This page intentionally left blank Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919–1939 This book is a reinterpretation of international relations in the period from 1919 to 1939 Avoiding simplistic explanations such as appeasement and British decline, Keith Neilson demonstrates that the underlying cause of the Second World War was the intellectual failure to find an effective means of maintaining the new world order created in 1919 With secret diplomacy, alliances and the balance of power seen as having caused the First World War, the makers of British policy after 1919 were forced to rely on instruments of liberal internationalism such as arms control, the League of Nations and global public opinion to preserve peace Using Britain’s relations with Soviet Russia as a focus for a re-examination of Britain’s dealings with Germany and Japan, this book shows that these tools were inadequate to deal with the physical and ideological threats posed by Bolshevism, fascism, Naziism and Japanese militarism K E I T H N E I L S O N is Professor of History at the Royal Military College of Canada, Ontario His previous publications include Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia 1894–1917 (1995) and, with Zara Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War (2003) Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919–1939 Keith Neilson cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521857130 © Keith Neilson 2006 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-511-14643-5 eBook (EBL) 0-511-14643-4 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-85713-0 hardback 0-521-85713-9 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents Acknowledgements List of abbreviations Introduction page vi viii The period of persuasion: British strategic foreign policy and Soviet Russia, 1919–1933 43 1933–1934: parallel interests? 88 A clash of sensibilities: January to June 1935 120 Complications and choices: July 1935–February 1936 144 Soviet Russian assertiveness: February 1936–July 1937 166 Chamberlain’s interlude: May 1937–September 1938 212 Chamberlain as Buridan’s ass: October 1938–September 1939 254 Conclusion 318 Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III Bibliography Index 334 335 336 340 374 v Acknowledgements While writing this book I have incurred many debts of gratitude, and it my pleasure to acknowledge them A number of people – Arnd Bohm, John Ferris, David French, Greg Kennedy, Ian Nish, Thomas Otte and Zara Steiner – have given me valuable advice along the way John, David, Greg and Zara made time in their busy schedules to read the entire manuscript and to make valuable suggestions for its improvement, while Arnd and Thomas clarified several matters for me While the faults in the book remain mine alone, much of whatever is worthwhile in it results from their assistance I want to thank Greg Kennedy, in particular, for sharing with me his knowledge of Anglo-American relations in the Far East and for insisting that I should deal with a number of issues that I otherwise would have ignored Research costs money I have received funding from the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council that made it possible for me both to spend a good deal of time doing research in Britain and to purchase microfilm The Academic Research Programme of the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) also funded trips to Britain, and provided support for my attendance at various conferences where my ideas could be tested This support, along with that provided by RMC’s Department of History and the College’s Massey Library, has made it possible for me to carry out this project, for which I am grateful The following have graciously given me permission to quote from the material to which they own the copyright: the Master and Fellows of Churchill College in the University of Cambridge; the Syndics of Cambridge University Library; the British Library; the School of Oriental and African Studies; the University Library, the University of Birmingham; the National Maritime Museum; and the Borthwick Institute, the University of York Crown copyright material is reproduced by permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office vi Acknowledgements vii My sincere apologies are due to anyone whose copyright I may have infringed unwittingly My greatest debt is to my family My wife, Joan, makes all things possible; without her love and support this book would not have been written, and it is dedicated to her Abbreviations Adm AHR AJPH ATB B of T BIHR BJIS BMD Cab CAS CBH CD CEH CER CHR CID CIGS CJH CMRS COS D&S DCOS DDMO&I disp DMO&I DNI DOT DPR DPR (DR) DRC viii Admiralty American Historical Review Australian Journal of Politics and History Advisory Committee on Trade Questions in Time of War Board of Trade Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research British Journal of International Studies British Military Delegation Cabinet chief of the Air Staff Contemporary British History Central Department, FO Contemporary European History Chinese Eastern Railway Canadian Historical Review Committee of Imperial Defence chief of the Imperial General Staff Canadian Journal of History Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovie´tique Chiefs of Staff Committee Diplomacy and Statecraft Deputy Chiefs of Staff Committee deputy director of military operations and intelligence dispatch director of military operations and intelligence director of naval intelligence Department of Overseas Trade Defence Policy and Requirements Committee Defence Policy and Requirements (Defence Requirements) Defence Requirements Committee Bibliography 365 McGee, Frank, ‘“Limited Liability”? 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World: Anglo-Dominion Relations and the Limits of “Britishness” Between the Wars’, unpublished papers delivered at the British World II Conference, Calgary, 10 July 2003 Welch, H G., ‘The Origins and Development of the Chiefs of Staff Subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial Defence: 1923–1939’, unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of London, 1973 Index Abyssinian crisis 144, 149, 166, 167, 222 Admiralty 149, 150, 195, 223, 266–267, 287 and Japan 58, 92, 202, 225 views of Soviet Russia 61, 102, 141, 204–205, 227 Afghanistan 53, 55, 62–63, 91 aggression, direct and indirect 290, 298, 306, 307, 308, 312–313, 315, 324 Amery, Leo 254, 296, 324 Anglo-French Conference and London communique´ (Feb 1935) 127, 136, 140 Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) 120, 124, 141–142, 143, 147, 149, 153, 179, 180, 195, 204 Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement (1921) 43, 46, 52, 53 Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement (1934) 79, 94, 95, 102, 268 Anti-Comintern Pact 166, 191, 193–195, 196, 212, 220, 221, 224, 226, 229, 260, 261, 264, 273, 277, 286, 302, 324 appeasement 6–8, 37, 41, 254, 258, 327, 332 Arcos raid 1, 29, 54 arms control, see ‘disarmament’ Ashton-Gwatkin, Frank 148, 155, 173, 265 balance of power 9–10, 14, 27, 30, 130, 227, 318, 322 Baldwin, Stanley 45, 65, 216 view of communism 144–145, 183 Baring balances 48 Barthou, Louis 107, 108, 109–110 Baxter, C W 206 Beck, Jozef 275, 282, 313 Benesˇ, Edvard 243 Berlin, Treaty of 51–52, 81, 200, 322 Birkenhead, Lord 55 Blum, Le´on 175, 183 374 Bolshevism 3–4, 27, 28, 43, 45, 133, 140, 162, 176, 179, 235, 328 Bonnet, Georges 241, 243, 244, 246, 250, 256, 275 Brenan, John 242, 273 British army, expectations for future war 19, 20–21 Broad, Philip 76 Brussels Conference (1937) 224, 225–226, 228 Bullard, Reader 26 Bullitt, William C 80 Butler, R A 249, 269, 312 Caccia, Harold 263 Cadogan, Alexander 27, 30–31, 60, 64, 75, 150, 165, 185, 188, 192, 201, 206, 218, 222, 229, 237, 246, 247, 250, 257, 258, 259, 260, 265, 275, 280, 283, 292, 297, 298, 300, 302, 308 Carr, E H 64, 74, 137 Cecil, Lord Robert 17, 52, 59, 65, 137, 235 Chamberlain, (Joseph) Austen 28, 66–67, 86 policy towards Soviet Russia 49–50, 54–55, 56, 60, 68, 329 Chamberlain, Neville 64, 80, 118, 196, 212, 213, 215, 222, 247, 251, 253, 276–277, 280, 288, 307, 309, 316–317, 330 and Admiralty 66–67 and Foreign Office 125, 216, 218, 222, 228, 229, 271, 309 and France, 251, 262, 332 and Germany 203, 218, 233, 249, 250, 262, 285 and Italy 218, 221, 222, 232, 241, 258, 271, 331 and Japan 66, 85, 90, 104, 112, 113, 114, 116, 125, 146, 218 and Soviet Russia 67, 68, 154, 156, 164, 203, 238, 276–277, 281, 285, 291, Index 293, 294, 295–296, 301, 305, 306, 312, 314, 326, 332 and United States 67, 85, 331 career 66 character 69–70, 255 Chatfield, Ernle 92, 124, 196, 198, 237, 269, 287, 292 Chiang Kai-shek 177 Chilston, Viscount (Aretas Akers-Doulgas) 24, 94, 95, 109, 122, 126, 128, 131, 134, 142, 167, 169, 174, 191, 199, 219, 233, 236, 245, 246, 250, 257, 264 career 26–27 China 53, 55, 57, 74, 89, 112, 117, 124, 130, 144, 166, 167, 172, 177, 182, 205, 219, 220, 223, 225, 230, 231, 242, 245, 253, 259, 261, 332 loan to 146, 171, 243, 260, 262, 269, 310 Churchill, Winston 46, 49, 55, 238, 245, 254, 301 Clark Kerr, Archibald 266, 310 Clerk, George 132, 200 Clive, Robert H (‘Harry’) 114, 130, 124, 181, 207, 217 Collier, Laurence 32, 60, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 79, 90, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 115, 116, 118, 121, 123, 125, 127, 130, 132, 141, 142, 147, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 160, 164, 169, 170, 174, 176, 180, 186, 187, 189, 190, 192, 199, 200, 206, 208, 209, 219, 224, 226, 228, 229, 257, 263, 264–265, 266, 268, 272, 280, 284–285, 286 career 33, 35 views of Soviet Russia 36, 140, 232, 239, 279, 321 Committee of Imperial Defence 18 sub-committees of 19 communism 3–4, 44, 80, 145, 156, 178, 215, 320, 327 see also Bolshevism Communist International (Comintern) 4, 34, 39, 100, 117, 151 Coulondre, Robert 240, 262 Craigie, Robert 90, 106, 112, 123, 124, 130, 178, 179, 182, 204, 223, 224, 226, 235, 260–261, 266, 270, 273, 287, 302, 305, 309 career and views 217–218, 219, 232, 242, 267–268 Cranborne, Lord 159 Crowe, Eyre 27–28, 30, 248 375 Cunliffe-Lister, Philip 54 Curzon, Lord 45, 46, 47, 329 Czechoslovakia 184, 186, 203, 228, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 252, 262, 271, 296 see also Munich crisis Daladier, Edouard 240, 293, 294 Dalton, Hugh 29 Danubian Pact (1935) 121, 126 Dawnay, A G C 71 declinism 7–8, 37, 323, 327 Defence Requirements Sub-Committee 22, 91–93, 97–99, 104, 118, 167, 330 Dening, M E 273 Department of Overseas Trade 16 deterrence, period of 42, 88, 120, 143, 144, 165, 166, 212, 329–332 Deverell, Cyril 230 Dill, J G 102 disarmament 12, 13, 43, 52, 59–61, 64–65, 80, 84, 85, 88, 103, 112, 126, 129, 132, 134, 135–136, 140, 175, 204–205 Disarmament Conference (1932) 88, 107, 108 Dodds, J L 115, 209 Drax, Reginald Ernle-Earle-Plunkett 311, 312, 313 Drummond, Eric (Lord Perth) 73, 226 Duff Cooper, A 169, 170, 181, 213, 247, 248, 251 Eastern Locarno 13, 105, 107, 109–110, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 125–126, 127, 128–129, 132, 133, 137, 138, 148, 203 Eastern Pact, see Eastern Locarno Eden, Anthony 30, 31, 35, 41, 85, 96, 108, 108, 113, 123, 126, 129, 138, 157, 168, 170, 173, 175, 176, 178, 180, 184, 185, 189, 195, 201, 203, 207, 213, 215, 222, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 254, 301, 331 resignation 233 view of Stalin 135, 326 views of Soviet Russia 113, 133–135, 156, 159, 164, 170, 226, 231, 326 visit to Berlin (1935) 129, 130, 132 visit to Moscow (1935) 129, 131, 132, 133–135, 300 Edwardes, Arthur 124 Elliot, Walter 278 Ewer, W N 300 Eyres Monsell, Bolton 168 376 Index fascism 3, 36, 215, 229, 327 Federation of British Industries 115, 116 Finland 275 Firebrace, R C W G 208, 239, 272 First World War, impact on British inter-war policy 13–19, 18–22, 58, 201, 224, 327–328 Fisher, Warren 23, 91, 92, 97–98, 116, 123, 124–125, 146, 150, 172, 215, 216, 218 Fitzmaurice, Gerald 270 Five-Power Conference 187, 202, 203 Flandin, Pierre-Etienne 161 Foreign Office Central Department of 32, 34, 35, 101, 125, 157, 159, 169, 203, 206, 336 Commercial Department of 16 Contraband Department of 17 Far Eastern Department of 32, 33, 34, 35, 75, 76, 93, 100, 101, 114, 172, 182, 195, 218, 225, 337–338 Northern Department of 32, 33, 35, 77, 84, 159, 180, 338 role in policy making 6, 22 structure of 31–32 views of France 105–108, 107, 111, 122, 131–132, 135–136, 140, 152, 158, 173, 237, 250, 256 views of Germany 123, 126, 133, 138, 148, 152, 153, 154, 158, 162, 178, 195, 228 views of Japan 72, 90, 99–102, 104, 111, 123, 124, 130, 150, 151, 172, 182, 188, 195, 223, 225, 236, 260, 267–268, 302 views of Soviet Russia 54, 56, 57, 60, 72, 73, 75, 81, 82, 90, 94, 95, 96, 99–102, 103, 110, 114, 118, 128, 129, 135, 143, 148, 150, 154, 158, 168, 177, 178, 179, 228, 237, 246, 264, 278–280, 283, 302, 332 foreign-policy making e´lite 6, 16, 22, 218 Four-Power Declaration (1939) 272, 276, 277 Four-Power Pact (1933) 81 France, and Britain 49, 105–108, 107, 109–110, 122, 125–126, 161 and Germany 49, 51–52, 127, 137, 140, 161 and Soviet Russia 51, 52, 78, 81, 84, 97, 107, 117, 120, 121, 125, 126, 131– 132, 133, 135–136, 161, 173, 175, 179, 183, 184, 195, 249, 256, 262 Franco-Soviet Pact 5, 34, 108, 126, 129, 131–132, 135–136, 138–140, 148, 153, 157, 158–160, 161, 171, 175, 179, 183, 186, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 217, 219, 237, 241, 253, 257–258, 262, 268, 278, 324, 332 Gafencu, Grigory 284, 285 Gamelin, Maurice 250, 311 Gascoigne, Avery 151 Genoa Conference 47 Germany 91, 93, 98 and Britain 49, 51, 127, 152, 153, 162, 173 and France 49, 51, 133 and Japan 167, 168, 173, 220 and Soviet Russia 39–40, 47, 51, 52, 83, 94, 96, 133, 154, 157, 162, 169, 185, 204, 233, 262, 263, 286, 298 Government Code and Cypher School, see ‘intelligence’ Grandi, Dino 222, 332 Great Britain intellectual basis of foreign policy 70, 126, 128, 129, 135, 143, 152, 162, 198, 206, 322–323, 326, 328, 329, 332 Soviet effect on policy of 2–3, 10, 40–41, 43, 46–47, 52, 81, 94, 95, 99, 120, 123, 125, 127, 128, 130, 137, 143, 144, 157, 158, 166, 168, 177, 179, 186, 210, 213, 220, 224, 226, 231, 236, 244, 246, 264, 269, 272, 274, 278–280, 283, 325 structural and systemic effects on foreign policy of 8–12 Green, William Connor 99 Gregory, J D 53 ‘guilty men’ 7–8, 37, 41 Hadow, R F 35 Hailsham, Lord 164 Halifax, Lord 56, 202, 226, 237, 239, 240, 241, 243, 246, 247, 250, 255, 258–259, 262, 265, 276, 277–278, 280, 282, 283, 285, 287, 289–290, 290–291, 291–292, 292–293, 293–294, 298–300, 302, 303, 305, 306–307, 308, 312, 314 career and views 234–235 Hankey, Maurice P A 23–24, 30, 64, 86, 91, 92, 97–98, 164, 196, 198, 214–215, 228, 233 view of League of Nations 24, 198 views of Russia 24 Harcourt-Smith, S G 113, 151, 181 Harvey, Oliver 234, 276, 289, 294, 299, 302, 306, 308 Index Henderson, Arthur 29, 57, 63 Henderson, Nevile 215, 226, 233, 234, 241, 243, 301, 311 career and views 216–217, 218 Herriot, Edouard 238, 239 Hitler, Adolf 78, 81, 84, 117, 122, 131, 132, 133, 140, 142, 158–160, 162, 170, 176, 216, 227, 233, 247, 250, 262, 264, 271, 293, 321, 319, 328, 332 Hoare, Samuel 75, 141, 149, 156, 180, 182, 202, 214, 216, 262, 277, 278, 284, 292, 293, 306, 326 career and views 145–147, 331 Hoare–Laval Pact 154, 156, 326 Hodsoll, E J 297 Hodson, Robert 24 career, 25 Hong Kong 232, 270 Hore-Belisha, Leslie 214, 230 Howe, R G 84, 93, 95, 230, 270, 273, 274, 287 Hudson, R 268, 279–280 ideology, effect on British policy of 3–4, 6, 7, 142, 189, 229, 233, 281, 292, 315, 318, 322–323, 325, 326, 327, 329 India 53, 55, 92, 99 Industrial Intelligence Committee 58, 61 Inskip, Thomas 248, 277, 293, 299, 307 intelligence 19, 45, 47, 57, 194, 261, 309 Inter-departmental Committee on Eastern Unrest 52 Ironside, Edmund 308 Irwin, Lord, see Halifax Ismay, Hastings 167, 169 Italy 82, 94, 96, 106, 121, 136, 140, 166, 167, 179, 193, 212, 216–217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 237, 258, 260, 296 Japan, and Britain 9, 70, 72, 112, 123, 127, 144, 212, 301 and Germany 167, 168, 173, 185 and naval arms control 112, 120, 171, 182 and Soviet Russia 39, 70, 74–75, 76, 80, 82, 84, 89, 111, 123, 147, 151, 166, 172–173, 185, 187, 224 policy in China 70, 75, 112, 167, 188, 253, 259, 332 Joynson-Hicks, William 45, 49, 54 Keelung affair 188, 205 Kennard, Howard 313 377 Kingsley Wood, H 251 Knatchbull-Hugessen, Hughe 205, 212, 217–218, 220, 221 Konoe, Fumimaro 261 Lampson, Miles 227 Lascelles, D W 264, 265, 275, 279–280 Laval, Pierre 117, 127, 138, 140, 153 League of Nations 31, 50, 63, 96, 102, 103, 105, 109, 110, 138–140, 147, 152, 162, 168, 198, 206, 227, 242, 253, 330 British views of 50, 107 functioning of 11–12 intellectual underpinnings 10–11 Soviet views of 12, 94, 328 weaknesses of 10–12, 166 League of Nations Union 17 Leeper, Allen W A 89, 105, 107 Leeper, Reginald (Rex) 82, 229 Le´ger, Alexis 183 Leith-Ross, Frederick 125, 146, 147, 150, 171, 177, 268 Lenin, Vladimir I 3–69, 38 Lindley, Francis O 72, 76, 80, 145, 300 Lindsay, Ronald 27, 29 Litvinov, Maxim 12, 26, 27, 31, 33, 40, 52, 79, 82, 84, 93, 94, 95, 100, 105, 106, 109, 111, 115, 121, 122, 123, 125–126, 134, 137, 138, 140, 142, 161, 179, 180–181, 218, 224, 226, 237, 241, 245, 246, 249, 252, 256, 257, 264, 272, 279, 281, 283, 297 dismissal of 286, 288, 289 Lloyd George, David 46–47 Locarno, Treaty of 12–13, 50, 51–52, 54, 128, 135, 138–140, 178, 330 London Naval Conference (1935) 112, 171 Lytton, Lord 70, 71, 72, 74, 88 MacDonald, J Ramsay 47, 56–57, 63, 64, 108, 129, 130, 144–145, 329 MacDonald, Malcolm 305 Machiavelli, 222, 319 MacKillop, D 224 Maconachie, Richard 62 Maisky, Ivan 69, 109, 112, 115, 117, 129, 133, 139, 146, 147, 155, 156, 169, 170, 175, 189, 193, 217, 232, 234, 244, 245, 246, 248, 252, 255, 268, 269, 272, 275, 281, 282, 285, 288, 289–290, 290–291, 292, 294, 297, 300, 304, 309, 310 Mallet, Victor 76 Marco Polo Bridge incident 166, 224 Matsudaira Tsuneo 124 378 Index Maugham, Viscount 248, 251 Mediterranean Locarno 13, 108, 162, 178 mental maps 15, 46, 327, 328 mentalite´ 327 Metro-Vickers 1, 26, 35, 69, 79–80, 81 Milne, George 55 Molotov, Viacheslav 27, 77, 94, 135, 289, 296–298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309, 312, 314, 316 Montreux Conference 31, 178, 179, 180–181, 226 Morrison, W S 278, 305, 307 Mounsey, George A 73, 90, 107, 117, 191 Munich crisis 37, 246–251, 252, 260, 316 Murray, Gilbert 17 Mussolini, Benito 222, 227, 258, 264, 271, 275, 281, 328 Nazi–Soviet Pact 5, 37, 40, 41, 314, 316, 319, 325 Naziism 3, 178, 327 Neurath, Constantin von 117 New Economic Policy 38, 43, 76 Nicholls, J W 269, 270 Nicolson, Harold 245 Nyon Conference 31, 221, 222 O’Malley, Owen 35, 122, 126, 190, 201, 322 old diplomacy 13, 206, 330 Oliphant, Lancelot 36, 77, 90, 95, 200, 236, 265, 272, 279, 286 Orde, Charles William 85, 89, 99, 111, 112, 117, 124, 127, 130, 146–148, 151, 167, 172, 181, 188, 192, 218, 220, 225, 229, 230 Ovey, Esmond 24, 73, 76, 79, 94 career 25–26 Perowne, J V 126 Persia 53, 61 persuasion, period of 41, 86, 329–332 Perth, Lord, see Drummond, Eric Peterson, Maurice 89 Phipps, Eric 93, 96, 117, 122, 128, 137, 170, 184, 200, 216, 223, 238, 239, 241, 243, 246, 250, 257 career and views 214–215, 218 Piggot, F S G 58 Poland 200, 202, 219, 236, 246, 247, 262, 271, 274, 275, 276–277, 281, 283, 284, 290, 298, 303, 312, 313, 315, 332 Ponsonby, Arthur 48 Potemkin, Vladimir 246 power 322–323, 333 ‘hard’ 323, 324, 330 ‘soft’ 323, 324, 329, 330 Pratt, John 64, 73–74, 99, 205 Purges 166, 207–210, 213, 219, 221, 224, 232, 236, 252, 273, 311 Radek, Karl 73, 81 Rapallo, Treaty of 47, 51, 52, 54, 84, 125 Red peril 44–46, 47 revisionist Powers 4–5, 41, 82, 94, 254, 321, 324, 328 Reynaud, Paul 195, 242 Rhineland, reoccupation of 166, 170, 171, 174 Riga, Treaty of 43 Roberts, Frank 245, 246, 250, 252, 279, 314 Ronald, Nigel B 220, 221, 261, 274 Roosevelt, Franklin D 67, 69–70, 93, 197, 223, 233, 331 Royal Air Force, expectations for future war 19, 21–22 Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) 17 Royal Navy, expectations for future war 19 Runciman, Walter 155, 156, 244, 247, 255, 302, 306 Saar plebiscite 125 Salmond, John 61 Sansom, George 114, 124 Sargent, Orme Garton 35, 41, 90, 107, 108, 122, 129, 132, 133, 135, 136–137, 138, 140, 148, 152, 158, 160, 164, 169, 173, 184, 200, 201, 206, 217, 229, 250, 256, 261, 275, 298, 314, 322 career 33–34, 101 views of Soviet Russia 125, 128, 137, 161–162, 170, 186, 257, 282 Seeds, William 25, 264, 265, 269, 272, 278, 279, 283, 288, 296–298, 299, 301, 302, 304, 306, 309, 312–313, 314 career 27 Shone, T A 94, 103 Simon, John 63, 72, 79, 80, 85, 90, 101, 107, 109–110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 121, 124, 129, 130, 134, 203, 213, 243, 249, 293, 307, 325, 331 career and views 63–66, 107, 330–331 Singapore Naval Base 91, 92, 192, 266, 269, 270 Soviet Russia and China 57, 220, 245, 253, 261 and France 51, 52, 78, 81, 84, 94, 95, 107, 109–110, 117, 120, 121, 125, Index 131–132, 138, 183, 184, 195, 256, 262, 268 and Germany 39–40, 47, 51, 52, 78, 83, 96, 152, 153, 169, 204, 233, 254, 262, 263, 286, 298 and Japan 39, 70, 72, 73, 74–75, 76, 80, 82, 84, 85, 89, 111, 112, 123, 127, 144, 147, 151, 166, 172–173, 187, 224, 267–268, 270 and United States 80, 84, 93, 130 British loan to (1936) 154–157, 158, 162–165, 166, 169 nature of foreign policy of 4–5, 36–40, 72, 318–321 naval disarmament 134, 175, 195, 204–205, 219 strength of 58–59, 61–62, 76, 77, 84, 96, 166, 186, 205, 207–210, 230, 235, 236, 239, 241, 246, 252, 272, 284, 290, 291, 311, 315 Spanish Civil War 166, 178, 183, 188–191, 197, 212, 220 Stalin, Joseph 37, 38, 39, 40, 78, 133, 135, 208, 264, 303, 326, 328 as communist 318–321, 323 Stanhope, Earl 287 Stanhope, Lord 158 Stanley, Oliver 238, 247, 278, 284, 292, 305, 306, 307 Stimson, Henry L 65 Strang, William 35, 41, 81, 83, 84, 132, 134, 203, 206, 217, 219, 265, 279, 284–285, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303–304, 313 strategic foreign policy 2, 4, 6, 22, 43, 58, 63, 85, 88, 105, 112, 120, 152, 158, 165, 166, 204–205, 210, 212, 214, 253, 254, 256, 268, 269, 270, 305, 315, 318, 323, 325, 327, 329 Strategical Appreciation Sub-Committee 269, 270 Stresa Conference (1935) 134, 135, 136–137, 138, 152, 330 Temperley, A C 71 Temporary Commercial Agreement (1930) 57, 68, 72, 81, 330 ten-year rule 86 Thyne Henderson, J 177, 182 Tientsin Concession 301, 302, 310 Treasury and Soviet Russia 48, 58, 154 involvement in foreign policy 16, 23, 78, 91–93, 114, 124–125, 146–148, 150, 154, 171, 218, 243, 331 Turkey 53, 180, 241, 252, 298 379 see also Montreux Conference Tyrrell, William 27, 28–29, 214, 331 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), see Soviet Russia United States 90, 90, 97, 98, 188–191, 197, 218, 219, 223, 254 and Britain 9–10, 65, 112, 114, 124, 130, 168, 178, 195, 207, 225, 232, 243, 247, 259, 260–261, 269, 287, 302, 325 and Japan 99, 106, 112, 124, 130, 144, 168, 173, 188–191, 207, 219, 231, 253, 269, 270, 287, 302, 310 and Soviet Russia 80, 84, 93, 99, 130 Vansittart, Robert 27, 35, 41, 62, 74, 75, 78, 82, 91, 92, 97–99, 101, 102, 109, 112, 113, 115, 117, 122, 123, 126, 128, 129, 130, 132, 136, 138, 140, 148, 149–150, 153, 156, 158, 159, 162–163, 164, 168, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 181, 183, 184, 191, 196, 199, 200, 201, 214–215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 224, 228, 237, 238, 243, 245, 247, 249, 250, 257, 269, 272, 279, 286, 292, 300, 321 career 29–30 Eden and 31, 185, 219, 229 views of Soviet Russia 36, 60, 95, 103, 147, 230, 265 Vereker, G G M 208, 240 Versailles, Treaty of 14, 52, 132, 162 Voroshilov, Kliment Yefremovich 77, 123, 186 Vyvyan, John 81, 110 Walker, Edward 77 War Office 57, 61, 71, 84, 102, 111, 114, 152, 167, 168, 174, 181, 209, 231, 232, 268, 273 Webb, Sydney 18 Wellesley, Victor A A H 34–35, 76, 85, 115, 125, 219 Wigram, Ralph 101, 106, 127, 139, 141, 152, 157, 176, 178, 184, 186, 219 Wilson, Horace 79, 216 Wilson, Woodrow 14 Winterton, Earl of 247 World Economic Conference (1933) 67, 78, 79, 83 Yamamoto Isoroku 124 Yoshida Shigeru 186, 187, 191 Zinoviev letter 1, 35, 49 ... Britain and the Origins of the First World War (2003) Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919 1939 Keith Neilson cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne,... which they own the copyright: the Master and Fellows of Churchill College in the University of Cambridge; the Syndics of Cambridge University Library; the British Library; the School of Oriental and. .. intentionally left blank Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919 1939 This book is a reinterpretation of international relations in the period from 1919 to 1939 Avoiding simplistic