Adaptive agricultural practices, 1st ed , pradeep kumar dubey, gopal shankar singh, purushothaman chirakkuzhyil abhilash, 2020 857

SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Pradeep Kumar Dubey Gopal Shankar Singh Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash Adaptive Agricultural Practices Building Resilience in a Changing Climate 123 SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting-­ edge research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields, with fast turnaround time to publication Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic Monographs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science series Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical techniques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8868 Pradeep Kumar Dubey • Gopal Shankar Singh Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash Adaptive Agricultural Practices Building Resilience in a Changing Climate Pradeep Kumar Dubey Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, UP, India Gopal Shankar Singh Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, UP, India Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, UP, India ISSN 2191-5547     ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-030-15518-6    ISBN 978-3-030-15519-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15519-3 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword Maximizing food production for the rapidly growing human population is one of the major sustainability challenges of this twenty-first century Unfortunately, global agricultural production is under threat because soil productivity is decreasing, mainly because of the rapid loss of essential micro- and macronutrients The indiscriminate use of agrochemicals to enhance crop production during the past few decades has resulted in rampant environmental pollution Changing climatic conditions also cause various biotic and abiotic stress in plants and thereby negatively affect the yield and nutritional quality of agricultural produce Therefore, the integration of suitable climate-resilient and adaptive agronomic practices along with proper agro-biotechnological interventions are of paramount importance to feed the rapidly growing population In this context, the present book, Adaptive Agricultural Practices: Building Resilience in a Changing Climate, is a topical and timely contribution that provides sustainable solutions for carrying out agriculture under changing climatic conditions Apart from building resilience under a changing climate, adaptive agricultural practices are believed to have a major role in reducing trace gas emissions from the soil and also in sequestering more carbon in the soil One of the striking features of this book is that the authors have provided various adaptive agricultural practices at three levels, ranging from species to farm to landscape level, across different global locations Moreover, the authors showcased different adaptive strategies and practicing those results in better crop productivity, profitability, and net gains while reducing environmental externalities For example, practices such as agroforestry, mulching, intercropping, organic farming, and the push–pull system of biological pest control are described in detail Adaptive practices addressing different biotic and abiotic stresses in crop plants that can certainly facilitate decision making are also illustrated with suitable examples Brief highlights on crop and climate modelling approaches and sustainable agricultural intensification and extensification, along with farmers’ perceptions about adaptive agricultural practices, further enhance the reader’s understanding Overall, the book is highly informative, timely, and demands wide readership to learn about these promising adaptive practices and their success stories I sincerely congratulate the authors for putting different v vi Foreword p­ erspectives together and bringing such adaptive and resilient practices for transforming agriculture as a sustainable enterprise to our attention The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) New Delhi, India Panjab Singh Preface Sustainable agriculture is imperative for feeding the rapidly growing human population However, agricultural production under changing climatic conditions is a challenging task because climate change negatively affects the availability of critical natural resources as well as the growth, yield, and nutritional quality of agricultural produce In this context, adaptive and climate-resilient practices come to the fore, and proper validation and field implementation of such practices at different scales and agro-climatic regions are necessary for ensuring the food security of current and future generations In this backdrop, the present book, Adaptive Agricultural Practices: Building Resilience in a Changing Climate, is aimed to showcase such promising adaptive and climate-resilient agricultural practices from all over the world for transforming agriculture as a sustainable enterprise, especially under changing climatic conditions This book also pays considerable attention to enhancing the livelihood of small, medium, and subsistence-level farmers in developing countries and also provides insights on how crop, field, and landscape level resilience practices can be built up against untoward incidences such as drought, salinity, floods, and diseases Moreover, the policy implications and future prospects of various adaptation strategies are well addressed We shall be grateful if this work can serve as a primer for students, researchers, agricultural scientists, environmental and plant scientists, policy makers, regulatory agencies, and agronomists interested in adaptive and climate-resilient agricultural practices Varanasi, UP, India   Pradeep Kumar Dubey Gopal Shankar Singh Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash vii Acknowledgments We sincerely wish to thank the local farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh for providing necessary information related to the various adaptive agricultural practices employed by them for enhancing agricultural productivity and profitability We specially acknowledge Mr Ram Charitra Singh, Mr Paras Nath Singh, and Mr Ajeet Singh for their active support and heartfelt cooperation for conducting field surveys in the Mirzapur district of eastern Uttar Pradesh We wish to give our sincere gratitude to Prof H.B. Singh, Prof R.K. Mall, Dr Ch Srinivasa Rao, Dr J.P. Verma, Mr Rama Kant Dubey, Mr Vishal Tripathi, Mr Sheikh Adil Edrisi, Ms Mansi Bakshi, and Mr Rajan Chaurasiya for their support and encouragement during the entire course of the preparation of this book Pradeep Kumar Dubey is thankful to the University Grant Commission, New Delhi for the Senior Research Fellowship (UGC-SRF) P.C. Abhilash is grateful to ICAR for the Lal Bhadur Shastri Outstanding Young Scientist Award in Natural Resource Management Special thanks go to Prof Panjab Singh, The President, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), for his continuous motivation and encouragement We also thank DST-Mahamana Centre for Excellence in Climate Change Research (MCCECR) for logistic support Thanks are also due to Dr Sherestha Saini and Mr P. Silembarasan from Springer for their editorial support, guidance, and cooperation ix Introduction Meeting the food and nutritional demand for the rapidly growing human population is one of the major sustainability challenges of this twenty-first century Changing environmental conditions combined with the changing climatic conditions drastically affect the agriculture production across the world and thereby pose serious challenges to the good quality of life and well-being of the billions of subsistence-­ level to medium-scale farmers in the developing world It has been predicted that if no immediate climate-resilient measures have taken place during the first half of this century, the second half-century will face many serious environmental challenges Therefore, systemic and transformational practices based on adaptive and resilient capacity are needed to maintain global agricultural production under adverse climatic conditions Specifically, the validation and large-scale implementation of such adaptive, climate–resilient, and resource-conserving agronomic practices at different levels ranging from species to farm/field to landscape level, and the customization for different agro-climatic regions of the world, are imperative for enhancing sustainable agricultural production Such adaptive practices are not only meant for attaining the first three UN-Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDG)— (1) no poverty, (2) zero hunger, and (3) good health and well-being—but are also imperative for achieving almost all other SDGs This SpringerBriefs provides such adaptive agronomic innovations practiced at different scales and regions of the globe The remaining knowledge gaps of such practices are also highlighted, so that suitable policy recommendations can be implemented in accordance with future climatic conditions Keywords  Adaptive agricultural practices, Climate change, Farm-level practices, Food security, Knowledge sharing, Landscape-level practices, Population explosion, Species-level practices, Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) xi 118 • • • • • • 5  Adaptive Agricultural Practices Employed in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India Agroforestry practices or growing trees (fruit trees/timber) at field borders Integrated crop–livestock farming Use of renewable and cleaner sources of energy in agriculture (e.g., solar pumps) Integrated use of organic and inorganic agricultural inputs in a suitable ratio Integration of floriculture and horticulture mixed farming Construction of small and large ponds/fish ponds for water recharge and storage system The present study clearly indicates that the various adaptive practices employed by farmers in the studied region have a key role in soil quality and crop yield Moreover, the agro-biodiversity and incidence of crop pests and diseases were also influenced by adaptive practices in a positive manner Among the different agronomic practices, crop diversification was found to potentially support most of the small- and medium-scale farmers as it was a way for dietary diversification with diverse crops such as cereals, vegetables, legumes, pulses, fruits, spices, etc and also an opportunity for increasing the farmer’s wealth Second, the conservation of critical natural resources such as soil and water for agriculture also enhanced agricultural production Third, transitions or shifts in crops/varieties or the crop calendar by local farmers are also promising adaptive practices These practices hold potential to satisfy the current and future food needs as well as nutritional security and thereby overcome the hidden hunger under the changing climate Therefore, we conclude that site-specific and landscape-level utilization of such adaptive practices can substantially avert vulnerability in drought-prone areas (Vindhyan zones) and areas facing soil quality degradation (middle Gangetic plains) in eastern Uttar Pradesh However, the scaling-up of most suitable practices is imperative for their large-scale adoption, especially based on the following criteria: • Agroclimatic and agro-meteorological conditions • Social and market needs • Willingness of farming communities Our current assessment of promising adaptive agriculture practices is primarily based on information gathered by direct interaction with the local farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh This baseline information on such adaptive agricultural practices can be utilized effectively for any future research in climate-resilient agriculture 5.4.2  Future Policy Implications Because most of the rural population in the studied region is totally dependent on agriculture for their sustenance, it becomes imperative to maintain agriculture production even under changing climatic conditions Although a few progressive farmers can adapt to such changing conditions and have even developed various adaptive cultivation practices to maintain agricultural productivity, the majority of them are 5.4 Conclusions and Future Policy Implications 119 Table 5.8  Various state and central government schemes for meeting the agricultural challenges in eastern Uttar Pradesh and the rest of the country Sample no Schemes Solar photo-voltaic irrigation pump Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Grant on certified seed Promotion of hybrid seeds National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture Purpose To rely more on renewable and alternate sources of energy and minimize traditional energy sources KVKs or Centers of Agricultural Science are established to deliver the latest scientific knowledge and innovation to the farmers Seeds are provided to farmers by UP Government at subsidized rate Hybrid seeds are distributed at subsidized rate to increase production of food grains, thereby maximizing farm-­ generated income, especially for resource-poor and marginal farmers Main components are (a) Rain-fed Area Development; (b) Soil Health Management; (c) Paramparagat Krishi Vikash Yojna (projects for promoting traditional agricultural practices) not aware of the changing climatic conditions or any adaptive practices Our findings clearly suggest that eastern Uttar Pradesh needs more such adaptation by the farmers However, most of these farmers are not aware of the need of such adaptation, or of available extension services, resources, and incentives provided by the government to cope with changing climatic conditions In eastern UP, many schemes already exist (Table 5.8) Farmers in the study region have been practicing agricultural intensification for a long time Their practices also need to be monitored, with specific solutions and policy generated to be implemented at various scales Overall, some of the farmers have knowledge of adaptive practices, especially resource-conserving practices for maintaining agricultural production even under the various challenges (Fig. 5.13) Therefore, sharing of those success stories with fellow farmers, encouraging them to validate their own farm-level adaptive measures, and creating awareness about various ongoing government initiatives are imperative for building resilience in the agricultural sector under changing climatic conditions 120 5  Adaptive Agricultural Practices Employed in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India Fig 5.13  Modern agricultural practices are needed in eastern UP in view of the future prospects of the agricultural system and food requirements in the region: (a) rooftop farming; (b–d) backyard, kitchen, and home gardens; (e) local markets with locally produced vegetables; (f, g) additional sources such as (f) local poultry and (g) fisheries for dietary diversification Acknowledgments  P.K.D is thankful to University Grant  Commission for Senior Research Fellowship, A.S is thankful to Jawaharlal Nehru Trust for Jawaharlal Nehru Fellwoship, R.S is grateful to Council of Scientific & Industrial Research for Junior Research Fellowship, and P.C.A is grateful to Indian Council of Agricultural Research for Lal Bhadur Shastri Outstanding Young Scientist award References Abhilash PC (2015a) Towards the designing of low carbon societies for sustainable landscapes J Clean Prod 87:992–993 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.057 Abhilash PC (2015b) Managing soil resources from pollution and degradation: the need of the hour J Clean Prod 102:550–551 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.046 Abhilash PC, Singh N (2009) Pesticide use and application: an Indian scenario J Hazard Mater 165(1-3):1–12 Abhilash PC, Tripathi V, Dubey RK, Edrisi SA (2015) Coping with changes: adaptation of trees in a changing environment Trends Plant Sci 20:137–138 References 121 Abhilash PC, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA, Dubey RK, Bakshi M, Dubey PK, Ebbs SD (2016) Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands Energ Ecol Environ 1:54–56 Census data of India (1991) http://censusindia.gov.in/DigitalLibrary/data/Census_1991/ Publication/India/45969_1991_CHN.pdf Census data of India (2001) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-common/census_data_2001 html Census data of India (2011) http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-common/aboutus.html Dubey PK, Singh A (2017) Adaptive agricultural practices for rice-wheat cropping system in Indo-­ Gangetic plains of India IUCN-CEM Agroecosyst Newslett 1(1):13–17 https://www.iucn.org/ sites/dev/files/content/documents/agroecosystems_sg_iucn_cem_newsletter_1.pdf Dubey PK, Singh GS, Abhilash PC (2016a) Agriculture in a changing climate J  Clean Prod 113:1046–1047 Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Dubey PK, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2016b) Exploring rhizospheric interactions for agricultural sustainability: the need of integrative research on multi-trophic interactions J Clean Prod 115:362–365 Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA, Bakshi M, Dubey PK, Singh A, Verma JP, Singh A, Sarma BK, Raskhit A, Singh DP, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2017) Role of plant growth promoting microorganisms in sustainable agriculture and environmental remediation In: Singh HB, Sharma B, Kesawani C (eds) Advances in PGPR research CABI Press, Washington, DC https://doi org/10.1079/9781786390325.0000 Kundu RK, Chattopadhyay AK (2018) Spatio-temporal variations of crop diversification a block-­ level study in West Bengal Econ Pol Week LIII(21) Porter JR, Xie L, Challinor AJ, Cochrane K, Howden SM, Iqbal MM, Lobell DB, Travasso MI (2014) Food security and food production systems In: Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds) Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability Part A: global and sectoral aspects Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; New York, NY, pp 485–533 Raeisi A, Bijani M, Chizari M (2018) The mediating role of environmental emotions in transition from knowledge to sustainable use of groundwater resources in Iran’s agriculture Int Soil Water Conserv Res 6:143–152 Rao CS, Gopinath KA, Prasad JVNS, Singh AK (2016a) Climate resilient villages for sustainable food security in tropical India: concept, process, technologies, institutions, and impacts Adv Agron 140:101–214 Rao CS, Kundu S, Shanker AK, Naik RP, Vanaja M, Venkanna K, Sankar GRM, Rao VUM (2016b) Continuous cropping under elevated CO2: differential effects on C4 and C3 crops, soil properties and carbon dynamics in semi-arid alfisols Agric Ecosyst Environ 218:73–86 RBI (Reserve Bank of India) (2013) Annual report https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_poverty_rate Sammie EPM, Manzungu E, Siziba S (2018) Key attributes of agricultural innovations in semi-­ arid smallholder farming systems in south-west Zimbabwe Phys Chem Earth Part A/B/C 105:125–135 Singh A, Abhilash PC (2018) Agricultural biodiversity for sustainable food production J Clean Prod 172:1368 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.279 Singh A, Dubey PK, Abhilash PC (2018a) Food for thought: putting wild edibles back on the table for combating hidden hunger in developing countries Curr Sci 115(4):611–613 Singh A, Dubey PK, Chaurasiya R, Mathur N, Kumar G, Bharati S, Abhilash PC (2018b) Indian spinach: an underutilized perennial leafy vegetable for nutritional security in developing world Energ Ecol Environ 3:195 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-018-0091-1 Stringer LC, Dyer JC, Reeds MS (2009) Adaptations to climate change, drought and desertification; local insights to enhance policy in southern Africa Environ Sci Policy 12(7):748–765 122 5  Adaptive Agricultural Practices Employed in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India Tripathi A (2017) Socioeconomic backwardness and vulnerability to climate change: evidence from Uttar Pradesh state in India J Environ Plan Manag 60(2):328–350 Tripathi A, Mishra AK (2017) Knowledge and passive adaptation to climate change: an example from Indian farmers Clim Risk Manag 16:195–207 UNFCCC (2009) Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from to 19 December 2009; Part Two: Decisions Adopted by the Conference of the Parties UNFCCC, Bonn World Bank (2008) Agriculture for development World development report The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank, Washington DC Chapter Policy Implications, Future Prospects and Conclusion Abstract  Adaptive agricultural practices are essential for maintaining the agricultural production under changing climatic conditions While most of the farmers have already developed many field-level innovations, its validation and scaling-ups are essential for large-scale exploitation Current chapter describes various policy measures for the wide-scale adoption of adaptive agricultural practices Keywords  Climate resilient agriculture · Global food secuirty · Human wellbeing · Policy implications · Sustainabel Development Goals 6.1  Policy Implications and Future Prospects Adaptive and climate-resilient agronomic practices are the need of the hour for enhancing agricultural productivity under changing climatic conditions (Dubey et al 2016a, b) For instance, practices such as mulching, crop diversification, innovative water storage measures, and adjusting crop cultivation, etc., done by local farmers in Jamaica (Gamble et  al 2010; ODPEM 2011), adaptive practices validated for the drought-prone regions in southern St Elizabeth (Campbell et al 2011), and growing suitable crops for the hurricane season (FAO 2010) are examples of such practices from different parts of the world However, several other issues preclude the large-scale exploitation of such practices As we mentioned earlier, gender-­based inequalities still persist in the agricultural sector at many locations (particularly in Asia and Africa) Males are often benefitted more than females as they have more access to knowledge, information, markets, and extension services (Kristjanson et al 2014) Second, agricultural intensification is being practiced by a wider group of farmers worldwide for maximum food production in an unsustainable manner (Abhilash et al 2016; Dubey et al 2017) This approach has negative implications for soil, environment, and agro-biodiversity because of the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides on crop fields (Garnett and Godfray 2012; Godfray and Garnett 2014; Abhilash 2015a, b; Dubey et al 2016a) Third, although legumebased agroforestry is an adaptive practice for a region having low soil nitrogen © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 P K Dubey et al., Adaptive Agricultural Practices, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15519-3_6 123 124 6  Policy Implications, Future Prospects and Conclusion content, the same practices in a normal soil that has sufficient N content may cause nitrogenous emissions in the form of N2O and NO3− into the atmosphere, thereby having negative environmental and health consequences (Rosenstock et al 2014) Therefore, special emphasis should be given to site-specific adaptive practices (Dubey et al 2016a) For example, a terrace or contour (Fig. 6.1) constructed in hilly regions can minimise water erosion even under rainstorm conditions Therefore, crops having even negligible resistance against water erosion, such as wheat, potato, Fig 6.1  Sustainable agriculture extensification as a landscape-level adaptive agronomic practice Rice and wheat cultivation in hilly regions of Eastern Himalayas is an example of a typical landscape-­level adaptive practice for enhancing crop production while reducing soil erosion and surface runoff 6.2 Conclusions 125 and flax, can be grown in terraced land in hilly areas for better crop production (Wei et al 2014) Another example is from Finland as it is predicted that there will be an increase in the length of the thermal growing season in response to the changing climate Thus, soil moisture and frosts will occur during the early spring season whereas the end of the autumn season will have favourable conditions for crop growth Such conditions normally limit crop production because sowing during early spring would result in yield decline from unfavourable conditions According to Sainio et  al (2014), winter cereals and perennials can be cultivated in rotation in such regions as these crops have more yield potential by utilizing well the favourable growing conditions for crops, viz., ‘soil moisture’ during winters and ‘nutrient remained’ in fields of previous crop residues Furthermore, it is always beneficial if a solution is obtained at or near the site to the problem itself For instance, Ridout and Newcombe (2016) recently reported that in the Pacific Northwest (USA) disease caused by Fusarium in winter wheat can be suppressed by microbes found in the litter and rhizospheric soil of the nearby forest area Although there are many issues that are difficult to comprehend, such as the impact of rainfall and temperature on agroforestry systems (Lott et  al 2009; Luedeling et  al 2014), enhanced carbon dioxide concentration on plant physiology (Pinheiro and Chaves 2011), etc., it is the moral and social reasonability of humanity to look for even better solutions for eradicating hunger, poverty, and malnutrition to provide a good quality of life to the coming generations Following are some policy recommendations for those future prospects: • Understanding the interconnected linkages between traditional ecological knowledge, cultural practices, and agro-ecosystem management • Upscaling and customization of holistic and integrated adaptation strategies to the landscape and ecosystem level • Use of information technology for knowledge sharing and adaptive agriculture • Creating a community gene bank for climate-resilient crop varieties • Respecting gender equality and traditional and resource-conserving agricultural practices • Encouraging technology transfer and private sector investment in agriculture • Ensuring stakeholder involvement in decision making • Ensuring food availability, accessibility, and affordability (Fig. 6.2) 6.2  Conclusions Sustainable agricultural practices are imperative for feeding the rapidly growing human population and also for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals framed by the United Nations (UN-SDGs) as the 2030 agenda for sustainable development However, in times of global warming and associated climatic changes, food and nutritional security are under threat as the changing climatic conditions are 126 6  Policy Implications, Future Prospects and Conclusion •Small holding farmers •Medium scale farmers •Large scale farmers •Governance •Farmers Welfare •Farmers •Agriculture Scientists •Researchers •Agronomists •Policymakers •Governance •Income •Equity •Political •Institutional Adaptability Availability Affordability Accessibility •Social •Political •Market based •Stakeholder •Supplier and regulator Fig 6.2  Various factors responsible for attaining global food security while building food system resilience, such as (1) adaptability of agricultural system against varying climate and erratic weather events, (2) availability of sufficient and nutritive food for each section of society, ranging from poor to rich, (3) accessibility to required resources to fulfil their dietary preferences and nutritional demands, and (4) affordability of food by one and all negatively affecting the sustainability of agricultural systems all over the world Moreover, the likelihood of climate change impacts will further increase if adaptation strategies are not put into place accordingly With this background, the validation of adaptive and climate-resilient agricultural practices are the one and only solution for feeding a burgeoning population under changing climatic conditions Although traditional knowledge, the strategies adopted and practiced by farmers since time immemorial, are extremely important even in today’s context, such practices need further refinement, customization, and scaling-up for maximizing their ecological, environmental, and social benefits Even this adaption strategy can be done at different levels (i.e., species, field, and landscape) and at different scales This book embodies a critical compilation of such practices and farming methods including intercropping, crop rotations, and management of crop residues and viable use of cover crops, mulching, agroforestry, no-till agricultural practice, and livestock grazing intensity management, etc.; better resources, viz., land, soil, and water 6.2 Conclusions 127 (irrigation volume) management; better management of crop weeds, pests, and disease; conservation agriculture and precision agriculture; organic farming; selective cropping; changing the crop calendar (sowing/planting/harvesting dates), and improved use of modern technologies Utilising farmers’ knowledge combined with scientific validation along with proper policy guidelines will help in the large-scale exploitation of adaptive practices for feeding a growing global population sustainably, and equitably, and thereby attaining the UN-Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to ensure the well-being of one and all (Fig. 6.3) Changing Climate and overgrowing human population Global Food Security Fig 6.3  Adaptive agriculture practices can potentially help in attaining important UN sustainable development goals (SDGs) The hypothetical balance sheet shown here highlights the importance of adaptive agricultural practices in building resilience against changing climate, thereby attaining global food security Securing world food demand can help in meeting UN SDGs goals numbers (No Poverty), (Zero Hunger), (Good health and Well-being), (Clean Water and Sanitation), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), 13 (Climate Action), 14 (Life Below Water), and 15 (Life on Land) and their targets by 2030 Red boxes and arrow indicates negative effects of changing climate and overgrowing population; green colour indicates positive changes under changing climate by building resilience into the agricultural system 128 6  Policy Implications, Future Prospects and Conclusion References Abhilash PC (2015a) Towards the designing of low carbon societies for sustainable landscapes J Clean Prod 87:992–993 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.057 Abhilash PC (2015b) Managing soil resources from pollution and degradation: the need of the hour J Clean Prod 102:550–551 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.046 Abhilash PC, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA, Dubey RK, Bakshi M, Dube PK, Ebbs SD (2016) Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands Energ Ecol Environ 1:54–56 Campbell D, Barker D, McGregor D (2011) Dealing with drought: small farmers and environmental hazards in southern St Elizabeth, Jamaica Applied Geography 31:146–158 Dubey PK, Singh GS, Abhilash PC (2016a) Agriculture in a changing climate J  Clean Prod 113:1046–1047 Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Dubey PK, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2016b) Exploring rhizospheric interactions for agricultural sustainability: the need of integrative research on multi-trophic interactions J Clean Prod 115:362–365 Dubey RK, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA, Bakshi M, Dubey PK, Singh A, Verma JP, Singh A, Sarma BK, Raskhit A, Singh DP, Singh HB, Abhilash PC (2017) Role of plant growth promoting microorganisms in sustainable agriculture and environmental remediation In: Singh HB, Sharma B, Kesawani C (eds) Advances in PGPR research CABI Press, Washington, DC https://doi org/10.1079/9781786390325.0000 FAO (2010) Training report on the livelihood assessment tool-kit: analyzing and responding to the impact of disasters on the livelihoods of people In: Technical Cooperation Project (TCP) TCP/ JAM3202 (D) National disaster preparedness and emergency response plan for the agricultural sector Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome Gamble DW, Campbell D, Allen TL, Barker D, Curtis S, McGregor D, Popke J (2010) Climate change, drought, and Jamaican agriculture: local knowledge and the climate record Ann Assoc Am Geograph 100(4):880–893 Garnett T, Godfray C (2012) Sustainable intensification in agriculture Navigating a course through competing food system priorities Food Climate Research Network and the Oxford Martin Programme on the Future of Food, vol 51 University of Oxford, Oxford Godfray HCJ, Garnett T (2014) Food security and sustainable intensification Philos Trans R Soc B 369:20120273 https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0273 Kristjanson P, Waters-Bayer A, Johnson N, Tipilda A, Njuki J, 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Curr Opin Environ Sustain 6:15–21 Sainio PP, Rajala A, Känkänen H, Hakala K (2014) Improving farming systems in northern Europe In: Crop physiology: applications for genetic improvement and agronomy Elsevier, Oxford, pp 65–91 Wei W, Chen L, Zhang H, Yang L, Yu Y, Chen J (2014) Effects of crop rotation and rainfall on water erosion on a gentle slope in the hilly loess area China Catena 123:205–214 Index A Abiotic stress, 2, Abscisic acid (ABA), Adaptive agricultural practices, 7, 86, 123, 127 agricultural production, 11 agroforestry (see Agroforestry) benefits and location, 13–18 crop diversification (see Crop diversification) farmers, 12 levels, implementation, 63, 64 mulching (see Mulching) NUE, 63 rice–wheat cropping, 75–76 SRI techniques, 74 Adaptive agricultural practices, UP agricultural system, 120 agricultural threats, 100–102, 104, 105 challenges and vulnerabilities, 103 crop/species level, 94, 117 definition, 94 drylands environment, 109–110 environmental challenges, 103–104 farm/field level, 94, 117 field survey, 96–99 geographic and meteorological conditions, 99 geography and agricultural account, 100 integration, multiple crops, 107 landscape level, 94, 118 local farmers crop diversification, 106 natural resources conservation methods, 106, 111, 112, 114 Vindhyan region, 108–109, 113 population rate, 97 trend, 96 rice cultivation, 114–117 state and central government schemes, 119 study area, 95, 96 Adaptive agronomic practices, 6, Adaptive practices, 46, 47, 51, 55 Agricultural drought, 101 Agricultural intensification, 96, 123 Agricultural threats chemical fertilizers and pesticides, 104 drought, types, 101 dryland agriculture, 101, 102 erratic weather events, 101 pests and diseases, 102 Agriculture, 12 mulching, 26, 30 organic farming practices, 30 practices, 24, 26 Agriculture extensification, 79, 81, 82 Agriculture intensification, 73, 77, 79 Agriculture, forestry/other land use (AFOLU) pathways, 22 Agro-biodiversity, 118 Agroforestry, 126 AFOLU pathways, 22 cocoa–coconut, 24 coffee-based, 24 description, 22 in eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, 25 implementation, 26 modern, 22 in North India, 23 promotion, 24 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 P K Dubey et al., Adaptive Agricultural Practices, SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15519-3 129 130 Index Agroforestry (cont.) REDD+ schemes, 22 rubber-based, 24 sustainable agroforestry practices, 26 UPAF pathway, 22 Aqua crop, 55 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), 34 productivity and water requirements, 55 SWAT, 56 Crop pests, 50, 51 Crop rotation, 19, 20 Crop/species level, 94, 117 Crop weed resistance, 50 Crop yield, 101–103, 118 B Bio-fertilizers, 33–35 Biotic stress, 2, D Domestic sewage sludge, 13, 33 Double/companion cropping, 20, 21 Drought tolerance, 46, 47 Dryland agriculture, 101, 103 C C3 crops, 54 C4 crops, 54, 56 CERES-maize models, 55 CERES-rice models, 55 Climate change, Cocoa–coconut agroforestry, 24 Coffee-based agroforestry, 24 Compost, 33, 35 Concentrated animal-feeding operations (CAFOs), Conservation agriculture (CA) adoption and benefits, 67 adoption of CA vs conventional agriculture practices, 67–72 components, 66 description, 66 effect, crop yield, 67 landscape level, 66 production cost, 67 retention, crop residue, 66 RM-CS system, 74 SAI, 73 sustainable adoption, 66 yield gap, 67 Cotton–wheat cropping system, 65 Crop diversification, 106, 118, 123 crop rotation/double cropping practices, 19–21 description, 12 intercropping, 12, 18, 19 perenniation, 21, 22 strategies, 12 Crop modelling adaptive practices, 55 biophysical suitability analysis, 55 CLIMB project, 55 Ecocrop database, 56 EToCalc, 55 GIS-based productivity models, 56 E Elevated CO2, 54 Elevated temperature, 53, 54 Environmental challenges, 103–104 Environmental constraints, agricultural systems, 2, F Farm innovations bunding method, 73 IGP, 75 IRM and ICM, 73 nutrient management, 73 RM cropping system, 74 SCI techniques, 73, 74 SRI technique, 73, 74 STI, 74 weed management, 73 Farm/field level, 94, 117 Farmer’s perspective, agricultural sustainability adaptive practices, 81 African farmers, 81 Asian countries, 81–83 awareness-related, 85 cognitive justice-related, 85 dietary preference-related, 85 experience-related, 85 in developing nations, 87 knowledge-sharing platforms, 85 local and indigenous farmers, 83 market-related, 83 migration-related, 84 research-related, 87 resource-related, 85 vulnerability, 87 wealth-related, 87 Index Farm yard manure (FYM), 13, 29, 32, 33, 108, 109, 111 Film mulching, 27, 28 Flood tolerance, 49, 50 Food security, 1, 4, Free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) treatment, 54 Futuristic crops, 53–54 G GIS-based productivity models, 56 Green manure, 33, 34 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 12, 24, 31, 65, 67, 73 H Helianthus annuus homeobox 11(HaHB11), 49 Hurricane season, 123 Hydrological drought, 101 I Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP), 67, 75–76 Integrated crop management (ICM), 73 Integrated farming practices, 95 Integrated rice management (IRM), 73 Intercropping, 12, 18, 19 Intercropping practices, 51–53 K Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), 98, 119 L Landscape level, 94 Legume-based agroforestry, 123 M Meteorological drought, 101 Microbial community, 65–66 Micronutrient deficiencies, 98, 103, 104 Mineral fertilizers, 65, 66 Mixed crop–livestock farming, 30, 31 Modern agroforestry, 22 Mulching, 126 in cereal crops, 26 crop-level adaptation, 30 description, 26 film mulching, 27, 28 in French Guinea, 29 131 plastic mulching, 28, 29 polyethylene mulching, 29, 30 practices, 27 soil temperature, 26 in South Korea, 29 straw mulching, 29 types, 26 N Natural resources conservation methods Dhanzyme-G/Dhanzyme Liquid, 112 farm/field/landscape levels, 110, 111 FYM, 112 soil fertility, 111 varietal shifts, rice, 112 vermicomposts, 112 Nutrient use efficiency (NUE), 63, 65 O Organic farming, 31, 127 crop rotation, 34 definition, 30 green manure, 33–34 livestock into farm lands, integration, 31 mixed crop–livestock farming, 30, 31 NUE and crop yield, 35 organic inputs, 33 organic manure, 31 phosphorus (P) application, 34 P Perenniation, 12, 21, 22 Phosphorus use efficiency (PUE), 66 Plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPM), 49 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), 34, 46–47 Plastic mulching, 28, 29 Policy implications adaptive and climate-resilient agronomic practices, 123 agricultural intensification, 123 agro-ecosystem management, 125 carbon dioxide concentration, 125 recommendations, 125 Polyethylene mulching, 29, 30 Potassium deficiency, 104 Proteomic techniques, 46 Push–pull system, 18, 51 132 R Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 45, 47 Resilient crop varieties, 45–46 Resource conserving practices, 12 See also Adaptive agricultural practices Rubber-based agroforestry, 24 S Salinity stress, Salinity tolerance, 48, 49 Short rotation forestry (SRF) plantation, 22 Socioeconomic conditions, 94, 95 Soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model, 56 Soil fertility, 94, 103, 104, 111, 113 Soil microbial community, 35 Soil moisture and frosts, 125 Solanum lycopersicum nam-like protein (SlNAM1), 45 Species-level adaptive practice, Storm winds, 104 Straw mulching, 28, 29 Sustainable agriculture, Sustainable agriculture extensification (SAE), 79, 81, 82 Sustainable development, 125 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2, 127 System of crop intensification (SCI), 73, 74 System of rice intensification (SRI) technique, 73, 74 System of tef intensification (STI), 74 Index T Transgenic varieties, 48 U United Nation Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs), 11, 95 Urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry (UPAF), 22 V Varietal selection, 94 Vermicomposts, 33, 112 Vindhyan region, 98 Volatile organic compound (VOC), W Water harvesting techniques, 77–80 Water-saving technique, 73 Water scarcity, 99, 101, 102, 110 Water storage techniques, 78, 80 Water use efficiency (WUE), 48, 54, 65, 67, 71 Weed growth, 50 Weed management, 50, 73 Z Zero-tillage practice, 65 ... ISSN 219 1-5 547     ISSN 219 1-5 555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 97 8-3 -0 3 0-1 551 8-6     ISBN 97 8-3 -0 3 0-1 551 9-3  (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/97 8-3 -0 3 0-1 551 9-3 © The... http://www.springer.com/series/8868 Pradeep Kumar Dubey • Gopal Shankar Singh Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash Adaptive Agricultural Practices Building Resilience in a Changing Climate Pradeep Kumar Dubey Institute... conditions Keywords  Adaptive agricultural practices, Climate change, Farm-level practices, Food security, Knowledge sharing, Landscape-level practices, Population explosion, Species-level practices, Sustainable