 bias 78, 93, 172; see also advocacy research, self-fulfilling prophecy BSAS 95, 98, 106 Canada 28, 87, 101, 104, 132, 204 CAPI 90, 92-3, 106 case studies 10, 12-13, 40, 59-75, 110, 151-2, 155, 158-9 CASS 108 CATI 90, 92-3, 106 causal processes 5-6, 13, 76, 94, 121, 130-1,214 censuses 10, 25, 27-9, 39 change, gross and net measures of 96-8, 109,213 chaos theory see complexity theory childlessness 38 Chile 103 China 30, 67, 141,202 cohort studies 27, 112, 115-19, 125-6 collaborative research 8, 43, 193-5 community 43, 59, 65-7, 71 companies 46-7,49, 51-4, 69-71, 82-3, 158, 189 complexity theory 13, 130, 178 computers 31-3, 53-5, 92, 210 confidentiality 47, 58, 67 content analysis 56, 58 control group 41, 127-8, 130, 133,137 controlled access 57 conversation analysis 70 costs and resources 3, 15-16, 150-3 CPS 29-30, 46, 55, 95, 99-100, 105-6, 140, 167 crime 22,46, 50, 56, 70, 90, 95, 101-2, 111,113,130,135,165,170 crime surveys 90, 95-6, 98-9, 101-2, 107, 192 cross-national comparisons 11, 29-31, 40, 84, 86-7, 121-3, 156, 200-10, 214 CWHS 55, 57 data analysis 24, 32,45, 58 demography 28 Denmark 87 depth interviews 34-45 description 6-7, 13, 37, 59-60 Detroit Area Study 98 developing countries 94, 210 deviant cases 60-1 diaries 90 discrimination 49, 79-80, 102, 135, 142 documentary evidence 46-58 DOT 56 double blind 129-30, 180 earnings 29, 111,113, 115 ecological fallacy 98, 162, 213 economics 2, 37, 66, 119, 144, 159, 178, 214 education 22-3, 59, 64, 68-9, 79, 85, 123, 128, 132 Subject index employment and labour force participation 24-5, 69-72, 79-80, 88, 91,96,103,106,110,113,115-16, 118-19,121,133,136,141 EOC9 ESRC 166, 179 ethical issues 67, 73, 139, 143, 190 ethnic minorities 79-81, 88, 102, 142, 158,169 Eurobarometer surveys 26, 71, 95, 98, 103 European Commission 182, 201, 206 European Union 103, 122, 182, 201-2, 206-7 evaluation research 7-8 event history analysis 112, 125 experiments see social experiments explanation see causal processes families 59-60, 71-2, 81, 84, 113, 115, 132,159 feminist research 34 fertility 50, 115, 118, 132 FES 30, 85, 93, 99, 108, 159 field research 10 Finland 87, 104, 201 fiscal policy 68-9 focus groups 34-45 France 30, 48, 71, 103-4, 141, 155, 202 funding 184-99 geography 28, 66, 79 Germany 28, 71, 101, 103, 121-2, 137, 155,202,204,208 GHS 80, 85, 95-6, 105, 108 Greece 122 group discussions see focus groups GSS 17, 98-9, 101,197 health 46, 50, 60, 81, 90, 99, 107, 110, 113,116,132,172 health services 46, 50, 69, 72, 79, 84, 105 history 22, 69-70, 79, 141 homeless 41, 165-6 homeworking 9, 29, 38, 80, 166-8, 178 Hong Kong 67 housing 79, 113, 132 Human Relations Area Files 72, 74-5 Hungary 87 IALS 87 ideal types 13-14 ILO 30, 32, 35, 182,200-1,207 income 30, 69, 79, 81, 85, 97, 104, 113, 116,118,132,134,157,160,165 255 India 71, 99, 200, 202 Indonesia 200 industrial relations 29,46, 175-6, 209 informants 5, 46, 58, 106, 110 interest groups (and stakeholders) 22, 174-6 intergenerational studies 115, 120 Ireland 87, 104 Israel 71, 103 ISSP26, 103, 167, 197,203-4 Italy 28, 87, 103, 122, 155,204 Japan 71, 103, 141, 169, 202, 204 kibbutz 136 laboratory experiments see artificial experiments; see also social experiments Latin America 203, 208 legislation 7, 38, 51,67, 112, LFS46, 100-1,103, 106 life history 63-5, 73 LIS 30, 104, 122 literacy 48 literature reviews see research reviews longitudinal studies 39-40, 109-126 LS 32, 55, 57-8 macro-level research 36, 96-8, 164 Malaysia 122-3 market research 35-6, 40 Mass Observation 44 media 56, 91 meta-analysis 23-4, 31 methodological individualism 34 Mexico 142, 204 micro-level research 96-8, 164 minority groups 63, 80 modelling8, 139 multidisciplinary research 5, 11, 64, 161, 176-9, 195 multilevel analysis 5, 162 natural experiments 135-7; see also social experiments NCDS 111, 115-16, 120, 123-4, 164, 169, 171 NES 53, 58 Netherlands 71-2, 101, 103-4, 122, 154-5 Nigeria 200 NIT (Negative Income Tax) 132-3 NLS 6, 24-5, 41, 112, 116-18, 124, 140, 153,167 Norway 87, 104,201,204 256 Subject index occupations 39, 67-9, 159 OCG 30, 105 OECD 29-30, 32-3, 87,103-4,123,167, 200, 206, 210 Offenders’ Index 53, 58 omnibus surveys 89-90, 95, 204 opportunistic research 50, 148—9 organisations 49, 81, 85-6, 155, 160 panel studies 114 parasuicide see suicide Philippines 103 Poland 87, 169, 202 police 50, 70, 83-4, 88, 101-2, 134-5, 169 policy research 3-9, 22, 24, 37, 64, 68, 70, 86, 141, 156, 177, 198-9, 201, 212 political science 22, 61, 66, 92, 120, 155, 203 politics 163, 208 Portugal 87, 204 postal surveys 78, 91-2 prediction 8, 23, 131,214 Prisoner’s Dilemma 141 projection 131, 214 proxy informants 95, 106 Prussia 141 PSID 8, 24-5, 113-15, 119-22, 124 psychology 23,42, 31, 37, 131, 137, 142, 160, 178 qualitative research 10, 12-14, 34-45 race 79 randomisation 127-9, 131, 134 records see administrative records regular surveys 95-108 religion 64, 87 replication 24, 153-6, 166-7 research costs see costs and resources research-funding see funding research management 193-9 research organisations 165,180-1,184-5 research programmes 15, 164-83 research reviews 21-3, 31 researchers 14, 177, 198, 203-6 retirement 114, 116 retrospective data 109, 120-1 role-holder interviewing 5, 68, 73, 82-5 roles and relationships 59, 68, 70-1, 83-5, 159 Russia 141, 202 sample selection bias 127, 143, 172 sampling 76-94, 91, 114, 170-2 Scotland 50, 71, 136 screening surveys 80, 101 secondary analysis 8, 12, 24-7, 31, 152, 158,170 selection effects 172 self-fulfilling prophecy 23, 129, 138, 170 sift surveys 80, 101 SIME/DIME 132-4, 140, 142-3, 156, 179, 196 slavery 28 sleeper effects 112, 125 social anthropology 71-2, 75 social experiments 6, 22, 60-1, 127-44 social policy 132 social welfare and benefits 68-9 sociology 2, 28, 34, 66, 86, 92, 119, 160, 190 software 45, 92-3, 139 South Africa 103 Spain 28, 122, 137 stakeholders see interest groups statistical significance student theses/dissertations 42, 149-50 suicide 48, 157-8 surveys 10, 30, 41, 59, 76-108, 111, 148, 150,159,204-5 Sweden 30, 87, 89, 101, 124, 155, 201, 204 synthetic cohort data 27, 121 team research 74, 193-5, 209 telephone surveys 80, 91-2, 125 theoretical research 3-9 time budget studies 90-1, 98, 107-8 triangulation 147, 172-4, 197 Turkey 122 unemployment 60, 79, 81, 88, 91, 96-7, 109,115-6,119,128,130,153,171 USA 6, 8-9, 15, 17, 26-9, 32, 39, 49, 55, 64-5, 80-1, 87, 97, 101-5, 114, 11618, 120, 132, 134, 136-8, 140, 142-3, 154-5, 165, 169, 197, 202, 204, 208 variable-centred analysis 12 websites 33,44-45, 108, 120 women 168, 172, 174 WIRSAVERS 95, 98, 104, 106-8, 175, 193-4 World Fertility Survey 87, 205-6 World Values Survey 26, 102-3, 204 youth 117 Yugoslavia 122 ... research design for students, for professional social scientists and for those who commission and use social research Catherine Hakim is Senior Research Fellow at the London School of Economics Social. . .Research Design Research Design provides a practical overview of the central issues involved in the design of social and economic research Covering both theoretical and policy research, ... Philosophy of Social Research Tim May and Malcolm Williams Surveys in Social Research (4th edition) Researching the Powerful in Education David de Vaus Edited by Geoffrey Walford Research Design Successful