Extragalactic astronomy and cosmology

Ebook Planets, stars and stellar systems – Volume 6: Extragalactic astronomy and cosmology present content star formation in galaxies, the cool ism in galaxies, the influence of environment on galaxy evolution, the large-scale structure of the universe, the distance scale of the universe...

Terry D Oswalt Editor-in-Chief William C Keel Volume Editor Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems volume Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology Terry D Oswalt (Editor-in-Chief ) William C Keel (Volume Editor) Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems Volume 6: Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology With 314 Figures and 12 Tables Editor-in-Chief Terry D Oswalt Department of Physics & Space Sciences Florida Institute of Technology University Boulevard Melbourne, FL, USA Volume Editor William C Keel Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL, USA ISBN 978-94-007-5608-3 ISBN 978-94-007-5609-0 (eBook) ISBN 978-94-007-5610-6 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5609-0 This title is part of a set with Set ISBN 978-90-481-8817-8 Set ISBN 978-90-481-8818-5 (eBook) Set ISBN 978-90-481-8852-9 (print and electronic bundle) Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress 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from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Series Preface It is my great pleasure to introduce “Planets, Stars, and Stellar Systems” (PSSS) As a “Springer Reference”, PSSS is intended for graduate students to professionals in astronomy, astrophysics and planetary science, but it will also be useful to scientists in other fields whose research interests overlap with astronomy Our aim is to capture the spirit of 21st century astronomy – an empirical physical science whose almost explosive progress is enabled by new instrumentation, observational discoveries, guided by theory and simulation Each volume, edited by internationally recognized expert(s), introduces the reader to a well-defined area within astronomy and can be used as a text or recommended reading for an advanced undergraduate or postgraduate course Volume 1, edited by Ian McLean, is an essential primer on the tools of an astronomer, i.e., the telescopes, instrumentation and detectors used to query the entire electromagnetic spectrum Volume 2, edited by Howard Bond, is a compendium of the techniques and analysis methods that enable the interpretation of data collected with these tools Volume 3, co-edited by Linda French and Paul Kalas, provides a crash course in the rapidly converging fields of stellar, solar system and extrasolar planetary science Volume 4, edited by Martin Barstow, is one of the most complete references on stellar structure and evolution available today Volume 5, edited by Gerard Gilmore, bridges the gap between our understanding of stellar systems and populations seen in great detail within the Galaxy and those seen in distant galaxies Volume 6, edited by Bill Keel, nicely captures our current understanding of the origin and evolution of local galaxies to the large scale structure of the universe The chapters have been written by practicing professionals within the appropriate subdisciplines Available in both traditional paper and electronic form, they include extensive bibliographic and hyperlink references to the current literature that will help readers to acquire a solid historical and technical foundation in that area Each can also serve as a valuable reference for a course or refresher for practicing professional astronomers Those familiar with the “Stars and Stellar Systems” series from several decades ago will recognize some of the inspiration for the approach we have taken Very many people have contributed to this project I would like to thank Harry Blom and Sonja Guerts (Sonja Japenga at the time) of Springer, who originally encouraged me to pursue this project several years ago Special thanks to our outstanding Springer editors Ramon Khanna (Astronomy) and Lydia Mueller (Major Reference Works) and their hard-working editorial team Jennifer Carlson, Elizabeth Ferrell, Jutta Jaeger-Hamers, Julia Koerting, and Tamara Schineller Their continuous enthusiasm, friendly prodding and unwavering support made this series possible Needless to say (but I’m saying it anyway), it was not an easy task shepherding a project this big through to completion! Most of all, it has been a privilege to work with each of the volume Editors listed above and over 100 contributing authors on this project I’ve learned a lot of astronomy from them, and I hope you will, too! January 2013 Terry D Oswalt General Editor Preface to Volume Intentionally, this compendium invites contrast with the similarly titled volume from 1975, edited by Alan and Mary Sandage and Jerome Kristian They describe its view as largely a product of the late 1960s Our understanding of galaxies then, despite the already enormous observational and theoretical effort summarized, now seems woefully incomplete, largely because we stand on the shoulders of technological innovators We were then at the very dawn of X-ray observations of galaxies and clusters, and likewise our knowledge of the radio structures of galaxies and AGN was poised for dramatic improvements in quality and quantity AGN were still a novelty whose connection to “ordinary” galaxies was almost unknown; the model of energy release during accretion into massive black holes cold not yet be clearly formulated As far as we knew then galaxy masses were baryonic, and there was something suspicious about virial mass estimates for galaxy clusters Photometry of galaxies remained a tedious project, either using photomultipliers or the black art of calibrated photographic photometry Digital instrumentation for optical astronomy was just beginning to appear; the basic techniques of observation had advanced only incrementally for many years One catalog volume could still contain essentially all the photometric and redshift data ever obtained for galaxies We knew almost nothing about the evolution of galaxies; the relevant observations remained closely mixed with the quest for the fundamental parameters of cosmology Since that volume appeared (during my undergraduate years), our view of galaxies and their context has broadened dramatically, sometimes in ways scarcely conceivable then It seems appropriate to contrast many of these views to our current picture Not only can we trace the history of star formation (galaxy evolution seen in the act) across cosmic time, but we can address this question with constraints all the way from the X-ray to radio regimes, coupling direct detection of young stellar populations with the secondhand emission from dust grains and supernova products We continue to find value in the galaxy categories bequeathed by Edwin Hubble, Alan Sandage, and Sidney van den Bergh, but now extend the study of galaxy structure across cosmic time and wavelength Connections emerge (some hotly debated) between details of galaxy structure and events in galaxy history Again and again, crucial observable properties of galaxies are seen to be driven by dark matter, whose properties are being narrowed by such techniques as gravitational lensing With the finding of supermassive black holes (and thus potentially “dead quasars”) in most luminous galaxies, we seem to have the answer to a question posed by Joe Miller decades ago-are quasars important or merely interesting? If galaxies are important, so are quasars Our understanding of clusters and larger-scale structures has been revolutionized, both with the finding that the hot intracluster medium carries more mass than the stars, and with broad surveys showing statistical properties of superclusters, voids, and filaments (it is gratifying to note that one figure in this volume shows a reprocessing of the same galaxy counts shown in contour form by C.D Shane in 1975) Further, we are starting to fill in physical detail as to the ways galaxies are affected by their environments At the level of detail we can now reach, no galaxy is really an island Universe viii Preface to Volume The cosmic distance scale remains important, but we are in a very different stage A web of interlocking as well as independent measurements has narrowed the value of the local Hubble constant to a few per cent, so that local motions superimposed on the expansion are measurable We are at a key juncture in cosmology Recent results have dramatically narrowed the values of the Hubble constant, mass density, and fluctuation amplitude in the early Universe, with further refinements expected soon from the Planck mission Fine structure in the microwave background radiation encodes a rich range of both physical and astrophysical processes Yet we still only anticipate a physical understanding of whatever causes the acceleration of cosmic expansion indicated by multiple techniques Such terms as dark energy, cosmological constant, and quintessence at this point serve mostly to organize our ignorance Likewise, with new facilities capable of narrowing the observational Dark Ages, we see promise of adding new bodies of data to underpin our understanding of galaxy formation, and the first stars, and the growth of black holes in the early Universe All readers of this collection owe a debt to the community spirit of the authors, who have invested so much time and effort into making their contributions I hope that this collection shares with its predecessor a long useful life for many chapters, but also the scientific joy of being overtaken in some aspects by utterly unexpected discoveries William C Keel Tuscaloosa, Alabama USA Editor-in-Chief Dr Terry D Oswalt Department Physics & Space Sciences Florida Institute of Technology 150 W University Boulevard Melbourne, Florida 32901 USA E-mail: toswalt@fit.edu Dr Oswalt has been a member of the Florida Tech faculty since 1982 and was the first professional astronomer in the Department of Physics and Space Sciences He serves on a number of professional society and advisory committees each year From 1998 to 2000, Dr Oswalt served as Program Director for Stellar Astronomy and Astrophysics at the National Science Foundation After returning to Florida Tech in 2000, he served as Associate Dean for Research for the College of Science (2000–2005) and interim Vice Provost for Research (2005–2006) He is now Head of the Department of Physics & Space Sciences Dr Oswalt has written over 200 scientific articles and has edited three astronomy books, in addition to serving as Editor-in-Chief for the six-volume Planets, Stars, and Stellar Systems series Dr Oswalt is the founding chairman of the Southeast Association for Research in Astronomy (SARA), a consortium of ten southeastern universities that operates automated 1-meter class telescopes at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory in Chile (see the website www.saraobservatory.org for details) These facilities, which are remotely accessible on the Internet, are used for a variety of research projects by faculty and students They also support the SARA Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) program, which brings students from all over the U.S each summer to participate oneon-one with SARA faculty mentors in astronomical research projects In addition, Dr Oswalt secured funding for the 0.8-meter Ortega telescope on the Florida Tech campus It is the largest research telescope in the State of Florida Dr Oswalt’s primary research focuses on spectroscopic and photometric investigations of very wide binaries that contain known or suspected white dwarf stars These pairs of stars, whose separations are so large that orbital motion is undetectable, provide a unique opportunity to explore the low luminosity ends of both the white dwarf cooling track and the main sequence; to test competing models of white dwarf spectral evolution; to determine the space motions, masses, and luminosities for the largest single sample of white dwarfs known; and to set a lower limit to the age and dark matter content of the Galactic disk 676 13 Cosmic Microwave Background ⊡ Fig 13-33 Note from Richard Feynman to Alex Szalay inscribed inside Szalay’s copy of the Feynman lectures the factor of accounts for the two spin states This occupation number does not change if the neutrinos are massive In other words, the occupation is set when they are highly relativistic Because the expansion of the universe is adiabatic, the neutrinos not change orbitals as the universe evolves The energy density today for a single species is given by √ ∞ π  ρ= q  n ν q  + m ν c  a  dq (13.17) ∫   (hc) a  In > Fig 13-34, the distribution of the neutrino background (the integrand of ( > 13.17)) is compared to that of the Planck distribution for the CMB If m ν = , then the energy density as a function of momentum, p, is similar to that of the photons, but the peak is shifted to the left because the neutrinos are slightly colder In addition, the low momentum tail falls off more quickly than for photons due to the “+” sign in the denominator of n ν as opposed to “−” sign for photons As the neutrino mass increases, the energy term in ( > 13.17) becomes independent of q, and thus the low momentum tail of the distribution is proportional to q  The photons have Cosmic Microwave Background 1016 13 Neutrinos with T=1.95 K Energy Density (eV/cm3 ΔpSI) 1015 Mass=0.5 eV 1014 1013 Mass=0.05 eV 1012 1011 1010 CMB 109 Mass=0 eV 108 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 Momentum (eV/c) ⊡ Fig 13-34 The neutrino energy distribution as a function of neutrino momentum The integral of the top curve tells us that the current energy density for a species of neutrino with a mass of 0.5 eV is 55 eV/cm3 We know the mass of one species must be at least 0.05 eV, and so for these the energy density is 5.5 eV/cm3 For the CMB, the energy density is 0.28 eV/cm3 today the same distribution at low momentum but for a different reason; here, the q dependence in the denominator of the occupation number cancels the q in the energy dependence When thinking about neutrinos, the two most important times in cosmic evolution are matter-radiaton equality and decoupling In the the standard six-parameter, Λ-dominated flat cosmology, these occur at z eq = , and z dec = , respectively (Komatsu et al 2011) The essential feature of z eq is that for z > z eq the expansion rate of the universe slows down and the formation of cosmic structure can begin Neutrinos, for any mass compatible with the data, act relativistically at matter-radiation equality By relativistic we mean kTν ≳ m ν c  > Figure 13-35 shows the energy density of various cosmic constituents as a function of scale factor of the universe For neutrinos, blue lines, this is simply ρ in ( > 13.17) The energy density in radiation (the CMB) scales as /a  , the energy density in matter scales as /a  , and the energy density in a cosmological constant is independent of a From > Fig 13-35 we can gain an intuition for how neutrinos affect the CMB First, let us examine the number of relativistic species, N eff We know there are three families of neutrinos, and so from particle physics, expect N eff =  In the cosmological context, we define N eff through ⎛   ρ rad ≡  + ( ) ⎝   / ⎞ N eff ρ γ ⎠ (13.18) 677 13 Cosmic Microwave Background 1023 1021 Matter/Radiation Equality Decoupling 1019 Energy Density (eV/cm3 ) 678 1017 1015 1013 1011 109 CDM+Baryons 107 Neutrinos 0.5 eV 0.05 eV eV 105 103 Lambda 101 10–1 10–6 CMB 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 Scale factor, a ⊡ Fig 13-35 The scaling of the cosmic constituents with scale factor a Green is for CDM and baryons, blue is for neutrinos of three different rest masses, 0.5, 0.05, and eV, red is the CMB, and solid black is the cosmological constant Note that for all viable neutrino masses, neutrinos scale with the expansion like radiation before a ≈ × 103 and like matter now The mass corresponding to Tν = 1.95 K is mν = 0.2 meV Because the annihilation of e + with e − does not result in all of the energy going into photons alone, some goes to the neutrinos, and thus N eff = . in ( > 13.18) (Mangano et al 2005; Kneller and Steigman 2004) If N eff > ., then in > Fig 13-35, the blue lines near z eq and z dec are shifted up As a result, z eq is closer to z dec This means that prior to decoupling, the higher N eff , the greater the expansion rate This is a result of the fact that a radiation-dominated universe expands more rapidly than does a matter-dominated one As pointed out in Bashinsky and Seljak (2004) and Hou et al (2011), this leads to increased Silk damping and thus a suppression of the anisotropy at l >√, An outline of the argument is as follows: the diffusion scale of a photon, r d , scales as / H, where H is the expansion parameter prior to decoupling If r d increases, there is more diffusion and thus more Silk damping One way to view the scaling (Hou et al 2011) is that r d increased as t / as one would expect of diffusion However, as H increases, t decreases and r d decreases For the CMB, the other key scale is the acoustic horizon, r A = θ A D a with D a the angular diameter distance, and θ A the angle The quantity θ A is precisely determined by the ℓ <  anisotropy data to be θ A = . ± .○ (Komatsu et al 2011) The sound horizon, r A , is essentially the sound speed multiplied by time and so scales as /H Since θ A is so well constrained by the data, the relevant quantity is r d /r A which scales as H Thus, the more relativistic species there are, the larger H at the decoupling era and the larger the damping scale relative to the acoustic scale The result is more suppression of the l > , damping tail relative to the acoustic peaks Cosmic Microwave Background 13 The damping tail is also affected by the fraction of helium The more helium, the more electrons are bound up in atoms, the longer the diffusion length for a photon, and therefore the greater the suppression of the CMB fluctuations As a result, there is some degeneracy between the primordial helium fraction and the number of relativistic species The two effects, though, can be separated (see, e.g., Jungman et al 1996; Dunkley et al 2011) Massive neutrinos affect how we interpret the CMB in a number of ways For example, for all allowed mass sums (. < Σ ν < . eV), the neutrinos are nonrelativistic today and should be counted as part of the matter budget as indicated on the right hand side of > Fig 13-35 However, for the same mass range, they are part of the radiation budget at decoupling Thus, to constrain the mass, one compares measures of the mass fluctuations at low redshift, for example, with the σ parameter, to the fluctuations that give rise to the CMB The mass of the neutrino also directly affects the acoustic peak structure and the growth rate of structure There are multiple effects at play as discussed in, for example, Dodelson et al (1996) and Ichikawa et al (2005) (see also Hannestad and Brandbyge 2010) The driving concepts are that at z dec the neutrino temperature is roughly 2,000 K corresponding to 0.1 eV, and so massive neutrinos are in the process of becoming nonrelativistic Also, while photons in the decoupling epoch diffuse out of potential wells as they scatter off electrons, neutrinos free stream out of potential wells as their interactions are minimal The net effect is that the phase and amplitudes of the acoustic peaks are slightly altered and that the more massive the neutrino, the greater the suppression of the formation of cosmic structure at small scales This suppression of structure leads to a decrease in the CMB lensing signal as evident in > Fig 13-32 Note that this signal is based solely on CMB observations and does not depend on additional measures of galaxy spectra or σ As noted above, the signal can be extracted from the non-Gaussianity of the CMB Also note how characteristic the signal is in the lensing spectrum There is a second way to see the neutrino mass signature that offers a built-in cross check At high ℓ, B-mode polarization is produced by the gravitational lensing of the E-modes (Zaldarriaga and Seljak 1998) This is the same mechanism that leads to a confounding astrophysical signal at low ℓ that hides the primordial B-modes It is convenient that in polarization this region is relatively free of foreground emission > Figure 13-36 shows the effect If the neutrino mass sum is 0.5 eV, the lensing B-mode signal is suppressed by roughly 25% 7.3 The Future There is still much to be learned from the CMB The advantages of observing from space are so strong that we should anticipate a future satellite mission Space offers long uninterrupted periods of observation from a platform whose thermal stability can be measured in milliKelvin This combination enables a myriad of possible consistency checks for various systematic effects The history of the field is one of great advances made with ground-based and suborbital experiments that then inform a satellite design Detector sensitivities near mm wavelength are approaching levels where they will be limited by the photon noise from the CMB itself Soon this will be the case across the frequency band where the CMB dominates We have learned how to produce polarization-sensitive arrays of hundreds to thousands of detectors that are read out with lowpower superconducting electronics There are no known impediments to even larger arrays Many groups are investigating new kinds of radiometers based on technologies ranging from multimoded detectors and optics to multichroic detectors with broad-band optics There are advances with both bolometric and coherent systems The field is dynamic The instruments 679 13 Cosmic Microwave Background 104 Temperature anisotropy 103 102 ( +1)C /2p (mK)2 680 E-mode polarization 101 100 Lensing B-modes, neutrino mass = eV 10–1 0.5 eV 10–2 Primordial B-modes, r=0.2 10–3 20 80 220 400 650 1000 1500 2250 3000 Multipole ⊡ Fig 13-36 The effect of massive neutrinos on the CMB polarization spectrum Matter fluctuations between us and the surface of last scattering lens the CMB This can be detected directly in at least two ways One can isolate the non-Gaussian aspect part of the temperature anisotropy and extract the B-mode signal from that Another way is to measure B-modes that result from lensing of the E-modes This is a particularly clean signal near these wavelengths This figure shows the difference in the B-mode signal for neutrinos with a mass sum and those with an 0.5 eV mass sum For comparison, the primordial B-mode signal with r = 0.2 is also shown Current error bars on the temperature anisotropy are near μ K2 , and so measuring the high-ℓ B-modes is not far off being developed define the forefront in receiver technology We expect many more exciting results over the coming years However, as we probe ever deeper to search for more subtle aspects of nature, a future space mission will be required Acknowledgments It is a pleasure to acknowledge the work of our many colleagues who we have cited in this work Paul Richards, Rainer Weiss, and David Wilkinson were pioneers who showed many of us the way to think and measure the CMB Among living pioneers, Rashid Sunyaev and Jim Peebles, among many others, worked out how the universe could or should be, long before we were able to know 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and diffuse emission (ARCADE) Atomic and molecular gas galaxy morphology, 20 Atomic hydrogen, 219–221 B Bar ansae, 32, 33 Barred galaxies, 6, 17, 18, 23, 24, 27, 32, 33, 39, 42, 49, 66, 80–82 Baryon content, 288–289 BCD galaxies See Blue compact dwarf (BCD) galaxies BCMs See Brightest cluster members (BCMs) Bias (in galaxy formation), 397–402, 404–408, 411–414, 417, 418 Black hole formation, 504, 559 Black hole mass function, 505, 533, 540 Blazars, 321, 322, 327, 330–335, 371, 375, 376 Blue compact dwarf (BCD) galaxies, 73–74 Boxy ellipticals, 11 Brightest cluster members (BCMs), 52–53 Butcher–Oemler effect, 210, 211, 255–256, 280, 284 C Cancer clusters, 225 CDM See Cold dark matter (CDM) Cepheid, 424–427, 430, 431, 433–446 distance scale, 434–435, 446 galactic, 430, 435, 445, 446 CGCG 97-073, 242 CGCG 97-079, 242 Chemical evolution, 477 C IV, 592–595, 598, 599 Classical bulges, 37, 38, 68, 78 Cluster-cluster merger, 257 Cluster-group merger, 254 Clustering, 388–414, 417, 419, 420 CMB See Cosmic microwave background (CMB) CMD method, 431–432 COBE See Cosmic background explore (COBE) Cold dark matter (CDM), 618, 645, 660, 667 Collisional ring galaxies, 40, 41, 81, 82 Color galaxy morphology, 71–79 Color-magnitude relation, 273–274 Coma, 210, 220, 223–226, 228, 235, 236, 239–240, 245, 248, 254–257 cluster, 210, 220, 223, 224, 226, 235, 236, 239–240, 245, 248, 254, 256 Compact elliptical, 230 Content of clusters, 272, 289, 295, 297 Conversion factor, 222 Cooling flows, 269, 271, 290–293, 295 Cooling instability, 286, 291–295 Core-Sérsic model, 94, 98, 100, 102–106 Cosmic background explore (COBE), 612, 615, 616, 618, 623, 625–628, 630–635, 638, 643–648 Cosmic microwave background (CMB), 611–630, 634–636, 639, 640, 642–652, 654–680 radiation, 612, 644 Cosmic ray gas, 224, 251, 258 Cosmic X-ray background, 515 Cosmology, 453–498 Counter-winding spiral galaxies, 28, 29, 82 D DA See Dark ages (DA) Damped Ly α systems, 585–589 Dark ages (DA), 568–570 Dark matter, 388, 390, 397–401, 405–413, 416–420 halos, 94, 101–102, 131, 399, 401, 406–412, 416–420 686 Index Decoupling, 575 Density discontinuity, 237 Density-morphology relation, 271–273 Differential microwave radiometers (DMR), 630, 644–648 Disk galaxies, 213, 216–218, 239, 242 Disky ellipticals, 11, 12 Distance indicators, 424–428, 430, 433, 434 Dust, 184, 192, 223–225, 236, 251, 252, 258 attenuation, 158, 159 lanes, 6, 35, 36, 41, 46, 64 removal, 224 Dust-lane elliptical galaxies, 46 Dwarf elliptical, 211, 223, 229, 230 Dwarf galaxies, 30, 57, 72–76, 211, 216, 229, 230, 237, 245–247 spheroidal, 74–75 spiral, 75–76, 82 Dynamical friction, 276, 277, 285 E Early-type galaxies, 8, 9, 13, 15, 20, 21, 38, 42, 60, 63, 71, 77, 78, 80–83 Eccentric orbits, 213, 226, 254, 256, 257 Eddington luminosity, 520, 534 Einasto model, 102 Elliptical galaxy(ies), 8, 10–14, 36, 37, 42, 46, 47, 66, 69, 77, 83, 216, 226, 235–238, 251, 257 Emission line regions, 347–356 Entropy, 289–290, 300 Environment, 209–258, 271, 272, 276, 281, 284, 285, 302 Environmental effects, 223, 228, 230, 232–247, 258 ESO 137-001, 241, 254 ESO 137-002, 241 Eulerian hydrodynamics, 215, 217, 218, 254 Expanding photosphere method (EPM), 434 Extragalactic distance scale, 424, 426, 435, 439, 445–446 F Far infrared absoulte spectrophotometer (FIRAS), 612, 615, 616, 620, 624–628, 630–636, 638–640, 642, 643 Feedback, 465, 468, 471–476, 482, 486, 490–492, 494, 495, 497 Filament, 388, 389, 391, 413–419 FIRAS See Far infrared absoulte spectrophotometer (FIRAS) Fireballs, 245, 247 FIR radio correlation, 231 Flocculent, 6, 27, 28, 64 Formation of clusters, 271, 279, 299–301 Fornax, 210, 230, 235–238, 256 cluster, 210, 235–238 Fundamental plane, 275–276 G GAIA See Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) Galactic emission, 615, 629, 639, 643, 649, 650, 654 Galatic fountain, 188, 190, 191, 199, 201 Galaxy, 184–202, 209–258 bars, 130 bulge-disk ratios, 121–122 bulgeless, 129–130 cD, halos, 108 central mass deficits, 105 clusters, 209–211, 217, 224–226, 229–231, 235–247, 255–257 collisions, 272, 276–277 compact, 94, 95, 118 dust, 94, 121–124 elliptical, 97–105, 110, 111, 113, 117, 118, 125, 131 evolution, 209–258, 391, 405, 406, 411, 413, 415, 416, 418, 482 excess nuclear light, 94, 105–107 formation, 454–456, 462–498 harassment, 212, 213, 229, 230, 256, 257 morphology, 272, 273 nuclei, 105 pseudobulges, 124–129 scaling relations, 93, 94, 97, 100, 101, 109–120, 128–129, 131 spiral, 119, 129 structure, 93–131 transformation, 210, 229, 234 Zoo project, 3, 76–77, 79 Galaxy–galaxy encounters, 212 Gas accretion, 202 Gas halo, 213 Gas removal, 213, 216, 220, 224, 225, 228, 235, 250, 257 Gas shadowing, 254 Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA), 426, 446 Globular cluster luminosity function (GCLF), 433 Grand design spirals, 6, 28 Gravitational interactions, 199, 211–213, 215, 225, 228, 229, 255, 256 Gravitational lensing, 269, 270, 281, 297–298 Group environment, 210, 211, 219, 255, 257 Groups of galaxies, 210, 256 Index H Halo models, 406–413, 418, 459–460 Halo occupation, 407–410, 418, 420 Harassment, 212, 213, 228–230, 255–257, 482, 497 Hickson compact groups (HCGs), 220, 223, 234 HI deficiency, 219–221, 223, 224, 235 HI-deficient Hickson compact groups, 234 Higher-order correlation function, 414, 417 H  O (water) masers, 426, 439 Horizontal branch, 428, 430–432, 439 Hubble constant, 436, 439, 445–446 Hubble, E., 424, 433, 434, 436, 439, 441–446 Hubble–Sandage–de Vaucouleurs classification, 8, 14, 27, 69, 71, 81 Hydrodynamical simulations, 465, 467, 471, 474, 484, 490–492 Hydrostatic equilibrium, 289, 296–297 Lenticular, 210, 211, 226, 228–231, 234, 255–257 galaxy, 226, 228, 231 LLS See Lyman limit systems (LLS) LOFAR, 257 Low-Ionization Nuclear Emission Regions (LINERs), 310–312, 340 Low surface brightness galaxies, 30, 69–70, 82 Luminosity classes, 8, 30, 31, 69 Luminosity evolution, 469, 474, 477, 482, 493 Luminosity function, 277, 281–283 Ly α forest, 575, 576, 578–584, 592, 599, 600, 602, 603 Lyman limit systems (LLS), 575, 584 M Jets, 314–317, 327, 330–335, 342, 366–380, 504, 505, 513, 515, 539–543, 545–555, 557–559 M 32, 230, 231 M 49, 238, 251 M 86, 238, 245, 247 M 87, 221, 236, 238, 242, 245 Mach number, 237, 238 Magellanic barred galaxies, 17, 82 Magellanic clouds, 426–427 Magnetic field, 215, 219, 224, 251 Maser galaxies, 439–441 Megamaser cosmology project, 441 Merger morphologies, 68 Metallicity, 222–224, 237, 586, 588, 589, 592, 594, 595, 597, 600, 604 Metal-line systems, 575, 589–599 Mira variables, 431–432 Missing baryons problem, 601–605 Missing metals problem, 599–601 Molecular hydrogen (H  ), 183, 194, 195, 221–223, 241 Morphological segregation, 211, 228 Morphological transformation, 213, 255–257 Morphologies of galaxies, 283 Morphology-density relation, 211, 226 Multiphase ISM, 219–224 Multiwavelength imaging observations, 231, 235 Multiwavelength photometry, 250 K N I IC 3418, 247, 248, 255 IC 3428, 247 Inner rings, 6, 8, 9, 14, 19, 22, 24, 25, 33–35, 39, 53–56, 58 Interaction diagnostics, 231–253 Intergalactic medium (IGM), 568–605 Interstellar medium (ISM), 184–202, 213–215, 223, 230, 231, 237, 247, 251 Intracluster gas, 213, 256, 257 Ionized hydrogen, 184, 192 Irregular galaxies, 14, 20, 67, 68, 83 ISM See Interstellar mediums (ISM) Isolated galaxies, 31, 77–79 J Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities, 214–217, 238 Key project, 443, 445, 446 L Large magellanic clouds, 426, 436–445 Large-scale magnetic field, 231, 232 Late-type galaxies, 8–10, 37, 55, 57, 66, 80 Leavitt law, 427, 434–436, 440, 442, 446 Lens galaxies, 6, 60 Lensing, 612, 619, 643, 664–668, 670–675, 679–681 NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), 424, 426 N-body simulations, 456, 457, 459, 460, 462, 463, 490, 493, 495 Nearby galaxy groups, 232–235 NED-D, 424 Neutral hydrogen (H I), 184–193 distribution, 184–186, 188–192, 196, 199, 201 kinematics, 184, 199 NGC 1404, 237, 238 687 688 Index NGC 4254, NGC 4258, NGC 4330, NGC 4388, NGC 4402, NGC 4424, NGC 4435, NGC 4438, 242, 245, 246, 255 436–441, 444 232, 248–250, 252–254 247, 249–251, 254 224, 232, 251, 252, 254 242 245 212, 224, 238, 242, 245, 247, 249–251, 254, 255 NGC 4472, M 49, 238 NGC 4490/4485, 235 NGC 4501, 248, 250 NGC 4522, 213, 214, 217, 231–233, 245, 249–252, 254 NGC 4548, 255 NGC 4552, 237, 238 NGC 4569, 249, 250, 255 NGC 4579, 255 NGC 4654, 242, 244, 245, 255 NGC 4848, 239, 245, 254 NGC 7319, 232 NGC 7318b, 234 Norma cluster (Abell 3627), 235 Nuclear bars, 6, 24–27, 29, 37 Nuclear rings, 6, 18, 24–27, 29, 34, 37, 39, 49 O One-sided gas tail, 231, 253 Orbital segments, 250 Outer rings, 6, 21–24, 26, 33, 34, 39, 49–51 O VI absorbers, 592–595, 599, 604 P Parallaxes, 425, 430, 431, 435, 446 Photoionization, 346, 350–356, 361, 364–366 PIXIE See Primordial inflation explorer (PIXIE) Planck, 614, 615, 627, 629, 630, 634, 635, 643, 644, 654, 655, 660, 665–670, 672, 673, 675, 676 Planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF), 432–435 Polarization, 611, 612, 614, 616–620, 627–629, 640–649, 651, 653, 663–680 Polarized radio continuum, 219, 231–233, 239, 248–250, 253, 254, 257 ridge, 253 Polar ring galaxies, 40, 41, 48 Population III (Pop III) stars, 571–573 Post-startburst galaxies, 210, 226 Preprocessing, 212, 226, 228 Pressure jump, 237 Primordial inflation explorer (PIXIE), 612, 620, 625, 627, 629, 640–643 Pseudobulges, 37, 38, 60, 78, 81 Pseudorings, 6, 19, 21–24, 35, 39, 49–51, 56, 58, 81 Q Quasars, 310, 312–315, 321, 322, 327, 329, 333, 335, 343, 359, 361–366, 370, 380, 507, 509, 510, 512, 521, 527, 529, 537, 541, 552, 555, 557–561, 573, 574, 579 Quenching of star formation, 210, 228, 230, 257 R Radio continuum emission, 219, 224, 231–233, 239, 248–250, 254 Radio continuum tail, 239, 242 Radio-deficient region, 231, 232, 239, 248, 253 Radio emission, 307–309, 312–317, 371, 372, 374, 378 Radio emission, polarized asymmetric ridges of polarized, 239 Radio/FIR distributions, 231 Radio galaxies, 269, 271, 293–295, 515, 542, 544–547, 551, 552 Radio luminosity functions, 224 Ram pressure, 483–486 stripping, 201, 213, 215–218, 220, 221, 224, 226, 228–231, 234, 235, 238, 239, 242, 244, 245, 247–258 wind, 213, 216, 217, 231, 251, 253, 254, 257 Ram pressure, backfall backfall of stripped, 217 RB 199, 245, 247, 248, 255 Recombination, 568, 569, 572, 573 Red clump stars, 430–432 Redshift space distortions, 395, 397, 398, 403–405, 413, 418 Reionization, 568, 570–573, 584, 585 Relativistic electron, 224, 231 Resonance ring galaxies, 22, 41, 42, 58, 82 Restoring force, 213 Reynolds number, effective, 213 Rotational parallax method, 426 RR lyrae stars, 427–430 S SBF method See Surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method Scaling relations, 506, 507, 531, 535–540, 555, 559 Schmidt law, 144, 166–175, 178, 225 SEAM See Spectral-fitting expanding atmosphere method (SEAM) Secondary bars, 6, 24, 37 Semi-analytic models, 492–493, 496, 497 Index Sérsic model, 93, 98–102, 104, 107, 110, 112, 114, 116, 118, 119, 128, 130, 131 Seyfert galaxies, 307, 321, 356, 357, 359, 363, 366 SFH See Star formation history (SFH) SFR See Star formation rate (SFR) S0 galaxies, 8, 11, 12, 14–20, 30, 32, 33, 40, 42, 60, 71, 73, 82 Shell/ripple galaxies, 41, 46–48, 81 SKA See Square kilometer array (SKA) SMBH See Supermassive black holes (SMBH) Smoothed particles hydrodynamics (SPH), 215–217, 254 Specific star formation rate (SSFR), 144, 175–177 Spectral-fitting expanding atmosphere method (SEAM), 434 Spectrum distortion, 620, 621, 623, 627, 635, 639, 643 SPH See Smoothed particles hydrodynamics (SPH) Spiral arm(s), 144, 149, 151, 168, 169, 174 classes, 28, 29 multiplicity, 79 Spiral galaxies, 6, 14–19, 29–31, 33, 36–38, 42–44, 47–49, 55, 59, 60, 64, 65, 75, 77, 83 Spirals, 5–9, 14–20, 22–24, 27–33, 36–39, 41–44, 47–49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58–60, 62, 64–66, 68–72, 74–79, 82, 83 Spitzer space telescope, 446 Square kilometer array (SKA), 257 SSFR See Specific star formation rate (SSFR) Standard candles, 425, 445 Standard model, 611, 612, 616–620, 623, 648, 664–665, 667 Standard rulers, 425 Starburst, 152–153, 155, 156, 159, 161, 164–166, 172, 174–175, 178 Star formation, 143–179, 184–189, 191, 193–199, 202, 209, 213, 215, 222–226, 228–231, 247, 250, 253, 255–257, 454, 463, 465, 467–471, 473–475, 477, 478, 484, 486, 490, 492, 495 threshold, 194, 197, 198 Star formation history (SFH), 144, 160, 165, 166, 176–179 Star formation rate (SFR), 143–145, 147–149, 151–161, 167, 168, 176, 177 Star-forming galaxy morphologies, 33, 34, 36, 39, 42–44, 53, 56, 62, 64, 66, 71, 74, 77 Starvation, 213 Stellar mass morphology, 59–65 Stephan’s quintet, 234 Sticky particles, 215, 217, 254 Strangulation, 213, 486 Stripping efficiency, 216, 217 Sunyaev–Zel’dovich (SZ), 614, 621, 624, 626, 635, 657, 667, 668, 670, 675 Superluminal motion, 316, 327–333 Supermassive black holes (SMBH), 325, 326, 369, 379–381, 505, 507, 511, 512, 516, 517, 520, 523, 528, 530–540, 542, 559, 560, 563 Surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method, 433, 441–442, 446 Synchrotron radiation, 373 T Thermal bremsstrahlung, 285–288 3D velocity vector, 237, 250 Threshold, 146, 147, 165, 168, 169, 175–176 Tidal interactions, 211, 212, 217, 219, 220, 223, 225, 226, 228, 231, 232, 235, 239, 242, 245, 251, 255–257 Tidal shocking, 213 Tidal stripping, 230, 231 Tidal tails, 44–46, 48, 68 Time sequence, 247, 249 Tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) method, 431, 437–442, 445, 446 Toomre parameter, 146, 149 Trignometric parallaxes, 425, 435, 446 Truncated star formation, 250 Tully–Fisher relation, 442, 443 Turbulent viscous stripping, 214–216, 238 Two-point correlation function, 388, 391–393, 395, 397–400, 408, 413, 414, 417–419 Type Ia supernova, 426, 442–446 Type II supernovae, 434 U UGC 3789, 441 Ultracompact dwarf galaxies (UCDs), 230 Ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRG), 47–48 Unified AGN models, 325–335 UV disks, 197 V Variability, 322–327, 331–334, 348, 352, 361, 363, 364, 376–379 Virgo, 210, 212–214, 220, 221, 223–228, 230, 232, 233, 235–238, 242–257 Abell 1367, 235, 256 cluster, 210, 212–214, 220, 224–228, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 242, 244–247, 249–256 dwarf galaxies, 230 Viscous stripping, 213–216, 238 VIVA, 242 Void, 389–391, 402, 405, 413–419 Void probability function (VPF), 417–418 689 690 Index W Warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM), 575–578, 599–605 Warped disks, 48–49, 68 Warps, 190, 199 Wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe (WMAP), 569, 573, 592, 601, 612, 618, 619, 622, 627, 629, 634, 635, 646–656, 658–660, 662–665, 670 X X-ray bright groups, 220, 226, 235 X-ray emission, 268, 285–295, 309, 354, 372, 378, 379 X-ray tails, 241 ... classes (Sandage and Tammann 1981), was updated and extended to types later than Sc by Sandage and Bedke (1994) Because Sandage (1961) and Sandage and Bedke (1994) describe the Hubble–Sandage revision... Stars and Stellar Systems Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology Terry D Oswalt (Editor-in-Chief ) William C Keel (Volume Editor) Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems Volume 6: Extragalactic Astronomy. .. 1936), as later revised and expanded upon by Sandage (1961) and de Vaucouleurs (1959) Sandage (1975) has argued that one reason Hubble’s view prevailed is that he did not try and account for every