Qualitative research methods for community development robert mark silverman, kelly l patterson, routledge, 2016 scan

Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development teaches the basic skills, tools, and methods of qualitative research with special attention to the needs of community practitioners This book teaches students entering planning, community development, nonprofit management, social work, and similar applied fields the core skills necessary to conduct systematic research designed to empower communities and promote social change Focusing on the basic elements of qualitative research, such as field observation, interviewing, focus groups, and content analysis, Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development provides an overview of core methods and theoretical underpinnings of successful research The book provides examples from past research used in transformative community projects across multiple disciplines From housing, community organizing, neighborhood planning, and urban revitalization, this book gives students the skills they need to undertake their own projects, and provides professionals a valuable reference for their future research The book serves as a primary text for courses in applied qualitative research, and as a reference book for professionals and community-based researchers In addition to content detailing core methods used in qualitative research, it includes a chapter that provides guidance for the dissemination of qualitative results to a spectrum of audiences applying qualitative methods to action research and community empowerment Robert Mark Silverman is a Professor and the PhD Program Director in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University at Buffalo He is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011) Kelly L Patterson is an Assistant Professor in the School of Social Work at the University at Buffalo She is co-editor of Schools and Urban Revitalization: Rethinking Institutions and Community Development (2013); and Fair and Affordable Housing in the US: Trends, Outcomes, Future Directions (2011) “Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development is an engaging and practical ‘how to’ guide in the design, implementation, analysis, and dissemination of qualitative research Replete with numerous case examples and sections on topics such as underlying theoretical contexts, ethical concerns, and the use of new technologies, the book is an invaluable resource for community-based scholars, students, and practitioners.” Anna Maria Santiago, Leona Bevis & Marguerite Haynam Professor of Community Development, Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University “At last! A qualitative methods text pitched to professional disciplines The text provides an engaging overview of methods, followed by practical primers on collecting and analyzing qualitative data A concise but clear data analysis chapter leads off the practical approach, unfolding the relationship between a researcher and his or her qualitative data and its sources: ethics, tools for coding and creating meaning, the importance of iteration, and the value of collaboration The text teaches and shows by example how to communicate in ways ‘interesting and memorable,’ as well as oriented towards progressive change It will be an excellent choice for students and professionals embarking on qualitative research.” Gwendolyn H Urey, Professor of Urban & Regional Planning, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona “This book offers solid guidance to community development and social welfare students and practitioners on how to design, collect, analyze, and publish qualitative data for the purposes of improving services and empowering communities Detailing rigorous standards while using approachable examples, it is well-organized, comprehensive, insightful, and a delight to read.” Corianne Payton Scally, CEO, HOUSERS, LLC and former Associate Professor of Urban Planning, University at Albany, SUNY Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson First published 2015 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Taylor & Francis The right of Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Silverman, Robert Mark, 1967Qualitative research methods for community development / Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson Edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index Community development Qualitative research I Patterson, Kelly L II Title HN49.C6.S55 2015 307.1’4 dc23 2014023396 ISBN: 978-0-415-74035-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-74036-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-79776-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by GreenGate Publishing Services, Tonbridge, Kent We dedicate this book to Elijah and Emalyn This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Figures About the Authors Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations Qualitative Research for Students and Professionals viii x xi xii Qualitative Analysis as an Iterative Process 23 Field Notes and Observations 41 Semi-Structured Interviewing 60 Focus Groups 75 Content Analysis 95 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings Index 106 124 Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 Methods, Key Contributions, and Links to Professional Practice and Community Empowerment Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research The Iterative Process in Qualitative Research Example of Coding from an Interview with the Executive Director of a Nonprofit Social Welfare Organization in Jackson, MS Example of Coding from Field Notes from an Informal Discussion with the Executive Director of a Community Development Corporation in Detroit, MI Example of Coding from Photographs from a Neighborhood Revitalization Study in Buffalo, NY Example of Memos from a Study of a Community Development Corporation in Detroit, MI Example of Diagraming Codes from Content Analysis of Community Reactions to Proposed BNMC Expansion Planning Example of Jottings from Observation of Buffalo, NY’s Light Rail System Sources of Visual Data Characteristics of Casual Conversations and Informal Interviews The Process for Writing Full Field Notes, “Dos and Don’ts” Types of Analytic Memoing Elements of an Interview Guide Wording and Style of Grand-Tour Questions and Probes Three Foundational Sampling Techniques Used in Qualitative Research Examples of Nonverbal Cues used in Qualitative Interviewing Roles Filled by Focus Group Team Members Elements of a Questioning Route Example of a Questioning Route Introduction and Informed Consent Statement 13 19 24 31 33 35 37 38 48 49 51 54 55 62 64 67 70 79 81 82 Figures ix 5.4 Example of an Advance Letter to Recruit Focus Group Participants 5.5 Example of a Script for a Follow-Up Telephone Call to Recruit Focus Group Participants 6.1 Strengths and Limitations of Content Analysis 6.2 Characteristics of Manifest and Latent Content Analysis 6.3 Example of a Matrix Used for Manifest Coding 6.4 Example of Summary Table Based on Manifest Codes 6.5 Example of Data Presentation Based on Latent Content Analysis 7.1 Example of Displaying Qualitative Data in a Table Format 7.2 Example of the Narrative Format of Data Presentation 7.3 Elements of a Descriptive Table 7.4 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram 7.5 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram 7.6 Modes of Dissemination 90 91 96 99 100 101 102 108 111 112 114 115 116 112 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings Descriptive Tables The presentation of qualitative data using a narrative format can be enhanced with the inclusion of descriptive tables that summarize qualitative results In Chapter (see Figure 6.4), we illustrated how qualitative data can be aggregated into summary tables in order to highlight general characteristics in data In Figure 7.1, we provide another example of this approach to presenting qualitative data The use of summary tables early in a qualitative report is an effective tool to orient readers to the parameters of a study and highlight key characteristics of data that are elaborated upon in its narrative analysis Some basic conventions apply to the construction of descriptive tables There are four elements included in a table: the table title, row labels, column labels, the aggregated data, and footnotes Figure 7.3 illustrates the general format for table construction.1 Titles are short descriptive headings that describe a table’s contents In addition to providing a title, tables are clearly numbered in relation to other tables in a report (e.g “Table 1,” “Table 2,” …) Row labels appear in the first column of a table Each row has a heading that concisely defines the data being presented Column labels appear at the top of each column in the table They define the data presented in each column and the unit of measurement associated with it (e.g., the timeframe, “%,” “$,” “µ,” …) Tables also include footnotes to provide annotated information about their content and to identify the sources of any secondary data included in them Table Title Column Labels Row Labels Aggregated Data Footnote Figure 7.3 Elements of a Descriptive Table Source: Adapted from UNECE (2009) Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 113 In addition to the use of descriptive tables, qualitative data can also be summarized using a variety of charts and other graphics, such as line-charts, pie-charts, bar-charts, and histograms Whether a researcher decides to display summary data using tables, charts, or another graphic tool, some general rules apply First, tables and charts should be used selectively in qualitative studies They are mainly introduced into a qualitative study in order to highlight key features of data and supplement the data presented in the narrative analysis As a result, tables and charts should be clear and concise Most importantly, tables should present data accurately and not be misleading Visual Data Qualitative data can also be displayed visually using maps, diagrams, photographs, and other images The presentation of data using these mediums can serve a number of purposes In some instances, visual data are used to frame a study and supplement qualitative analysis This is best exemplified by community development research where maps of neighborhoods and their boundaries are included early in a report to define the research setting and its physical attributes In other instances, visual data are a central component of the analysis Studies that include Photovoice and other photographic analysis as a component of their data collection strategies will incorporate images in their narrative analysis In these instances, images take the place of excerpts from interview transcripts in a report When photographs and other images are incorporated into narrative analysis the same basic structure used to present excerpts from text-based data are applied First, concepts that emerge from analysis are introduced, then visual data that exemplify them are presented, and then the visual data are contextualized In addition to using visual data to frame a study or as a component of narrative analysis, they can be used to explain relationships and develop theoretical constructs In Chapter 2, we discussed the use of diagraming in qualitative analysis Researchers apply this technique to visually represent relationships identified in a study Diagrams are created to visually represent relationships between themes identified in analysis and build grounded theory In applied fields such as community development and social work, researchers use diagrams to present the findings of their research Diagrams depict processes observed in a research setting and they are used to illustrate theoretical models derived from qualitative analysis Silverman (2001) used diagraming to summarize results from his analysis of the influence of neighborhood characteristics and larger social institutions on the formation of community development corporations Figure 7.4 includes his model of the community development industry system that grew out of this analysis 114 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings Functional role Sector Government agencies Private foundations Private corporations Non-profit organizations Policy formulation Policy implementation Primary CDCs Secondary Neighborhoods Nature of interaction and feedback Direct Indirect Figure 7.4 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram Source: Adapted from Silverman (2001) The model illustrates how interactions and feedback from larger social institutions and the neighborhood level shaped the activities of community development corporations It also depicts a broader set of functional roles that these institutions and organizations fill in the policy process Consequently, the diagram serves as a tool for the construction of a theoretical model of the community development industry system Figure 7.5 provides another example of the use of diagraming as a tool for theory building with qualitative data This example comes from Silverman’s (2005) study of citizen participation in community development corporations The diagram depicts the relationships between groups that were observed as drivers of public participation and the forms of participation they adopted The diagram is used to construct a dichotomy contrasting grassroots and instrumental participation This visual representation of the data was elaborated upon in the narrative analysis and used to offer extensions to theories of public participation Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 115 Grassroots participation Groups driving participation Forms of participation Informal neighborhood groups and networks of residents Issue-based and single purpose groups Block clubs, neighborhood organizations and homeowners’ associations Recreational, cultral, ethnic, and other civic organizations Direct resident control Community referendums Protests, pickets, demonstrations and boycotts Petition drives and letter writing campaigns Churches, synagogues, and mosques CDCs, faith-based, and other non-profit organizations Foundations and intermediaries Special community meetings Block parties and community dinners Regluar community meetings Colleges and universities Focus groups and charettes Government agencies Community surveys Private corporations Instrumental participation Figure 7.5 Example of Displaying Qualitative Results Using a Diagram Source: Adapted from Silverman (2005) Modes of Dissemination The results of a qualitative study can be disseminated through a variety of mediums, such as academic publications, professional reports, public presentations, and web-based applications In this section, we discuss two broad categories for modes of dissemination that community development and social welfare practitioners typically use: dissemination through traditional print mediums and dissemination through public presentation The presentation of qualitative results using narrative analysis, descriptive tables, and the display of visual data is found across these mediums However, the emphasis that researchers place on selected 116 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings presentation styles will vary depending on the mode of dissemination and the audience being targeted Figure 7.6 shows the relationship between the audience that qualitative researchers target and the presentation style they adopt Mode of Dissemination Research Papers and Books Audience Data Presentation Style Academics and Peer Researchers ● ● Traditional Print Mediums ● Professional Reports Professionals, Policy Makers and the General Public ● ● ● ● ● Oral Presentations Academic, Professional, General (venue specific) ● ● ● Public Presentations ● Internet and New Media Academic, Professional, General (open source) ● ● ● Figure 7.6 Modes of Dissemination Heavy emphasis on narrative analysis Descriptive tables and visual data are supplemental Extensive treatment of research questions, methods, literature reviews, and links to a broader body of knowledge Selective use of narrative analysis Use of descriptive tables is balanced with other data Visual data are used to contextualize core data Research questions and methods sections are succinct Policy and program recommendations, and actions plans are prominent Focus on a discrete set of topics Reinforce topics through a talk Use visual aids or PowerPoint to highlight main points and make the data the star Present detailed information about methods, literature reviews, and the contextual elements of data orally, without including it on PowerPoint slides Varies in style from those used in papers, books, professional reports, and oral presentations Documents, video, and other content are posted on the internet Asynchronous and synchronous modes of dissemination Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 117 Traditional Print Mediums Research papers and books Two of the most common mediums that qualitative researchers use to disseminate their research findings are research papers and books Disseminating research results through these mediums is focused on reaching academic audiences, primarily composed of other qualitative researchers In addition to increasing awareness of a researcher’s work, this form of dissemination allows investigators to get feedback from peers, identify common interests, refine their work, and contribute to the development of knowledge This type of dissemination occurs in two venues: the presentation of working papers, and the publication of articles, book chapters, and books There are a variety of outlets where papers and books can be disseminated Traditionally, working papers have been disseminated through conferences and meetings of professional associations There are also a variety of outlets for working papers online They include general online platforms such as Academia.edu (www.academia.edu), the Social Science Research Network (SSRN) (www.ssrn.com), and more specialized online websites Some specialized websites that post working papers in the fields of community development and social work include: Comm-Org, the online conference on community organizing (comm-org.wisc.edu), The Cyberhood (www.thecyberhood.net), and others In addition to the dissemination of working papers, qualitative studies are published in a number of formats, such as articles, book chapters, and books Often, the publication of articles and books that target academic audiences involve peer review processes These processes involve rigorous reviews of research submitted for publication, which often entail authors to revise their work and refine its presentation prior to publication The peer review process enhances the quality of published works and their relevance to the broader body of knowledge they are written to impact However, the rigors of disseminating qualitative work through outlets that target academic audiences are sometimes offset by the limited exposure publications in these venues have to broader audiences Given their target audience, qualitative papers and books follow a distinct style of presentation There is a much heavier emphasis on presenting data using the narrative format in papers and books targeted at academic audiences than is the case with other modes of dissemination Descriptive tables and visual data are also found in these publications, but they typically are used to supplement narrative analysis There are other tell-tale signs of qualitative studies that target academic audiences Prendergast (2004) outlines them in his essay on the content of ethnographic research publications In addition to a heavier emphasis on narrative analysis, studies that target academic audiences have more extensive: treatment of research questions, natural histories of the methodology, literature reviews, and linkages to the broader body of knowledge 118 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings Professional reports Another common medium that qualitative researchers use to disseminate their research findings is the professional report Disseminating research results through these mediums is focused on reaching professional audiences, policy makers, and the general public Professional reports can take a number of forms, such as policy analyses, planning documents, and program evaluations They are designed to examine a concrete problem or applied topic and generate recommendations for policy action Those recommendations can focus on the development of implementation strategies, program reforms, or other action items Professional reports are often disseminated through outlets, such as governmental agencies, public interest groups, social service providers, and community-based organizations Unlike articles and books that target academic audiences, professional reports are usually not subject to peer review processes However, drafts of professional reports are often submitted to agencies or clients that commission them for review and comment The purpose of a client review process is to identify areas where a report can be better focused on issues that assist in addressing a client’s concerns and identify solutions to them Given the target audience and problem solving focus of professional reports, the qualitative analysis in them follows a distinct style of presentation The presentation of data using narrative analysis is more selective in professional reports This type of data is often presented in a more balanced manner with descriptive tables that summarize qualitative findings Also, visual data are presented more sparingly in these publications, usually to contextualize other aspects of a report Given their focus on problem solving, professional reports focus on research questions that are narrower in scope Other elements of research reports, such as discussions of methods and literature reviews, are succinct The most telling marker of a professional report is the heavier emphasis placed on policy and program recommendations, which often take the form of an action plan Public Presentations Oral presentations In addition to disseminating qualitative research results in written formats, findings from qualitative studies are often presented orally Oral presentations can be delivered at academic and professional meetings, during public hearings, at community forums, and in other venues The audiences of oral presentations vary depending on the venue Regardless of the audience, there are tried and tested approaches to successfully delivering oral presentations In general, we recommend that presenters apply Dale Carnegie’s formula for oral presentations: “Tell the audience what you are going to say, say it; then tell them what you’ve said.” In essence, this formula emphasizes the need to focus oral presentations on a discrete number of topics and then reinforce them at each stage of the talk In many venues oral presentations are enhanced with visual aids One of the more ubiquitous tools used in oral presentations are PowerPoint slides We Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 119 recommend several strategies for using PowerPoint effectively in oral presentations The first thing to be aware of is that PowerPoint and other visual aids are tools used to highlight key ideas, concepts, and conclusions in an oral presentation Thus, PowerPoint should be viewed as a supplement to a presentation, rather than a comprehensive archive of it With this framework in mind, PowerPoint slides should be concise and contain a limited amount of essential information to highlight core ideas in an oral presentation Mechanically, there are other things to consider when creating PowerPoint slides for a presentation Regardless of the venue, all talks are subject to time limits Researchers should take the amount of time budgeted for their presentations into account when putting a PowerPoint presentation together As a general rule of thumb, an investigator should plan on spending about two minutes discussing each substantive slide in his or her presentation In the spirit of keeping information on individual PowerPoint slides concise and digestible, researchers should restrict the number of topics covered to two per slide The sequencing of topics in a PowerPoint presentation should also be designed to conform to Dale Carnegie’s formula of telling the audience what you are going to say, saying it, and then telling them what you’ve said In practical terms, this means that a PowerPoint presentation should begin with a brief outline of what will be discussed in the talk This outline would be followed by the identification of the broad research topic of the talk The next group of slides would introduce key concepts, research findings, and substantive issues related to the research topic These slides might include descriptive tables and visual data to frame and contextualize the discussion However, the focal point of the presentation should be a sample of selected excerpts from a qualitative study In most presentations two or three key quotes from a qualitative study would be introduced to highlight the findings from a study After excerpts from a study are introduced and discussed, the remaining slides of a PowerPoint presentation should identify recommendations or action items that grow out of a study Note that we not recommend that it is necessary to include information related to literature reviews and research methods in PowerPoint slides Too often we have attended oral presentations where a disproportionate amount of time is spent rifling through slides dealing with this type of content at the expense of discussions of a researcher’s findings and recommendations Our advice is that researchers discuss their methods and key literature when they identify their broader research topic, and that this material is introduced without the aid of PowerPoint slides Likewise, we recommend that when excerpts from a researcher’s data are introduced on slides, that other text not appear juxtaposed against them Researchers should plan to introduce excerpts and interpret them orally, without including detailed analysis on the slides themselves By reserving space on PowerPoint slides for key data excerpts and compartmentalizing more detailed information about contextual elements of the analysis, the spotlight remains on the data This is what qualitative researchers mean when they advocate for making the data the star 120 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings Internet and new media A growing public venue for qualitative research results is the internet and other new media Although the internet has been in existence for decades, the growth of open source content has made it an important venue for the dissemination of qualitative research The universal accessibility of internet content opens qualitative research to a broad audience of academics, professionals, and the general public Researcher’s papers and books can be posted online, particularly when they are made available by open source publishers Working papers, PowerPoint presentations, and other research materials can be distributed through websites that archive these types of materials for dissemination Moreover, oral presentations can be recorded and disseminated to broader audiences using video-sharing websites such as YouTube In addition to asynchronous modes of presenting qualitative research results on the internet, investigators can use these technologies to foster the dissemination of their work using interactive online tools, such as discussion boards, listservs, chat rooms, video conferences, and webinars These synchronous modes of presenting qualitative research have had a democratizing effect on the dissemination of qualitative studies and expanded the scope of audiences they reach The Grab A final issue to discuss that relates to data presentation is what qualitative methodologists have dubbed the “grab” (Glaser 2002; Gilgun 2005) Although underdeveloped, the central theme that is identified with the grab is the need for qualitative research to be presented in a manner that is interesting and memorable to readers Gilgun captured the essence of the grab with this comment: Qualitative researchers have a marvelous range of choices in how they convey their findings Yet, so many continue to write as if they are unaware of this amazingly creative work that engages their colleagues For the sake of consistency, why not write up qualitative research in ways that show that the medium is the message, that is, to ensure that the forms we choose are consistent with researchers’ philosophies of science? I not think all researchers should blur genres and use literary forms to convey their research, but I think many researchers could loosen up After all, we as researchers want others to read and remember what we write (Gilgun, 2005: 261) We concur with this perspective and offer some extension to the concept of the grab In addition to making qualitative research interesting and memorable, the grab can be used to increase the accessibility of qualitative research to broader audiences One key component of the grab is that it involves the adoption of writing styles in qualitative research grounded in terms and phrases that are familiar Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 121 to a broad audience This means that qualitative analysis is written clearly and devoid of unnecessary jargon The grab also suggests that the writing style adopted by a qualitative researcher should be designed to make a connection with the audience in a socially and culturally meaningful manner One tool used to achieve this type of connection with readers is the integration of in vivo terms in qualitative analysis There are other stylistic techniques that qualitative researchers can incorporate into their writing to fuse social and cultural meaning to their research In some of our publications we have drawn from popular culture to grab our audience One example of this approach was our article (Silverman & Patterson, 2012) where we used a Biblical reference, the four horsemen of the apocalypse, as a framing device for our analysis of U.S fair housing policies This analogy was used in the title of our article, as well as throughout its headings and subheadings In other cases we have used analogies and metaphors to connect our writing with its intended audience The chili metaphor used in Chapter is an example of this approach By describing qualitative analysis as analogous to making chili, we intended to make our discussion inviting, accessible, memorable, and open it to a broader audience Like Gilgun, we are strong proponents of encouraging researchers to “loosen up,” drop the jargon, ground their research in the language of the social spaces it examines, and establish connections with their audiences A core tenet of qualitative research is to demystify the research process and make it accessible to the masses so that it can be used to promote social change Cultivating the grab as a tool to disseminate qualitative research is one tool that can be applied to facilitate this goal Empowering Communities and Promoting Social Change In this final section, we return to our opening discussion in Chapter The purpose of this book is to expand the discussion of qualitative methods in professional fields, such as community development and social work There is increased demand for qualitative and mixed-methods research in the applied professions Today, communities are challenged by shifting population demographics, new demands for social services, pressures for education reform, concerns about public health, and other factors impacting the quality of life The emergence of new social issues and policy questions has been accompanied by increased demands for civic engagement and citizen empowerment We believe that qualitative research can play a role in meeting these challenges and enfranchising groups traditionally left out of the policy process Each of the preceding chapters has ended with a discussion of how qualitative research can be used to empower disenfranchised groups and promote social change in society We view qualitative analysis as an emancipatory tool that can be used to forge the redistribution of resources and power in society We have discussed how qualitative methods can have a democratizing influence when principles of participatory research and empowerment are applied 122 Dissemination of Qualitative Findings to data analysis, field research, one-on-one interviewing, focus groups, and content analysis We now turn to the application of these principles to the dissemination of qualitative research results In order to empower communities and promote social change, research results must be put into action The ultimate regret for a qualitative investigator is when his or her research settles in obscurity This is the death null for qualitative research The specter of becoming irrelevant to the real world is even more objectionable to investigators in applied professions Having a professional report or program evaluation condemned to collect dust on a shelf is alienating and disempowering for both researchers and the communities they work with In order to escape this fate, it is incumbent that qualitative researchers advocate for their research and disseminate it in a manner that leads to action Investigators need to have a dissemination plan for their research in place from the onset As noted earlier in this book, strategies to reach disadvantaged and disenfranchised groups should be identified throughout the research process In terms of dissemination, those strategies should include disseminating research results in public venues and using those venues as forums for the development of community action plans In order to evoke change, research results must be entered into public discourse Community development and social work professionals have a variety of tools at their disposal to spark emancipatory dialogue in disenfranchised communities They include: community meetings, charrettes, research briefs, webinars, discussion boards, and other tools designed to give disenfranchised groups voice However, qualitative researchers must go a step further and become advocates for the empowerment of communities and the promotion of social change Members of the academic community must incorporate activist scholarship into their work It is not enough to publish articles and books about impinging social problems Scholars must reach out to communities and the media, broaden the audience for their work, and encourage its application to grassroots initiatives aimed at promoting social change In essence, qualitative research and public scholarship go hand in hand In the same manner, practitioners need to apply their work at the community level and build alliances with disempowered and disenfranchised groups From this perspective, qualitative research should be viewed as a community organizing tool Hence, its dissemination should rile the masses, inspire them to pursue social justice, and facilitate the development of action plans to reach those goals Qualitative research is entering a brave new era where the empowerment of communities and the promotion of social change are coupled with activist scholarship and engaged professionals It is an exciting time to be a qualitative researcher Note This example was adapted from UNECE (2009: 18) Dissemination of Qualitative Findings 123 References Gilgun, J.F (2005) “Grab” and good science: Writing up the results of qualitative research Qualitative Health Research, 15(2): 256–262 Glaser, B.G (2002) Conceptualization: On theory and theorizing using grounded theory International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2): 1–31 Omi, M and Winant, H (1994) Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s New York: Routledge Patterson, K.L and Silverman, R.M (2011) How local public administrators, nonprofit providers, and elected officials perceive impediments to fair housing in the suburbs: An analysis of Erie County, New York Housing Policy Debate, 21(1): 165–188 Prendergast, C (2004) The typical outline of an ethnographic research publication Teaching Sociology, 32(3): 322–327 Silverman, R.M (2000) Doing business in minority markets: Black and Korean entrepreneurs in Chicago’s ethnic beauty aids industry New York: Garland Silverman, R.M (2001) Neighborhood characteristics, community development corporations, and the community development industry system: A case study of the American Deep South Community Development Journal, 36(3): 234–245 Silverman, R.M (2003) Progressive reform, gender and institutional structure: A critical analysis of citizen participation in Detroit’s community development corporations (CDCs) Urban Studies, 40(3): 2731–2759 Silverman, R.M (2005) Caught in the middle: Community development corporations (CDCs) and the conflict between grassroots and instrumental forms of citizen participation Community Development, 36(2): 35–51 Silverman, R.M and Patterson, K.L (2012) The four horsemen of the fair housing apocalypse: A critique of fair housing policy in the USA Critical Sociology, 38(1): 123–140 UNECE (2009) Making data meaningful part 2: A guide to presenting statistics Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Whyte, W.F (1993) Street corner society: The social structure of an Italian slum, 4th edition Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press Wilton, R.D (2002) Colouring special needs: Locating whiteness in NIMBY conflicts Social and Cultural Geography, 3(3): 303–321 Index Academia.edu 117 action plan 101, 118, 122 active observer 45 activist scholarship 122 Adobe connect 72, 92 advance letters 67–8, 89–91 analytic memoing 53–7, 71 anchor institutions 95, 103 appropriate technology 5, 10, 105 archetype 102 asides 55–7, 71 asynchronous interviewing 72 Atlas.ti 28 Barbie doll 75 becoming invisible 44 Blackboard Collaborate 72, 92 Buffalo, NY 11, 13, 34–5, 38, 47–8, 52, 71, 96, 101, 110 Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus (BNMC) 35, 38 case study approach 4, 9–10, 103 casual conversations 51–2 Center for Disease Control 28 charettes 40, 115 charts 113 chat room 72, 93, 120 Chicago 95 chili metaphor 23–4 closing questions 62, 64, 84 Coding Analysis Toolkit (CAT) 28 commentaries 55–7, 71 Comm-Org 117 community development corporations (CDCs) 30, 33–4, 36–7, 108, 114–15 community development industry system 113–14 community mapping 15 community workshops 40, 78–9, 87 confidentiality 17–19, 62, 81–2 constant comparative method 5, 7–8, 24, 29, 36 cooking bacon 45 corner boys 43 critical case study 103 critical ethnography 6–7 critical case 4–5, 10, 103 The Cyberhood 117 Darwin, Charles 41 deception 16, 19, 44 dedoose 28 demographic questions 62, 64–6, 83–4 descriptive tables 112–13, 115–19 design charrettes 78, 79, 87 Dichter, Ernest 75 discussion boards 120, 122 Detroit, MI 11, 30, 33–4, 36–7, 42, 67, 107 Dragon 28 dramaturgical nature of semi-structured interviewing 61 empowerment 1, 4–5, 15–16, 20, 39, 50, 59, 61, 73, 76, 93, 121–2 ethnographic research 4, 6, 117 eye contact 69–70 EZ-Text 28 field notes 2, 6, 8, 20, 25, 34, 41–8, 52–5 focus groups 75–93 focus group moderator 80 focused coding 29–30, 34, 99, 101 follow-up telephone calls 79, 89, 91 four horsemen of the apocalypse 121 Fruit Belt neighborhood 35, 38 Index Galapagos Islands 41 gatekeepers 26, 43, 109 The “grab” in qualitative research 107, 120–1 grand-tour questions 62–6, 81, 83 grounded theory approach 4, 7–9, 29, 38, 46, 57, 73, 98, 113 headnotes 46, 51, 55 HMS Beagle 41 HyperRESEARCH 28 ice-breaker question 63, 65, 81, 83 in-process analytic writing 36 in vivo terms 29–30, 35, 46, 55, 64, 121 informed consent 16–19, 62–3, 69, 81–2 insider and outside status 5–6, 39, 44 institutional review board (IRB) 16–19 internet 3, 15, 25, 72–3, 86, 116, 120 interview guide 52, 61–6 iterative process 8, 20, 24–5, 29, 36, 40, 97, 108,110 Jackson, MS 30, 32 jottings 41, 46, 48–52, 54–6, 59, 65, 69, 71, 80 Lazarfeld, Paul 75 listserv 18, 120 logic model 97 make the data the star 116, 119 memos 36–8, 55–7, 71, 110 memorandum of understanding (MOU) 38, 104 methodological memos 55, 57, 71 Microsoft Lync 72, 92 Microsoft Office 27 Milgram experiment on obedience to authority 16 mixed methods research 4–5, 11–14, 103, 121 mnemonic devices 46 motivational research 75 mundane aspects of a field setting 45–6 narrative style 12, 110–11 National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research 16 National Research Act of 1974 16–17 natural history of the methodology 36, 107–10 new media 116, 120 125 “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) 38, 110–11 NVivo 28 open coding 29 open source 28, 116, 120 participant observation 6–7, 22–3, 28, 25, 30, 39, 51–2, 60–1 participatory action research (PAR) 3–5, 9, 14, 50, 104–5 peer review 12, 117–18 photography 2, 7, 15, 23, 34–5, 39, 42–4, 49–51, 85–6, 99, 103 Photovoice 104, 113 PowerPoint 116, 118–20 praxis 5, 9, 73 pre-focus group questionnaires and surveys 85–8, 91 pre-testing research instruments 88–9 probes 62–6, 68, 81, 83 public scholarship 122 qualitative data anlaysis software (QDAS) 2, 27–8, 30, 53, 97 questioning routes 76, 80–3, 88–9 racial coding 111 recruiting participants and informants 17, 20, 66–7, 88–9 reflexivity 5, 7, 18–19, 23, 44, 50, 53, 55, 57, 61 Santa Barbara 103 secondary data 13, 20, 95–104, 107, 112 semi-structured interviewing 7, 41, 52, 60–3, 65, 72–3 shooting galleries 44 significant events in a field setting 45–6 Skype 72, 92 social change 7–9, 14–15, 18–20, 61, 73, 76, 93, 107, 121–2 social mapping exercises 85–6 Social Science Research Network (SSRN) 117 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) 26 Stanford prison experiment 16 synchronous interviewing 72–3 systematic research design 24–6 technological Singularity 60 telephone interviewing 72–3 theoretical sampling 5, 7–8, 66–7 126 Index theory of description 5–6 thick description 5–6, 9, 54–5 transcription foot pedals 28, 71 transitional statements 65 travel diaries 86 triangulation 103 Tuskegee experiment 16 University at Buffalo (UB) 103 unobtrusive 43–4, 47, 50–1, 60, 92, 96–7 US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 33, 38 video conferences 120 visioning exercises 78, 79, 87 VisionsLive 28, 72 vulnerable populations 15, 17 walking surveys 57–8 web-based interviewing 72–3 webinars 120, 122 Whyte, William Foote 43, 108 windshield surveys 57–8 word processing software 2, 11, 27–8, 53–4 YouTube 120 Ventura 103 verbatim transcript 68, 70–1 zombie property 35 .. .Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development Qualitative Research Methods for Community Development teaches the basic skills, tools, and methods of qualitative research with... Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Silverman, Robert Mark, 196 7Qualitative research methods for community development / Robert Mark Silverman and Kelly L Patterson Edition pages cm Includes... discussed form a foundation for qualitative research in community development and social welfare practice 4 Qualitative Research They include: ● ● ● ● ● ethnographic research, which provides researchers