High Voltage Engineering and Testing ( TQL )

IET POWER AND ENERGY SERIES 66 High-Voltage Engineering and Testing Other volumes in this series: Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 21 22 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 24 25 26 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 37 38 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 Volume 48 Volume 49 Volume 50 Volume 51 Volume 52 Volume 53 Volume 55 Volume 56 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 57 58 59 62 63 65 905 Power circuit breaker theory and design C.H Flurscheim (Editor) Industrial microwave heating A.C Metaxas and R.J Meredith Insulators for high voltages J.S.T Looms Variable frequency AC motor drive systems D Finney SF6 switchgear H.M Ryan and G.R Jones Conduction and induction heating E.J Davies Statistical techniques for high voltage engineering W Hauschild and W Mosch Uninterruptible power supplies J Platts and J.D St Aubyn (Editors) Digital protection for power systems A.T Johns and S.K Salman Electricity economics and planning T.W Berrie Vacuum switchgear A Greenwood Electrical safety: a guide to causes and prevention of hazards J Maxwell Adams Electricity distribution network design, 2nd edition E Lakervi and E.J Holmes Artificial intelligence techniques in power systems K Warwick, A.O Ekwue and R Aggarwal (Editors) Power system commissioning and maintenance practice K Harker Engineers’ handbook of industrial microwave heating R.J Meredith Small electric motors H Moczala et al AC–DC power system analysis J Arrillaga and B.C Smith High voltage direct current transmission, 2nd edition J Arrillaga Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Y-H Song (Editor) Embedded generation N Jenkins et al High voltage engineering and testing, 2nd edition H.M Ryan (Editor) Overvoltage protection of low-voltage systems, revised edition P Hasse The lightning flash V Cooray Voltage quality in electrical power systems J Schlabbach et al Electrical steels for rotating machines P Beckley The electric car: development and future of battery, hybrid and fuel-cell cars M Westbrook Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation J Arrillaga and N Watson Advances in high voltage engineering M Haddad and D Warne Electrical operation of electrostatic precipitators K Parker Thermal power plant simulation and control D Flynn Economic evaluation of projects in the electricity supply industry H Khatib Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles J Miller Distribution switchgear S Stewart Protection of electricity distribution networks, 2nd edition J Gers and E Holmes Wood pole overhead lines B Wareing Electric fuses, 3rd edition A Wright and G Newbery Wind power integration: connection and system operational aspects B Fox et al Short circuit currents J Schlabbach Nuclear power J Wood Condition assessment of high voltage insulation in power system equipment R.E James and Q Su Local energy: distributed generation of heat and power J Wood Condition monitoring of rotating electrical machines P Tavner, L Ran, J Penman and H Sedding The control techniques drives and controls handbook, 2nd edition B Drury Lightning protection V Cooray (Editor) Ultracapacitor applications J.M Miller Lightning electromagnetics V Cooray Energy storage for power systems, 2nd edition A Ter-Gazarian Protection of electricity distribution networks, 3rd edition J Gers Power system protection, volumes High-Voltage Engineering and Testing 3rd Edition Edited by Hugh M Ryan The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no 211014) and Scotland (no SC038698) First edition † Peter Peregrinus Ltd 1994 Second edition † The Institution of Electrical Engineers 2001 Third edition † The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2013 First published 1994 (0 86341 293 9) Second edition 2001 (0 85296 775 6) Reprinted with new cover 2009 Third edition 2013 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the authors and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them Neither the authors nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause Any and all such liability is disclaimed The moral rights of the authors to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84919-263-7 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-84919-264-4 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Limited Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon Dedicated to colleagues, students and clients whom I have worked with over the years at Reyrolle, Sunderland University, IET, IEC, DTI, EPSRC and CIGRE, as well as via research collaborations with utilities and academia (e.g Universities of Liverpool, Strathclyde, UMIST and Northumbria) A special thanks to my four grandchildren, Alex, Ellie, Lisa and Owen, for the great pleasure they have given me over the past 20 years, and for urging me to finish this book [Hugh M Ryan, Editor, 2013] Contents List of contributors Preface Introdution Electric power transmission and distribution systems I.A Erinmez 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Development of transmission and distribution systems 1.2.1 Early developments (1880–1930) 1.2.2 The development of the transmission grid concept (1930–90) 1.2.3 Global developments 1.2.4 Recent developments 1990 to date (or 1990 onwards or post 1990) 1.3 Structure of transmission and distribution systems 1.3.1 Technical factors influencing the structure of transmission and distribution systems 1.3.2 Organisational structures 1.4 Design of transmission and distribution systems 1.4.1 Security of supply 1.4.2 Quality of supply 1.4.3 Stability 1.5 Operation of transmission and distribution systems 1.5.1 Operational planning 1.5.2 Extended real-time operation 1.5.3 Real-time operation 1.5.4 Post real-time operation 1.6 Future developments and challenges 1.6.1 Organisational developments 1.6.2 Technical and technological developments 1.6.3 Control and communication developments References xxv xxvii 17 17 19 19 21 23 26 30 32 34 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 42 43 43 43 45 53 54 viii High-voltage engineering and testing Insulation co-ordination for AC transmission and distribution systems T Irwin and H.M Ryan 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Classification of dielectric stress 2.2.1 Power frequency voltage 2.2.2 Temporary overvoltages 2.2.3 Switching overvoltages 2.2.4 Lightning overvoltages 2.3 Voltage–time characteristics 2.4 Rated withstand voltage levels 2.5 Factors affecting switching overvoltages 2.5.1 Source configuration 2.5.2 Remanent charge 2.5.3 Transmission line length 2.5.4 Compensation 2.5.5 Circuit-breaker pole scatter 2.5.6 Point-on-wave of circuit-breaker closure 2.6 Methods of controlling switching surges 2.6.1 Circuit-breaker pre-insertion resistors 2.6.2 Metal oxide surge arresters 2.6.3 Circuit-breaker point-on-wave control 2.6.4 Comparison of switching overvoltage control methods 2.6.5 Application of insulation co-ordination for ultra high-voltage technology 2.7 Factors affecting lightning overvoltages entering substations 2.7.1 Backflashover 2.7.2 Direct strike 2.7.3 Attenuation of lightning overvoltage 2.8 Methods of controlling lightning overvoltages 2.8.1 Location of surge arresters 2.9 Conclusions References Applications of gaseous insulants H.M Ryan 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Atmospheric air clearances 3.2.1 Test areas 3.2.2 Sphere gaps 3.2.3 Spark gaps 3.2.4 Overhead lines and conductor bundles 3.2.5 Guidelines for live working 3.3 Other gases 3.4 Switchgear and GIS 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 Arc extinction media 57 57 61 61 61 63 63 63 64 67 67 68 69 70 70 71 71 71 72 77 78 79 80 81 84 87 87 87 89 89 93 93 96 96 100 100 105 110 111 113 113 116 ix 3.4.3 General dielectric considerations 3.4.4 Performance under contaminated conditions 3.4.5 GIS service reliability 3.4.6 Gas-insulated transmission lines (GIL) 3.4.7 Vacuum switches 3.5 System modelling for switchgear design applications 3.5.1 Field analysis techniques 3.5.2 Prediction of breakdown voltages 3.6 Summary Acknowledgements References 119 130 131 133 134 136 136 143 148 148 149 HVDC and power electronic systems Gearo´id o´ hEidhin 4.1 Introduction 4.2 HVDC transmission – a brief overview 4.3 General principles 4.4 Main components of HVDC links 4.4.1 Thyristor valves 4.4.2 Converter transformer 4.4.3 Control equipment 4.4.4 AC filters and reactive power control 4.4.5 Smoothing reactor and DC filter 4.4.6 Switchgear 4.4.7 Surge arresters 4.4.8 Valve cooling 4.4.9 Auxiliary supplies 4.5 Converter building 4.6 VSC HVDC 4.7 Economics 4.8 Power electronic support for AC systems 4.8.1 Static var compensators (SVCs) 4.8.2 STATCOM 4.8.3 Series compensators 4.8.4 Unified power flow controller (UPFC) 4.9 Power electronics for industrial applications 4.10 Conclusion References 153 The implications of renewable energy on grid networks Adrian Wilson 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Drivers for renewable energy 5.2.1 Fossil fuel 5.2.2 Nuclear fuels 187 153 153 155 156 156 158 162 163 165 166 168 168 169 169 172 176 177 178 179 180 182 183 183 185 187 187 187 188 Index electrical tests 550–1 electric current monitoring 759–61 Electricity Act 1947 21 Electricity Act 1957 22 Electricity Act 1983 26, 37 Electricity Association 426 Electricity Council 22 Electricity Lighting Act 1882 19 electricity power utilities (EPUs) 858–9 Electricity Supply Act 1926 21 electricity supply industry structure 25, 34–8, 43 efficiency 389–90 network 355–6 electrode systems 121 electrogeometric model 84–6 electromagnetic arc control 298–9 electromagnetic circuit-breaker 285–7 thermal recovery 285–7 electromagnetic interference (EMI) 701 electron avalanches 635, 637, 638 in uniform fields 636–9 Energy Act 2004 38 energy management system (EMS) 42, 866, 867 Energy Market Reform (EMR) 881 energy-mix and perceived renewable energy costs 796–9 energy storage 205 energy storage devices 390 energy value 199–200 English biomass resources 194 environmental issues 296, 297, 387–9, 509 SF6 388–9 Erinmez, Arslan erosion breakdown 600–1 ESI developments 787–91 AC offshore substations for wind farms 839–44 balancing fluctuating wind energy with fossil power stations 857–8 carbon capture and storage (CCS) 825–32 carbon trading 819–25 future developments including smart grids 858–77 international takeovers and possible impacts 791–6 913 network upgrades and operational experiences 844–5 North Sea Super Grid (NSSG), proposal case for 833–9 nuclear power plants 810–19 operational difficulties with wind farms 845–54 renewable energy development 796–808 UK air-defence radar 854–5 UK government’s recent wind of change 808–9 UK/International DC cable links 833 wind turbine hum 855–7 ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) 218 dielectric 228 insulation 254 European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EUETS) 819 Europe’s Emission Trading Scheme 820 evaluation software 619–20 applications 626–8 exothermic welding 246 expulsion fuse 363–4 extended real-time operation 42 extra high voltage (EHV) substation equipment 697 extruded insulation systems 226–8 Fabian Society 21, 26 factory acceptance testing 261–2 failure data 426, 426–7 failure modes, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) 455–7 failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) 455–7 failure rate 429–30, 431 fault current 299, 300 fault current interruption 310–12 fault current limiters 201, 202 fault level 200–1 fault-making device 378 fault passage indicator (FPI) 457 fault reporting 432 Ferranti 337 Ferranti effect 62 Ferranti rise 69–70 ferroresonance 62–3, 328–30 914 High-voltage engineering and testing fibre optic point sensor measurements 690 field analysis techniques 136–43 field factor 137 fingerprint 435 finite element analysis 515–16 fixed electrode spacing 648 flashover 642 across insulator surfaces in air 662–3 flashover voltage 96–7, 126 rod-plane gap 96–7 rod-rod gap 96–7 Fletcher, Martin 818 flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) 44, 178, 183, 865 flexible cables 215–16 ‘floating’ wind turbines 830 fluid-filled cables 217, 252, 253, 256 formative time lag 652 Fortson, D 882, 883 fossil fuel reserves 20, 832 fossil fuels 187–8 fossil power stations, balancing fluctuating wind energy with 857–8 frequency 32–3 front-of-wave lightning impulse 545 Fukushima nuclear accident 810–11, 813, 817 fulgurite 381 full converter wind turbine 195 full wave lightning impulse 545 functional specifications 530 fuses 380 current limiting 381–2 expulsion 380–1 fuse switch 379–80 ‘future proofing’ 703, 704 gap factor 655, 656 air gaps 658–60 rod–plane gaps 657–8 sparkover under alternating voltages 659 sparkover under direct voltages 659–62 sparkover voltage characteristics for different gaps 657 test procedures 656 gas blast circuit-breakers 283–5 thermal recovery 285 gas compression cable 217 gas density, measuring 709 gas density monitoring (GDM) 698, 744 detailed bay information 745 gas inventory 746–7 GDM system alarms 745 transducer options 751 gas density transducer 708 gaseous insulants 93 atmospheric air 96–111 modelling 136–47 N2/SF6 mixtures 112–15 sulphur hexafluoride 111–12 switchgear 113–35 ternary gaseous dielectrics 113 gas filled interrupter 275 electromagnetic 285–7 gas blast 283–5 see also sulphur hexafluoride circuit-breaker gas-in-oil detection system 729 gas insulated line (GIL) 94, 113, 270 gas insulated substation (GIS) 64, 87–9, 103, 113, 290, 322, 323, 358–9, 696 contaminated conditions 130–1 design 319–20, 322–4 disconnectors 327–8 gas-gap 122 indoor 319, 320, 322 interrupters 144 metal-clad switchgear 141–2 monitoring 330–2 outdoor 319 partial discharge measurement 611–13 power frequency characteristics 129–30 reliability 131–3 SF6 119–20, 127–8 gas-insulated transmission lines 133–4 gas-pressure cables 217 gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) 179–81 Gay–Lussac’s law 709 GB System Operator (GBSO) 38 GDF Suez 793 GDM node unit overview 711 data collection 712 maintenance facility 715–16 predictive alarms and SF6 gas inventory 713–15 Index GEC 340 gel permeation chromatography 450 generator circuit switching 415–16 generator technologies 193, 195 base load 200 biomass-fed generators 196 conventional power stations 193, 195 dispatchable 200 forecast but intermittent generation 200 full converter wind turbine 195 microgeneration 196 non-forecast spill 200 partial converter wind turbine 195 tidal machines 195 un-metered spill 200 wave machines 195 generator transformers 12 Gillespie, James 854 GIS GDM node unit 714 GIS PDM node unit 712 Glenny, Misha 897 Graeătz bridge scheme 526 greenhouse effect 295, 389 greenhouse gas emissions, in EU-15 295 Grid Code 27, 28, 29 grid-ready appliances and devices 867 grid transmission system 21–2, 24 supergrid 22–3 guar gum powder 831 Hague, William 895 Haldane, T.G.N 22 Hall, Richard 849 Hare, Phil 849 hazard rate 430–1, 431 Health and Safety Executive 427 Hermstein glow 641–3 high current bushing 481 highest voltage for equipment 577, 595–6 highest voltage of a system 577 high-performance liquid chromatography 691 high-temperature superconducting (HTS) transformers 14 high-temperature superconductivity 270 high-voltage circuit breaker monitoring 761 operation 761–3 915 high voltage electrical equipment, tests made on 634 alternating and direct voltage 634 impulse testing 634–5 high-voltage equipment, online monitoring of 758 optical fibre chromatic sensors 758–61 time and frequency domain chromatic processing 761–8 ‘hissing’ test 488 Holborn Viaduct Generating Station 19 Hollande, Francois 814–15 home area network (HAN) 866 horizontally separated industry 35–7 hotspot temperature 457, 509, 519, 532, 542 humidity 593 humidity correction factor 667 humidity effects, in atmosphere 665 humidity factor 593, 666–8 HVDC converter station 153–5 AC filters 163–5 auxiliary power supplies 169 building 169–72 contamination protection 172 control equipment 162–3 DC filters 165 DC reactor 165–6 economics 176–7 losses 176–7 power electronics for industrial applications 183 reactive power control 163–5 surge arresters 168 switchgear 166–8 thyristor valves 156–8 transformer 158–62 valve cooling 168–9 voltage-sourced converters (VSC) HVDC 172–5 HVDC convertor transformers 521–3 HVDC technology 52–3 HVDC transmission 1, 37, 153–5 back-to-back link 159–60, 165 Hydran Gas Monitor 691 hydroelectric stations 520 hydrogen 690 hysteresis loss 237 916 IEC IEC IEC IEC High-voltage engineering and testing 52 100 56 365–6 60052 567 60060 66, 487, 576, 578, 585, 619, 626 IEC 60060-1 256, 626 IEC 60060-2 558, 561 IEC 60060-1 619, 642, 644, 652, 670 IEC 60071 57–9, 63–4, 66, 75, 88, 576 IEC 60076 576 IEC 60076-1 541, 543 IEC 60076-2 532, 542 IEC 60076-3 543, 544, 546 IEC 60076-7 542, 682, 688 IEC 60076-18 548 IEC 60137 467, 484, 486, 489–90, 490 IEC 60141 256 IEC 60230 576 IEC 60270 613 IEC 60354 458 IEC 60507 476 IEC 60815 473, 476 IEC 61000 703 IEC 61083 616, 620 IEC 61083-1 572 IEC 61083-2 572 IEC 61233 414 IEC 61463 490 IEC 61464 491 IEC 61639 482 IEC 62067 256 IEC 62271-100 305, 318, 407, 413, 414–15 IEC 62271-200 407 IEC Standard 60183 670 IEEE C37-013:1989 416 impact-ionisation 637, 638 impregnated cables 216 impulse breakdown 644 impulse current 591–2 impulse current generation 591–2 impulse current shunt 571–2 impulse generator 586–7, 590, 634 impulse testing 634–5 impulse tests 559, 620 impulse test voltage generation 584–91 impulse voltage 584–90 impulse waveform evaluation 619–20, 626–8 inductance per unit length 214 inductive current switching 312–14, 414–15 industrial transformers 525–6 information management 463–4 infra-red photography 690 in-service monitoring 266–7 instantaneous failure rate 430 instrument transformer 385–7 insulants, gaseous: see gaseous insulants Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA) 258 insulating board 509 insulation co-ordination 576, 592, 597 external 576, 593 internal 576, 593 levels 576, 595–6 non-self-restoring 577 self-restoring 576 transformers 509–10 voltage–time characteristics 63–4 insulation age 448–9, 450 insulation co-ordination (IC) 3, 57–61, 102, 110, 332–4 insulation failure 631 insulation levels 59 insulation module 685 insulation resistance test 436, 439, 446 insulation system 222–8 extruded 226–8 lapped 224–6 subsea cable systems 252–4 insulation testing 445–7, 599 insulator surfaces, flashover across (in air) 662–3 integrated substation condition monitoring (ISCM) system 698–9, 736, 747–8 control cubicle 739 gas density monitoring 744–7 main operational screen 738 partial discharge monitoring (PDM) 740–3 of substation monitoring 737 ‘intellectual contribution’ to network restructuring 393 intelligent electronic device (IED) 680, 865, 866 Index intelligent link 364 intelligent monitoring 755–6 interface module 705 interleaved disc winding 505, 506, 514 interline power flow controller (IPFC) 51 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 256 international takeovers in UK power sector 791 interphase power controller (IPC) 50 interrupter media breakdown voltages 276 interrupters arcing contacts 309 first generation 306–9 nozzles 309 second generation 308, 309–10 single-pressure 306–10 third generation 316–17 two-pressure 306 see also circuit-breakers (CBs); puffer ISCM system gateway 736 global positioning system 739 local alarms 738 remote access 738 uninterruptible power supply 738 isolator: see disconnector joints 246–9 Jones, G.R knowledge modules (KMs) 729 Kyoto protocol 1997 708 Laplace equation 136, 139 lapped insulation systems 224–6 large drive convertor transformers 526 large drive rectifier transformers 526 Lauvergeon, Anne 812 Lea, Robert 885 leaders 635, 644–5, 649 leakage test 490 Lichtenberg figures 644, 645, 648, 649 life cycle 426 life management 425–6 lifetime energy usage 390 life time law 600 lighting systems, in early years 215 917 lightning impulse voltage 584, 590, 621, 626 lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) 64, 332 lightning overvoltage 63, 79, 80–9 control 87–9 linearity test 573 line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC system 174 line flash 81, 86, 88 line gap flashover 84–5 link boxes 249 live-tank circuit-breaker 118–19, 319–21 live working 110–11 Lloyd Parry, Richard 817 load flow 205 load rejection 61–2 local area network (LAN) 698 London penetration depth 202 long-distance transmission losses 237–8 current-driven 237–8 minimising 239–41 in power cables 270 voltage-driven 237 MacKay, David 799–800 magnetic field expulsion 201 and inductance 214 magnetomotive force 495–6 Mahajan, Swadesh 812 maintenance 450–5 future trends in 458 management techniques 455 managerial level 428 Marlow, Ben 886 Marx generator 586–7 McNeill HVDC station 158, 160–1, 165, 169 measuring alternating voltage amplitude 563–7, 620–1 digital recording systems 620–6 direct voltage amplitude 561–3, 620–1 error 561, 563, 566–7 impulse current amplitude 571–2, 621–3 918 High-voltage engineering and testing impulse voltage amplitude 567–71, 621–3 partial discharge 601, 603–4, 623–6 purposes 573 time parameters 572 measuring system 555–60, 573 converting device 555–60 electromagnetic interference 559–60 partial discharge 604–6 recording device 559–60 scale factor 558 transmission system 559 measuring techniques 555 digital 615–16 partial discharge 599 mechanism proximity switches 719 medium voltage (MV) switchgear 356 M effect: see Metcalf effect MeggerTM testing 439 Meissner effect 201 Merkel, Angela 813 Merz, Charles 338, 339 Merz and McLellan 338 metallic particles 289–90 metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA) 72–6, 88, 326, 335, 383–5, 409 residual voltage measurement 559 Metcalf effect 381 microgeneration 196 Milliken conductor 221, 222 ‘minimum breakdown voltage’ 649 minimum oil circuit-breaker 371 modelling, insulation 136–47 modern cable sheaths 229–31 moisture content analysis 436 Møllehøj self-compensating cable system 253 monitoring condition 435–6, 450 switchgear 330–1, 436–7 monitoring data, access to 681 monitoring platform, common 707 circuit breaker monitoring 709 disconnector and earth switch monitoring 710 gas density monitoring 708–9 high-frequency PD monitoring 709–10 multi-core cables 228–9 multi-function cables 228–9 multimodule converters (MMC) 174 multiple lightning discharges, photograph of 632 multi-stage rectifier 579, 597 Mumetal 386 MVA rating 365 ‘nameplate’ age 447, 450 ‘Nano’ surface treatment 663 Nasser’s theory of the development of Hermstein’s glow 641 National Fault and Interruptions Reporting Scheme 426 National Grid system 24, 26 National Grid Company (NGC) 26–30, 199, 257 National Grid Electricity Transmission (NGET) 38 Network Rail 258 ‘new-build’ nuclear plants overseas 815–19 New Electricity Trading Arrangements (NETA) 37 node unit alarm data display 724 and trend plot screen 718 node unit data acquisition system 711 node unit main operational screen 726 hardware diagnostics 727 node unit monitoring screen 723 node unit real-time PD summary screen 725 noise pollution 855 nominal voltage 577 non-destructive testing 599 ‘non self-restoring’ insulating systems 67, 634 non-uniform fields 640 alternating voltage breakdown 642–3 breakdown 645–7 direct voltage breakdown 641–2 disruptive discharge 645–7 impulse breakdown 644 leaders 644–5 sparkover 645–7 North Eastern Electric Company 338 North Sea Super Grid (NSSG) 788, 790, 833–9 nuclear developments, in future 811–15 Index nuclear fuels 188 nuclear power plants 810 Fukushima nuclear accident 810–11 future nuclear developments 811–15 ‘new-build’ nuclear plants overseas, future prospects of 815–19 numerical modelling methods 139–41 Oerlikon 337 off-line testing 264 offshore AC substations for wind farms 842, 843 Offshore Wind Cost Reduction Task Force 884 OFGEM 196, 197, 198, 849 oil end clearance 477 oil-filled cable 217 oil filled circuit-breakers 293 oil impregnated paper (OIP) 471, 479, 486, 487–91 oil tests 446, 550 online monitoring systems 678 chromatic optical fibre sensors 759 optical fibre chromatic sensors 758–9 time and frequency domain chromatic processing 761 using optical fibre chromatic techniques 758 on-load tap-changer 511–12 on-load tap-changer (OLTC) module 683–4 opening resistor 4, 324–5 open-terminal substation 319, 324 operational level 428 operational planning 41 activities in 41–2 ‘Operations Management’ 461 optical fibres 733 chromatic sensors 758–9 sensing 331 optimisation of rating 239–43 Osborne, George 879 oscilloscope 570, 572, 615–16 outdoor termination 244 overhead lines condition monitoring 441 overloading 688 overshoot 557–8 919 overvoltage 57, 324, 332, 577, 644 lightning 63, 79, 80–9 switching 63, 66, 67–71 temporary 61–3 ozone depletion 388 Parry, Lloyd 817 partial converter wind turbine 195 partial discharge 599–604 equivalent circuit 601 magnitude 604–6, 607 solid insulating material 600 see also corona partial discharge measurement 601, 603–6, 611 calibration 603, 608 circuit 602 development of recommendation 613–14 digital recording systems 623–6 examples 608–13 extinction voltage 605 frequency response 605–6 inception voltage 605 narrowband 607 noise 611, 623–6 UHF 611–12 wideband 607 partial discharge monitoring (PDM) 437, 689, 698, 729, 740 bay overview screen 741 cables 439–40 data sampling rates 752 detailed bay information 740–2 diagnostics 742 display and diagnostics 742–3 node unit data collection 724 node unit noise monitoring and alarm control 725–7 node unit sequencer controls 724–5 node unit system diagnostics 727 overview screen 740 self-learning diagnostics 743 partial discharge test 261, 263, 439 partial discharge test voltage levels 605 Paschen’s law 664 PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation (PXI) system 711 peak flow for mean spring tide 192 920 High-voltage engineering and testing peak voltmeter 570–1 Pearl Street System 19 performance tests 539–40 periodic maintenance, testing for 267–8 phase shifter 153 phase shifting transformer (PST) 47, 523–5 application 524 example 524 phasor measurement units (PMUs) 865 photo-ionisation 637–9 plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) 867 point-on-wave (POW) information 77–8, 724 point-to-point configuration, breakdown in 651 point-to-point gap 646 polarisation index test 440 polaroid photographs 641 pollution 19 pollution tests 668–9 polychromatic light absorption oil signature 774 polymeric cables 217–18 polypropylene-paper laminate (PPL) 218 polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 309–10 filled 309 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) thermoplastic 217 post real-time operation 43 power electronic devices 153 power electronics for industrial applications 183 power frequency voltage 61, 66 Powerline group 787–8 power losses 237–8 power station sites 32 power station transformers 520–1 power transfers 188 power transformer monitoring 727, 730 dissolved gas analysis (DGA), sensors for 731–2 tap-changer monitoring, sensors for 732 see also transformers preferential subjects (PSs) 868 prequalification test 575 pre-saturated core fault current limiters 203–5 pressure-assisted cables 216–17 pressurised gas-filled transformers 532 preventative maintenance 425, 435, 440, 450–3 preventive maintenance 549 ‘price’ versus ‘value’ 829 privatisation, electricity supply industry 26–7 PTFE: see polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Publically Available Standard (PAS) 55, 462 puffer 117–18, 284, 306–10, 311, 374, 409, 411, 412 circuit-breaker 409 duo-blast 306, 307, 308 mono-blast 307 partial duo-blast 306, 307, 308, 374 pulse width modulated (PWM)-based converters 174 quadrature booster (QB) 47, 51, 153 quality assessment 599 quality of supply 39–40 radial circuits 363 radial gradient 478 radio influence voltage (RIV) 490–1 railway transformers 526–7 rated asymmetrical breaking current 365 rated current 365 rated insulation level 578 rated insulation withstand level 366 rated lightning impulse voltage 366, 595–7 rated power frequency withstand voltage 366, 595–6 rated short-circuit-breaking current 365 rated short-circuit-making current 365 rated short time current 365–6 rated switching impulse withstand voltage 594–7 rated transient recovery voltage 366 rated voltage 366 rated withstand voltage levels 64–7 rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) 312 ratings continuous 236 dynamic 242–3 Index factors affecting 236–43 optimisation of 239–43 short-circuit 236 thermal 234–5 time-dependent 235–6 reactive compensation 33 reactor switching 314, 314–15, 329, 335, 417 real-time operation 42–3 recovery voltage method 441, 458 rectifier power transformers 526 reference pulse generator 619 reference unified specific creepage distance (RUSCD) 474–6 reference waveforms 620 refurbishment 425 reignition 312–14, 416 reliability 425, 426–34 analysis 428, 429–30, 456 data 426–34 human factors 432–3 reliability centred maintenance (RCM) 453–4 remanent charge 68–9 remote resource locations, network implications from 193 remote terminal units (RTUs) 729 Renardiers Group 644 renewable energy 187 drivers for 187–8 fossil fuels 187–8 generator technologies 196–9 network implications 196–9 nuclear fuels 188 resources and technology, UK 188–96 solutions for 200–6 value of energy 199–200 renewable energy development in the UK 796 energy-mix and perceived renewable energy costs 796–9 renewable energy vs landscape calculations 799–800 UK energy storage 800–3 wind energy 806–8 renewable energy vs landscape calculations 799–800 renewable generator technologies 196 cost of connections 196–7 fault level 197 921 grid code issues 199 load flow 197 network extensions 198 power quality 198 regulation 198–9 voltage rise 197 Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) 198, 799 ‘required withstand’ voltages 65 residential energy management system (EMS) 867 residual life concepts 350–1 resin bonded paper (RBP) 470–1, 487–8 resin impregnated paper (RIP) 471–2, 479, 481, 482–3, 488–9 resistive fault current limiters 202–3 resonance 62 resource management 428 Reynold series 365 Reyrolle 340 ring main 362 ring main unit 382–3 ripple 579 risk assessment 455–7 Robinson, Ann 879 rod–plane electrode system 646 rod–plane gap 96–7, 657–8 rod–rod discharges, Lichtenberg figure of 644, 648 rod-rod gap 96–7 Rogers ratio 447 Rogowski coil 572, 609–10, 625 rogue circuit 428 rotating-arc circuit-breaker 409 routine tests 541 safety factor 88 safe working distances 110 SCADA systems: see system control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems Schering Bridge 487 Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission Ltd (SHETL) 38 Scottish Power Renewables (SPR) 884 Scottish Power Transmission 38 security of supply 33, 39 seismic withstand 490 ‘self-learning’ facility 724 922 High-voltage engineering and testing self-restoring insulation 67, 634 sensors and transducers 705 series capacitor (SC) 47, 180–3 series compensator 153, 180–2 settling time 557–8 SF6 gas (CB/GIS) system integrity 701 SF6 gas circuit-breakers 409 SF6 Gas Density Monitoring System 708 Shaw, Jonathan 897 sheath voltage limiters (SVLs) 240–1, 249 shielded core fault current limiters 203 shielding failure 84–6 short-circuit bushing tests 490 short-circuit current limiters (SCCL) 865 short-circuit fault 277 short-circuit impedance 582 short-circuit rating 236 short circuit withstand 547–8 short-circuit withstand requirements 533–4 short line fault 278, 279 shunt reactive compensation 46, 62, 70 Siemens & Halke 337 Siemens Transformers 486 six-pulse bridge 156 skin depth 221 skin effect factor 221 smart-grid initiatives 1, 54 smart grids 858–77 soak test 264 solid-state series compensator (SSSC) 49– 50 South of Scotland Electricity Board 338 spark gap 100–1, 587–8, 601–2 rod-gap 101–3 rod-plane 101–3 sparkover 96, 645–7 electric fields at 655 under alternating voltages 659 under direct voltages 659–62 voltage characteristics for different gaps 657 special tests 540 sphere gap 100, 567, 587 spur circuits 363 ‘square waves’, tests with 652 stability 40–1 standards 531 for HV cables 256–8 standard withstand voltage tests 578 static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) 48, 153, 179–82 static Var compensator (SVC) 46, 153, 178–80, 525 statistical time 652 step voltage test 441 Stern, George 505 storage energy back-up 823–5 strategic planning 428 streamer development into leaders 644, 647 streamer discharges 635, 640 streamer system 639–40 streamer to leader development 644, 646 streaming electrification 519 string insulators 109 ‘Stuxnet’ 898 subsea cable systems 250–2 accessories 255–6 installation 255 insulation systems 252–4 manufacture 254–5 substation 355 substation condition assessment 459 substation control system (SCS) 736 substation equipment replacement, integral decision process for 351–2 substation insulation 80–7, 359 insulating materials 359 surge arresters 87–9 substations 357–61 bulk supply points 360 future requirements 390–1 insulation enclosed 358 metal-clad 358, 378 metal enclosed 357–8, 376–7 open air 357, 376–7 primary 359–61 secondary 361, 383, 384 see also air insulated substation; gas insulated substation (GIS) sulphur hexafluoride 305–6, 387–9 breakdown products 387–8 sulphur hexafluoride circuit-breaker 116–19, 143, 303, 305, 334–5, 409 auto-expansion 412–13, 414–15 benefits 294–5 Index dead-tank 118–19, 319, 322, 323 development in the UK 340–2 direct current interruption 299–300 double-pressure 117–18 dual pressure 373–4 greenhouse effect 295 high frequency electrical transients 290 live-tank 118–19, 319–21 material ablation and particle clouds 297–8 metallic particle effects 289–90 monitoring 330–1 PTFE nozzles 290–1 rotating arc 375–6, 412, 413, 415 self-generating gas blast 374 self-pressurising 374–5 single-pressure 117–18 trends 294–300 see also puffer sulphur hexafluoride insulant 111–12 breakdown characteristics 119, 121–5 circuit-breakers 116–19 contamination effects 130–1 N2/SF6 mixtures 112–15, 315–16 superconducting fault current limiters principles 201 magnetic fields expulsion 201 superconductivity 201 superconductivity 201, 270 supergrid 22–3 surge arresters 168, 383–5, 438 see also metal oxide surge arrester (MOSA) surge protective device (SPD) 561 switch disconnector 364, 379 switches 378–9 switch fuse 379 switchgear 113–115, 140, 427 auxiliary equipment 387 condition assessment 447–8 condition monitoring 436–7 design 303 distribution 355–7 oil tests 436 switchgear bushings 483–4 double pressure 483 switchgear design applications system modelling for 136–47 switchgear monitoring 330–1, 436–7 923 switching duties 407 switching impulse voltage 588, 620 switching impulse withstand level (SIWL) 64, 66 switching overvoltage 63, 66, 67–71, 104 control 71–80 synchronised switching 416 synthetic ester-immersed transformers 532 system control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems 42–3 system impedance 534 tangent delta 487, 489 monitor 491 tank temperatures 542 tap-changer 161, 511–12, 549 in-tank 512 monitoring 444–5, 732 separate tank 512 tap-changing process 684 Technical Brochure (TB) 456, 79 TB 546 TB 542 telegraph cables, in early years 215 temperature measurement 690 temporary overvoltages (TOVs) 61–3 terminations 243–6 ternary gaseous dielectrics 113 Tesla Coil 633 test conditions 592–7 test data generator (TDG) 620, 670 reference waveforms 620 testing 258, 575 after-laying tests 262–6 classification of 538–9 condition assessment 548 development 258 dielectric tests 542–7 fault location 268–9 in-service monitoring 266–7 performance tests 539–40 for periodic maintenance 267–8 prequalification 260–1 recommendations 576 requirements 575 routine 575 routine production testing 261–2 short circuit withstand 547–8 924 High-voltage engineering and testing thermal tests 540–2 transformer 512–15, 538–48 type 575 type testing 259–60 test laboratories 96–100 dimensions 97–8 test prod 383 test voltages AC 580–4 DC 578–80 TEVTM instrument 437 thermal breakdown 600 thermal imaging 437 thermal rating 234–5 thermal recovery characteristics 280, 287 for gases 296 thermal resistance 238–9 minimising 241–2 thermal tests 540–2 thermo-hydraulic model (THM) 730 thermovision camera 437–8 Thomson, C.K 808 three-core cable 228, 229 thyristor controlled braking resistor (TCBR) 50–1 thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer (TCPST) 51 thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) 178–81 thyristor-controlled series compensator (TCSC) 47–8 thyristor-controlled voltage regulators 52 thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) 178–81 thyristor-switched series compensation (TSSC) 51 thyristor valves 156–8 tidal machines 195 tidal resources 190–3 time-based maintenance 549 time-dependent ratings 256–63 continuous rating 236 short-circuit rating 236 Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) 817 total loss injection method 541 Townsend mechanism 637, 638 Townsend’s first ionisation coefficient 147 toxic waste 388 transducers 705 transfer earthing 378 transfer function 621–3 transformer bushings 474–5, 478–80, 510–11 transformer cascade 581–2, 583 transformer core 499–503 construction 500, 500–1 Hi-B steel 499, 500 losses 499–503 materials 500 steel grades 500 transformer efficiency 12–15 transformer internal partial discharge 728 transformer monitors, degrees of sophistication for 678–81 transformer oil 509 transformer parameters to be monitored 681–2 transformers 495–7 applications 519–27 circuit parameter 497–8 condition assessment 447–50 condition-based maintenance 549 condition monitoring 443–4 cooling systems 508–9, 518–19 corrective maintenance 549 design specifications 530 dielectric design 512–15 electrical tests 550–1 electromagnetic design 515–16 failure 429, 432 flux rejection 516 functional specifications 530 HVDC convertor 521–3 impedances 533 industrial transformers 525–6 insulation 509–10 iron-cored 495 life-limiting processes 549 lifetime 431, 450 lightning impulse voltage 626 limitations 548–9 magnetic flux shunt 515–16, 516 monitored with remote intelligent electronic device 681 noise level 500 oil tests 550 Index operation and maintenance 548 partial discharge measurement 609–14, 623 phase-shifting 523–5 pole mounted 432 power station 520–1 preventive maintenance 549 railway transformers 526–7 rated power 533 reliability 429, 429–30 short-circuit forces 517–18 tank 510 tap-changing 497, 511–12 time-based maintenance 549 transfer function 621–3 transmission system 521 user requirements 529–35 see also transformer core; transformer windings transformers, high-voltage 675 advanced features measurements and analyses 688–9 basic monitors 682–3 bushing module 685–7 chemical parameters 690–1 continuous/periodic monitoring 677 cooling module 687–8 degrees of sophistication 678–81 dielectric parameters 691 fault development 676 insulation module 685 online monitoring 678 on-load tap-changer (OLTC) module 683–4 parameters to be monitored 677 partial discharge monitoring 689 temperature measurement 690 transformer parameters to be monitored 681–2 transformer specifications 531–5 content 531–5 guidance on 535 transformer standards 531 transformer supplier selection 535 aims 536 format 535–6 industry changes 535 pre-evaluation process 536–8 timing 535 transformer tap-changer monitoring 763–8 transformer testing 512–15, 538–48 lightning impulse 544 load losses 539–40 no-load losses 540 routine 541 special 540 switching impulse 544, 546 type 540 transformer windings 503–8 conductor material 505 continuously transposed cable 505, 507 core-type 503 disc 505–6, 518–19 helical 504–5 shell-type 499 spiral 504–5 tapping 505 thermal design 518–19 transient ground potential rise (TGPR) 327 Transmission Board 20 transmission lines 337 lightning overvoltage 80–9 surface stress 109–10 switching overvoltage 67–71 switching surge control 71–80 trapped charge 68–9 underground 89 transmission operators (TOs) 38 transmission systems 17–19, 337 AC 17–18 DC 18 design 38–41 dielectric stress 61–3 early developments 19–20 future developments 43–54 global developments 23–5 grid 21–2, 24 insulation co-ordination 57–61 operation 41–3 organisational structure 34–8 rated withstand voltage levels 64–7 recent developments 26–30 technical factors 32–4 transformers 521 transmission transformers 12 925 926 High-voltage engineering and testing transmission voltages 338 transport and installation requirements 534 trend plot screen 718 tripping circuit timing tests 437 Troy, Peter¸881 twelve-pulse bridge 156 two-core concentric cable 229 type testing 259–60, 540 ‘U-curve’ 634, 647 critical time to breakdown 654–5 UHF partial discharge monitoring 331, 696 UHF sensors 710 UHV testing laboratory 98–100 UK air-defence radar challenged by wind turbines 854–5 UK Energy Bill 787 UK energy storage 800–3 UK/Iceland DC link 833 UK network/European grid links 833 AC offshore substations for wind farms 839–44 guidelines for design and construction 840–1 direct design 835 network upgrades and operational experiences 844–5 new UK/International DC cable links 833 North Sea Super Grid (NSSG), proposal case for 833–9 split design 835 UK operational difficulties with wind farms 845–54 UK power sector, international takeovers in 791 UK renewable energy resources and technology 188 biomass resources 193 generator technologies 193, 195 power transfers 188 remote resource locations, network implications from 193 tidal resources 190–3 wave resources 189 wind resources 188 ultra-corona 641 ultra high-voltage (UHV) 595 at high altitudes 669 insulation co-ordination for 79–80 uncertainty budget 573 unified power flow controller (UPFC) 50, 153, 182–3 uniform fields, electron avalanches in 636 photo-ionisation 637–9 streamers 639–40 uninterruptable power supply (UPS) system 71, 867 utilisation factor 137, 145 vacuum bottle 408, 409 vacuum circuit-breaker (VCB) 134–6, 373, 408–9 gas-insulated 409 vacuum interrupter 293–4, 373, 408, 409 vacuum switch 134–6 valve hall 169–72 Van de Graaff generators 633 vertical continuous vulcanisation (VCV) 227 vertically integrated industry 34, 37 very fast transient (VFT) voltage 327–8, 483–4, 702 VFTO (very fast transient overvoltage) Vince, Dale 853 viscosifiers 831 voltage classification 577 voltage divider 556, 559–60, 562–3 capacitive 565–7, 568–9 damped capacitive 568–9 resistive 563, 567 resistive-capacitive 567–8 voltage-driven losses 237 voltage measurement 555 alternating 563–7 direct 561–3 impulse 567–71 voltage quality 33 voltage rise 200 voltage-sourced converters (VSC) HVDC 172–5 voltage-sourced converters (VSCs) 53 Index voltage-time characteristics, schematic diagram of 654 voltage transducer 387 voltage transformer 385, 386–7, 581, 582 wave machines 195 wave resources 189 Webb, Tim 808, 880 Weibull distribution 431 Weir, Lord 20, 26 West, Karl 850 wet switching impulse test 663 wet tests 668 WG B3.06 333, 352 wide area network (WAN) 698 Williamson Committee 20 wind energy 806–8, 857–8 wind farms AC offshore substations for 839–44 UK operational difficulties with 845–54 winding displacement technique 695 winding gradient 541 927 winding temperature indicator 444 wind resources 188 wind turbines 855–7 UK air-defence radar challenged by 854–5 withstand voltage 97, 577 conventional assumed 577 co-ordination 577 standard 578 statistical 577 working plant harder 455–8 switchgear 457 transformers 457–8 XLPE insulation: see cross-linked polyethylene (XLPe) insulation X-ray induced partial discharge detection 488 yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) 270 zero-sequence impedance 540 ... Arrillaga and B.C Smith High voltage direct current transmission, 2nd edition J Arrillaga Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Y-H Song (Editor) Embedded generation N Jenkins et al High voltage engineering. .. protection, volumes High- Voltage Engineering and Testing 3rd Edition Edited by Hugh M Ryan The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology,... London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no 21101 4) and Scotland (no SC03869 8) First edition † Peter Peregrinus Ltd 1994