0521856000 cambridge university press humanitarian occupation mar 2008

This page intentionally left blank Humanitarian Occupation In Bosnia, Kosovo, East Timor and Eastern Slavonia, the international community took the extraordinary step of assuming powers of a national government With the backing of the UN Security Council, the international administrators passed laws, engaged in law enforcement and even signed agreements on behalf of the territories Most importantly, they sought to create democratic political institutions These ‘‘humanitarian occupations” turned traditional notions of sovereignty on their head: the international became the national This book explores two aspects of these remarkable missions First, it argues that, contrary to much recent literature, the missions strongly affirm the centrality of the state in the international order Each of the missions sought to preserve existing borders and populations, consistently rejecting efforts to change either In so doing the missions followed on important trends in international law that seek to create civic notions of citizenship within existing national territories Second, the book argues that conventional legal justifications for the missions are inadequate Each employs rules designed to restrain individual states in competition with each other But humanitarian occupation is undertaken by the international community in pursuit of collective goals Existing state-centric norms are ill-suited to judge the missions, since Security Council actions already embody many of the collective goals advanced by those norms G r e g o r y H F o x is Associate Professor of Law (tenured) at Wayne State University Law School, where he is the Innaugural Cohn Family Scholar in Legal History c a m b r i d g e s t u d i e s i n i n t e r na t i o na l a n d co m pa r a t i v e l aw Established in 1946, this series produces high quality scholarship in the fields of public and private international law and comparative law Although these are distinct legal sub-disciplines, developments since 1946 confirm their interrelation Comparative law is increasingly used as a tool in the making of law at national, regional and international levels Private international law is now often affected by international conventions, and the issues faced by classical conflicts rules are frequently dealt with by substantive harmonisation of law under international auspices Mixed international arbitrations, especially those involving state economic activity, raise mixed questions of public and private international law, while in many fields (such as the protection of human rights and democratic standards, investment guarantees and international criminal law) international and national systems interact National constitutional arrangements relating to ‘foreign affairs’, and to the implementation of international norms, are a focus of attention The Board welcomes works of a theoretical or interdisciplinary character, and those focusing on the new approaches to international or comparative law or conflicts of law Studies of particular institutions or problems are equally welcome, as are translations of the best work published in other languages General Editors James Crawford SC FBA Whewell Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, and Director, Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law, University of Cambridge John S Bell FBA Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge Editorial Board Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Professor Hilary Charlesworth Australian National University Lori Damrosch Columbia University Law School John Dugard Universiteit Leiden Mary-Ann Glendon Harvard Law School Christopher Greenwood London School of Economics David Johnston University of Edinburgh Hein Kă otz Max-Planck-lnstitut, Hamburg Donald McRae University of Ottawa Onuma Yasuaki University of Tokyo Reinhard Zimmermann Universität Regensburg Advisory Committee Professor D W Bowett QC Judge Rosalyn Higgins QC Professor J A Jolowicz QC Professor Sir Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QC Professor Kurt Lipstein Judge Stephen Schwebel A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume Humanitarian Occupation Gregory H Fox CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521856003 © Gregory H Fox 2008 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-38667-1 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-85600-3 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-67189-7 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate For Sharon, with all my love Contents Acknowledgments Introduction page xi Section I Historical antecedents The historical origins of humanitarian occupation I: governance in service of outsiders I Origins in the nineteenth century II Territories administered as a result of the 1919 settlement III League of Nations mandates A Fashioning international authority B The mandatories’ governance obligations C The locus of sovereignty debate IV United Nations trusteeship territories V Conclusions 20 23 23 26 28 33 39 Historical origins of humanitarian occupation II: internationalized territory in service of insiders I The rise of post-conflict reconstruction II Common tasks and objectives A Territorial integrity B Democratic politics C Human rights III Centrality of consent A The role of consent in post-conflict missions B Actual consent 41 45 48 51 52 55 58 59 64 17 19 viii contents C Constructed consent IV Conclusions 68 69 Full international governance I The Bosnia mission A Following the territorial imperative B Creating consent C The Dayton model of statehood II The Kosovo operation A The genesis of the conflict and early international involvement B Escalating international involvement C The Rambouillet conference D War and peace E The interim international administration F Final status negotiations G Observations III The East Timor mission A From voting to violence B Pressure to internationalize C The UNTAET mandate D United Nations statehood? IV The Eastern Slavonia mission V Conclusions 72 74 74 76 78 84 84 87 89 91 93 95 97 98 98 100 102 103 106 110 Section II Why humanitarian occupation? Rejected models of statehood I Introducing the policy options II Legal constraints on exclusionary nationalism A No legal support for homogeneity achieved through murder, subordination or forcible conversion B No legal support for secession or partition The argument for separation The rejection in practice Procedural limitations and transaction costs Negotiated partition C No legal support for mass population movements III Conclusion: what remains? The politics of inclusion 115 118 121 123 125 125 126 132 134 136 140 Index Abbott, Kenneth, 283 Abkazia, 127 African Commission on Human Rights, 138 African Development Bank, 170 African Union, 150, 156 Agenda for Peace, 47, 49, 63, 72, 111 Ahtisaari, Marti, 92, 93, 96 7, 98 Alma Ata Declaration (1991), 130 Alvarez, José, 278, 279 Angola, 48, 55, 64, 65 Annan, Kofi, 54 annexation, 251 antecedents 1919 settlement, 20 internationalized territories, 18 19 mandates See League mandates nineteenth century, 19 20 post-conflict See peacebuilding missions relevance, 17 19 trusteeship territories, 33 40 welfare concerns, 115 apartheid, 60, 124, 214 Arab League, 150 Arend, Anthony, 298 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 183 Armenian genocide, 123 Arusha Agreement (2000), 169 ASEAN, 157 Asian Development Bank, 170 Aust, Anthony, 183 Australia, 35, 98, 101 Austria, 20 Ayoob, Mohammed, 118 Badinter Commission, 75, 80, 130, 135 Balfour, Lord, 30 Bangladesh, 200 Barnett, Michael, 279 Basque region, 127 309 Baxter, Richard, 239 Belgium, 25, 35 Belgrade Agreement (2002), 129 Bell, Christine, 169, 194 Ben-Gurion, David, 119 Benin, 162 Benvenisti, Eyal, 263, 269 Berlin Conference (1885), 20 Berlin Declaration (1945), 255, 257 Biafra, 126 Bildt, Carl, 81 Bjornlund, Eric, 165 Boothby, Derek, 107 Bosnia Dayton Accords See Dayton Accords (1995) diplomatic gridlock, 75 ECHR application to, 80 ethnic cleansing, 136 humanitarian occupation See Bosnia mission nationality of Serb minorities, 135 NATO intervention, 75, 85 UNSC authority, 182 peacekeeping missions, 62, 63, 74 secessionist movement, statehood model, 78 84 international actors, 81 Bosnia mission See also Dayton Accords (1995) consent, 10, 76 8, 179 Dayton model of statehood, 78 84 generally, 74 84 High Representative actions, 5, 82 coercion, 178 Dayton Accords, 2, 81 legitimacy, 302 powers, 82 310 index human rights, 80, 119 IFOR, 81 implementation, 5, 82, 231 new constitution, 241, 306 Peace Implementation Council, 82 Srebrenica massacre, 232 status of forces, 229 territorial imperative, 74 6, 78 Bougainville, 127, 169 boundaries See territorial integrity Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 47, 49, 63, 72, 111 Brahimi Report, 65 Brazil, 101, 273 Bremer, Paul, 262 Brooks, Rosa, 53, 147 Brussels Conference (1890), 20 Brussels Conference (1899), 20 Bulgaria, 137 Burundi Arusha Agreement (2000), 169 election monitoring, 162 human rights, 160 independence, 41 peacekeeping mission, 48, 65 trusteeship territory, 35 Bush, George W., 185 Cambodia elections, 52 human rights, 56 Khmer Rouge murder policy, 123 Paris Accords, 68 peacekeeping mission, 48 consent, 68 ineffectiveness, 231 non-compliance, 62 status of forces, 229 Vietnamese invasion (1978), 197, 200 Cameroons, 35, 41 Canada, 85, 236, 246 Cavers, David, 281 Central African Republic, 48, 200 Chapter VII resolutions See also United Nations Security Council authorizing occupation, 10 11, 200 13 Charter constraints, 201 implied consent, 214 16 jus cogens, 205 13, 252 reformist agenda, 254, 255 70 validation of occupation agreements, 181 consent and, 58 Dayton Accords, 80, 268 East Timor mission, 101 2, 190, 269 Eastern Slavonia mission, 108 humanitarian interventions, 250 Iraq See Iraq jus ad bellum, 220 Kosovo mission, 183, 268, 301 legislation by UNSC, 288 303, 307 NATO authority in Bosnia, 182 North Korea, 292 peacekeeping missions, 42, 61, 65 Somalia, 65, 289 political considerations, 204 powers, 182, 184, 204, 289 90, 307 review, 287 threats to peace, 46 Chavez, Hugo, 151 Chechnya, 127 Chernomydin, Victor, 92, 93 China, 20, 34, 92 Chirac, Jacques, 254 choice of law, 280 Chopra, Jarat, 104, 106 Christopher, Secretary Warren, 76, 78 civil wars See also peacebuilding missions 1990s, 45 acquiescence option, 118 19, 178 breach of Geneva Conventions, 294 democratic solutions, 8, 117 developing states and, 146 international policy options, 118 21 internationalization of conflicts, 227 liberation wars, 191 partition and, 136 recognition of rebel groups, 194 state right to wage war, 191 unacceptability of human rights abuses, Clinton, Bill, 76, 89, 100 coercion invalidating international agreements, 10, 179 81 occupation agreements, 10, 177 economic and political coercion, 188 92 justifiable use of force, 196 200 nature of agreements, 192 Cold War governance debate, 159 proxy war in ex-colonies, 41 UN stalemate, 5, 162 collective entitlements, 119 Colombia, 23 colonialism, 20 Commonwealth, 156 Congo (DRC) human rights, 160 Katanga, 127 peace agreement, 64 territorial integrity, 51 UN ICC debate, 292 UN peacekeeping mission, 48, 57, 229 index consent Bosnia mission, 10, 76 8, 179 coercion, 10, 111, 177 invalidating international agreements, 10, 179 81 nature of coercion, 188 92 humanitarian occupations, 73 4, 177 200 implied consent, 214 16 occupation agreements, 10, 181 justifiable use of force, 196 200 nature of agreements, 192 peacebuilding missions, 42, 58 69 actual consent, 64 complexities, 110 11 constructed consent, 68 role, 59 64 UN vacillations, 63 constructivism, 285 6, 297 8, 299 Cˆ ote d’Ivoire, 48, 65, 160, 169, 292 Cousens, Elizabeth, 49 Cracow, Free City of, 20 Crawford, James, 18, 127 8, 132 Croatia Erdut Agreement (1995), 107 8, 179, 193 independence, 107 nationality of Serb minorities, 135 post-partition war with Serbia, 136 recognition of state, 130 territorial integrity, 108 UNTAES See Eastern Slavonia mission Cuba, 48 Curzon, Lord, 138 customary international law Geneva and Hague law, 225 instant custom, 198 occupation law applicability to UN, 225 32 main obligations, 230 Cyprus, 59, 127, 136, 146, 244 Czech Republic, 134, 136 Czechoslovakia, 128, 137, 181 Danzig, 21 Dayton Accords (1995) consent, 10, 76 8, 179 High Representative, implementation, 5, 82, 231 NATO intervention, 76 new constitution, 241, 306 return of displaced persons, 139 statehood model, 78 84 UN approval, 80, 268 debellatio, 257 decolonization, 2, 34 democracy 311 civil wars and, 8, 117 human rights and, 159 62 minority rights, 247 NGOs, 151 peacebuilding missions, 52 post-Cold War consensus, 46 procedure and substance, 157 62 promotion of liberal democracy, 154 right to impose, 219 UN election monitoring, 162 UN presumption, 12 developing countries colonial borders, 145 human rights conditionality, 170 persistence of civil wars, 146 diversity See pluralism Dă onitz, Admiral, 255 Doyle, Michael, 8, 50, 62, 64, 281 East Timor Indonesian invasion, 98 Indonesian renunciation of sovereignty, 104 return of displaced persons to, 139 self-determination, 105 UNTAET See East Timor mission East Timor mission applicable law, 102 Chapter VII mandate, 101 2, 190, 269 coercion of Indonesia economic coercion, 100 2, 188 threats, 179 direct UN control, 3, 101 elections and violence, 98 100 Indonesian responsibility, 99 foundational documents, 106 generally, 98 106 human rights, 102 judiciary, 103 new constitution, 241 occupation agreement coercion of Indonesia, 100 2, 179, 190 nature, 193 pressure to internationalize, 100 reforms, 103 status of multilateral forces, 229 UN statehood, 103 UNTAET autocratic rule, 104 creation, 102 mandate, 102 war crimes tribunals, Eastern Slavonia mission civil war situation, 191 elections, 109 end of mission, 110 equal treatment agreements, 109 312 index Eastern Slavonia mission (cont.) Erdut Agreement (1995), 107 coercion, 179 nature of agreement, 193 generally, 106 10 obstruction, 108 reintegration, 108 10 status of multilateral forces, 229 UN mandate, 2, 106 UNSC authorization, 108 Egypt, 59 El Salvador, 48, 64 elections Cambodia, 52 East Timor, 98 100 Guatemala, 52 UN monitoring, 162 Encarnación, Omar, 151 Erdut Agreement (1995), 107 8, 179, 193 Eritrea, 127, 134, 135, 136 Estonia, recognition, 130 Ethiopia, 134, 135, 136, 138 ethnic cleansing, 107, 136 7, 139 EUFOR, 81 European Convention on Human Rights application to Bosnia, 80 application to Turkish Cyprus, 244 European Union and, 224 European Court of Human Rights, 152 European Court of Justice, 202 European Development Bank, 170 European Union Copenhagen criteria, 156 effectiveness, 150 Kosovo and, 131, 302 legal personality, 223 Montenegrin independence and, 128 exclusionary nationalism See also pluralism homogeneity through brutality, 123 legal constraints, 121 40 mass population movements, 136 40 secession and partition, 125 36 failed states, 45, 49, 146 Fazal, Tanisha, 145 Feliciano, Florentino, 247 Finland, 131 Finnemore, Martha, 279 France intervention in Central African Republic, 200 Iraq and, 254 Kosovo Contact Group, 85 League mandates, 26 8, 31 Memel Territory and, 21 occupation law, 246, 264 Resolution 1483, 267 Saar region, 22 trusteeship territories, 34, 35 Franck, Thomas, 154, 155, 287 Friedman, Thomas, 8, 256 Friedmann, Wolfgang, 256, 258 Fukuyama, Francis, 155 G-8, 94 Geneva Conventions See jus in bello genocide, jus cogens, 210 Germany 1919 settlement, 20, 178 Balkan policy, 75, 130 election monitoring, 162 ex-colonies, 23, 24, 25, 30 Iraq and, 254 Kosovo Contact Group, 85 Memel Territory, 21 Munich Agreement (1938), 181 Nazis, 123, 248 post-war transformative occupation, 219, 255 Berlin Declaration (1945), 255, 257 denazification, 256 Resolution 1483, 267 Saar region, 22 Upper Silesia, 23 Weimar civil society Ghana, 39, 41, 162 Goldsmith, Lord, 236, 265 Goldstone, Richard, 77 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 46 governance See also democracy; human rights exclusionary nationalism, 121 40 League mandates, 26 liberal theory, 50, 142, 154 72 peacebuilding missions, 42 3, 49 50 policy options, 118 21, 305 Realist theory, 50 Greece, 86, 137, 138 Greenwood, Christopher, 241 group entitlements, 119 Guatemala, 48, 52, 64 Gulf War (1991), 187, 216, 294 Haenckaerts, Jean-Marie, 140 Hague law customary law status, 225 occupation law conservationist principle, 256 German occupation, 259 occupiers’ obligations, 234 Haiti forcible ouster of junta, 183 human rights, 160 index MINUSTAH mission, 169 overthrow of elected government, 167 peace agreement, 64 peacekeeping mission, 48, 65 UN election monitoring, 164 Hall, Duncan, 28 Hammarskjold, Dag, 61 Helsinki Principles, 86 Herdegen, Matthias, 213, 214 Hill, Christopher, 89 Hironaka, Ann, 146 7, 148 Hobbes, Thomas, 152 Holbrooke, Richard, 75 6, 77, 78, 80, 87 Holmes, Stephen, 152 Huber, Max, 155 human rights Bosnia mission, 80, 119 democracy and, 159 62 East Timor mission, 102 exclusionary nationalism and, 122 humanitarian occupations, individual v state interests, 152 jus cogens, 214 Kosovo, 97 norms of liberal state, 167 72 occupation law Geneva Convention IV, 238 41, 243 reformist reading, 242 peace agreements and, 169 70 peacebuilding missions, 50, 55 population transfer, 138 40 state sovereignty and, Vienna Declaration (1993), 159 humanitarian interventions, 195 200, 250 humanitarian law See jus in bello humanitarian occupations Bosnia See Bosnia mission collective innovation, 12 East Timor See East Timor mission examples, 72 historical antecedents See antecedents international v domestic distinction, Kosovo See Kosovo mission legal justifications See legal justifications for humanitarian occupation meaning, objectives, 117, 233, 308 policy options, 118 21, 305 progression to, 116 reasons, 8, 116 17 brutal conflicts, demise of state-centric system, human rights abuses, rehabilitation of states, secessionist movements, 313 territorial integrity See territorial integrity Slavonia See Eastern Slavonia mission terminology, 73 Hun Sen, 53 Hungary, 75, 137 ICRC, 223, 225, 265 IFOR, 81 Ignatieff, Michael, IMF, 100, 190, 278 inclusion See pluralism India, 136, 146, 200 Indonesia See also East Timor Irian Jayah, 43, 44 Netherlands and, 146 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 227 Inter-American Development Bank, 170 inter-governmental organizations See also United Nations competence and legal personality, 276 effectiveness, 149 51 Geneva Conventions and, 223 promotion of democracy, 156 International Court of Justice coerced treaties, 190 East Timor case, 105, 207 extraterritorial application of treaties, 244 jus cogens, 206, 210, 214 legal personality of international organizations, 276, 279 NATO intervention in Kosovo, 91 Nicaragua case, 110, 227, 254 self-determination principle, 207 state parties, 287 UNSC legislative powers, 291 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 244 International Criminal Court Sudan referral, 293 US immunity from, 291 war crimes, 192 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, 294 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Celebici case, 226 indictments, 77, 92, 301 subject jurisdiction, 227 international criminal tribunals, 213 international governance See also humanitarian occupations antecedents See antecedents examples, 72 314 index international governance (cont.) full governance, 72 functions, League mandates, 32 international humanitarian law See jus in bello international law See also treaties demise of state-centric system, internal governance and, 121 murderous nationalism and, 123 occupation See occupation law pluralist ethos, 122 rejection of secession or partition, 125 36 secessionist movements and, 13 state-centred order, 223, 307 lack of adjudicatory mechanisms, 286 origins, 275 persistence, 143 54 reciprocity, 279 transcending, 274 88 UN collective agenda, 285 territorial change and, 121 UNSC legislation, 288 303 International Law Commission invalidity of coerced treaties, 180 1, 182, 183 4, 189, 195 jus cogens, 206, 211 12, 213 responsibility of international organizations, 279 self-determination principle, 207 state consent to occupation, 214 international law of occupation See occupation law internationalized territories 1919 settlement, 20 categories, 19 evolution, 19 full governance, 72 mandates See League mandates meaning, 18 19 nineteenth century, 19 20 post-conflict See peacebuilding missions trusteeship territories, 33 40 Iran, 187 Iraq Coalition Provisional Authority, 12 13, 260 Kuwait and, 221 League mandate, 25, 27 precedent, 269 70 Resolution 687, 187, 216, 221, 294 Resolution 1483, 254, 260 transformative occupation, 259 70 de-Ba’athification, 261 economic reform, 262 military necessity justification, 237 occupation law and, 218 19, 221 questionable UNSC endorsement, 263 reform of legal system, 12 13 social engineering, 259 Iraq War (2003) preemptive force, 284 UNSC and, 185 8, 284 US justification, 197 US unilateralism, 185 Irian Jaya, 43 Israel ICCPR, extraterritorial application, 244 Jerusalem, proposed internationalization of, 59 60 occupied territories, 146, 228, 253, 294 Sinai peacekeeping, 59 Italy, 30, 35, 85, 130 Ivory Coast, 48, 65, 160, 169, 292 Jackson, Robert, 120, 148 Jackson Preece, Jennifer, 122 Jacobson, Harold, 38 Japan, League mandates, 27, 35 Jelavic, Ante, 83 Jennings, Sir Robert, 21, 257 9, 275 Johnstone, Ian, 63 jus ad bellum, Chapter VII mandates, 220 jus cogens genocide and, 210 human rights obligations, 214 regulation of treaties, 12 UN resolutions and, 10 11, 12, 298 UNSC mandates to occupy and, 205 13 difficulties, 211 13, 252 self-determination claim, 11, 205 10, 301 jus in bello See also occupation law applicability to UN forces, 222 customary law, 225 32 treaty law, 223 customary law obligations, 230 customary law status, 225 extension of application, 226 occupation law as, 220 protected persons, centrality, 232 violations, 191 Kaikobad, Kaiyan, 199 Karadzic, Radovan, 77 Katanga, 127 Kaufman, Chaim, 125 Kay, David, 38 Keenan, Johanna, 169 index Kenya, 25 KFOR, 90 1, 94, 96 Koskenniemi, Marti, 202 Kosovo autonomous status, 84 Contact Group, 85 final status, 94 7, 98, 308 human rights, 97 intermediate sovereignty, 86, 87 NATO intervention, 87, 89, 91 3, 286, 302 humanitarian intervention, 195 occupation See Kosovo mission Racak killings, 88 secession scenario, 13, 125, 131 secessionist movement, 6, 85 territorial integrity, 86, 89, 97 Kosovo mission direct government model, 84 early involvement, 84 escalating involvement, 87 final status negotiations, 95 generally, 84 98 genesis of conflict, 84 interim international administration, 3, 93 KFOR, 90 1, 93, 94, 96 new constitution, 241 objectives, 97 occupation agreement consent, 10 military coercion, 179 nature of agreement, 192 unilateral use of force and, 183 UNSC endorsement, 183, 268, 301 Rambouillet Conference (1999), 89 91, 92 revocation of post-1989 laws, 95 status of forces, 229 Krause, Keith, 143 Krisch, Nico, 300 Kuwait, 145, 187, 221 Latvia, recognition, 130 Lausanne Treaty (1923), 25, 106, 138 Lauterpacht, Sir Hersch, 274, 278 League mandates categories of territories, 24 fashioning international authority, 23 functions of international governance, 32 generally, 23 33 governance obligations, 26 Mandates Commission, 26, 28 sacred trust of civilization, 25 sovereignty debate, 28 33 League of Nations Danzig, 22 315 Leticia, 23 mandates See League mandates Memel Territory, 21 Saar Region, 22 Upper Silesia, 23 Lebanon, 25, 27, 31, 59 legal justifications for humanitarian occupation challenge, 306 consent See consent humanitarian occupations as innovation, 12 implied consent, 214 16 international law of occupation See occupation law justifiable force, 195 200 limits, 273 overview, 12 peacebuilding missions, 42 UN authorization See Chapter VII resolutions Leticia, 23 liberalism See also democracy; human rights humanitarian occupations, 305 norms of liberal state, 50, 142, 154 72 secession and, 133 strong states and, 152 liberation wars, 191 Liberia, 48, 64, 160, 229 Libya, Lockerbie suspects, 188, 294 Lindley, M F., 31 Lithuania, 21, 130 Luard, Evan, 286 Luttwak, Edward, 178 McDougal, Myres, 247 Macedonia, 86 Malawer, Stuart, 184 Mariana Islands, 41 Marks, Susan, 155, 158 Marshall, John, 234 Marshall Islands, 41 Mayotte, 127 Mearsheimer, John, 74 Memel Territory, 21 Meron, Theodor, 226, 228 Mexico, 267, 292 Micronesia, 41 Miliken, Jennifer, 143 military manuals, occupation law, 245 6, 251, 264 military necessity, 237 Milosevic, Slobodan, 72, 77, 84 5, 87 8, 92, 98, 111, 130, 301 Mladic, Ratko, 77 Montenegro, 128 30 316 index Morgenthau, Henry, 123 Morocco, Spanish Sahara and, 146 Mozambique, 25, 48, 54 Munich Agreement (1938), 181 Murphy, Sean, 220 Murray, James, 37 Namibia, 60, 92, 162 3, 214 nationalism See exclusionary nationalism nationality, partition and, 134 NATO IFOR, 81 KFOR, 90 1, 93, 94, 96 Kosovo intervention, 87, 89, 91 3, 286, 302 Operation Deliberate Force, 75, 85 Nauru, 35, 41 Netherlands, 43, 146 New Guinea, 35, 41, 43 5, 59 New Zealand, 25, 35, 236, 245, 264 Ngorno-Karabakh, 127 NGOs, effectiveness, 149 51 Nicaragua, 163 Nigeria, 41 North Korea, 213, 214, 292 occupation agreements Chapter VII validation, 10 11, 181 coercion justifiable use of force, 196 200 nature of coercion, 188 92 consent, 10, 177 200 nature of agreements, 192 occupation law applicability to humanitarian occupations customary law, 225 32 treaty law, 223 basis for humanitarian occupation, 11 12, 218 22 conservationist principle, 233 anachronism, 249 55 challenges, 242 55 exceptions, 237 41 Geneva Convention, 234 Hague law, 234, 256 historical development, 233 IHL and, 249 international standards and, 242 legal and political structures, 235 military necessity exception, 237 protection of civilians exception, 238 41 reformist reading, 242 sovereignty, 235 transformative occupation challenge, 254, 255 70 consistency with humanitarian occupations, 233 55 conservationist principle, 233 customary law obligations, 230 function, 218 jus in bello, 220 occupation v annexation, 251 reciprocity, 279 transformative occupations challenging conservationist principle, 254, 255 70 Iraq See Iraq post-war Germany, 255 Opello, Walter, 148 opinio juris humanitarian interventions, 198 military manuals, 251 Opium War, 20 Organization of African Unity, 166 Organization of American States, 156 OSCE, 81, 86, 88, 166, 302 Ottaway, Marina, 49, 52 Ottoman Empire, 20, 23, 24 5, 30, 106 Pacific Islands Trust Territory, 35, 41 Pakistan, 75, 136, 146, 267 Palau, 36, 41 Palestine 1947 Jerusalem, 59 60 decolonization, 146 Israeli occupation, 228, 253 League mandate, 25, 27, 30 transfer of population, 119, 137, 138 Papua New Guinea, 41, 127, 169 Paris Conference (1919), 25 partition See secession peace agreements coercion, 180 Gulf War (1991), 187 human rights, 169 70 population transfers, 138 validity, 10 peacebuilding missions consent, 42, 56 democracy, 52 first-generation, 48 governance focus, 42 3, 49 50 human rights, 50, 55 legal justifications, 42 numbers, 47, 48 objectives, 48 post-Cold War development, 42 post-conflict reconstruction, 48 second-generation, 49 terminology, 9, 47 territorial integrity, 42, 51 unfamiliar territory, 72 index Peru, Leticia, 23 Philippines, 38 Plattner, Marc, 150 pluralism international community, 123 Kosovo and, 125 politics of inclusion, 140 state as guarantor of, 152 UN Declaration on Minorities, 123 Pol Pot, 200 Poland, 21 2, 23, 137 population transfer human rights and, 138 40 international rejection, 136 40 Portugal, 25, 100, 102, 104, 146 positivism, 275 post-conflict reconstruction See peacebuilding missions Potsdam Declaration (1945), 137, 256, 257 Prussia, 20 Quebec, 127 Rambouillet Conference (1999), 89 91, 92 Ranariddh, Prince Norodom, 53 Ratner, Steven, 68 Rawls, John, 116 Realists coercion of humanitarian occupations, 73, 111 competitive states, 282 governance, 50 post-war occupation of Germany, 259 rebel groups, recognition, 194 reconstruction, post-conflict reconstruction, 48 Red Cross, 223, 225, 265 Republika Srpska, 79, 82 res communis, 18 Responsibility to Protect Project, 200, 201 Reus-Smit, Christian, 286 Rhodesia, 25, 124 Richardson, Elliott, 164 Rio Declaration (1992), 280 Roberts, Adam, 263 Roe, Paul, 296 Rosenberg, Carl, 148 Rosow, Stephen, 148 Rotfeld, Adam Daniel, 45 Russia Bosnia and, 75 Chechnya, 127 Cracow and, 20 Iraq and, 254 Kosovo policy, 85, 92, 97, 131 317 Resolution 1483, 267 Rwanda election monitoring, 162 genocide, 123 independence, 41 peacekeeping mission, 48 return of displaced persons, 139 trusteeship territory, 35 UN ineffectiveness, 232, 278 Saar region, 22 Saddam Hussein, 260 Sambanis, Nicholas, 8, 62, 136, 281 Samoan Islands, 25, 41 San Remo Conference (1919), 25, 26 Saudi Arabia, 24 Schachter, Oscar, 209 Schwebel, Stephen, 199 secession argument for, 125 atomization, 133 human costs, 135 international law rejection, 13, 125 36 international rejection in practice, 126 32 minority rights and, 123 nationality and, 134 negotiated partition, 134 peace objective, 136 procedural costs, 132 UN attitude to, 7, 123, 127 self-defence, regime change and, 198 self-determination 1919 settlement and, 21 East Timor, 105 jus cogens, 11, 205 10, 301 League mandates, 27 8, 31 legitimate use of force, 191 right of colonial territories, 32 territorial integrity and, 126, 132 trusteeship territories, 34 9, 105 separation See secession Serbia See also Kosovo Greater Serbia, 85 Kosovo secession, 85, 131 Montenegro secession, 128 30 post-partition war with Croatia, 136 SFOR, 81 Shanghai, international settlement, 20 Sierra Leone, 48 58, 65, 167 Sihanouk, Prince, 68 Sinclair, Ian, 189 slave trade, 20, 24 Slovakia, 134 Slovenia, 130, 273 Snidal, Duncan, 283 318 index social engineering humanitarian occupations, Iraq, 259 Solana, Javier, 128 Somalia independence, 41 peace agreement, 64 peacekeeping mission, 48 Chapter VII mandate, 65, 290 failure, 63 status of forces, 229 Transitional National Council, 68 Somaliland, 35, 41, 127, 136 South Africa, 31, 34, 60, 124, 162 South Korea, 162 South-West Africa, 24, 31, 32, 60 Soviet Union break-up, 46, 130 1, 144 trusteeship territories and, 34 Spain, 267 Springhall, John, 34 Srebrenica massacre, 232 Sromseth, Janet, 53 state sovereignty autonomy principle, 247, 251 East Timor, 105 equality of states, 58 fundamental principle, 2, humanitarian occupations and, 5, 222, 308 Kosovo, 86 League mandates and, 28 33 occupation and, 234, 235 territorial integrity principle, 7, 32 territorial jurisdiction, 5, 275 trusteeship territories, 34 states alternative world order, 148 51 Dayton model, 78 84 death, 145 East Timor statehood, 103 Eurocentric notions, 29 exclusionary nationalism, 121 40 historical successes, 152 human costs of alternatives, 153 legal entitlements, 144 marginalization claim, 120, 143, 306 models, 115 norms of liberal states, 50, 142, 154 72 persistence of state-centred order, 143 54 empirical evidence, 144 normative claim, 148 54 policy options, 118 21 responsibility for wrongful acts, 252 state-centric order, 307 lack of adjudicatory mechanisms, 286 origins, 275 parties to international law, 223 persistence, 143 54 reciprocity, 279 transcending, 274 88 UN collective agenda, 285 UN commitment to continued existence, 147 United Nations and statehood, 219 weak states and civil wars, 147 Westphalian model, 45, 275 Steiner, Henry, Strohmeyer, Hansjorg, 73, 103, 111 Sudan, 48, 52, 56, 127, 169, 293 Switzerland, 291 Syria, 25, 27, 31 Szasz, Paul, 77, 178 Tajikistan, 48, 54, 64 Tanganika, 25, 35, 41 Tanzania, 200 territorial integrity See also secession arbitrariness of boundaries, 116 Bosnia mission, 74 6, 78 colonial borders, 145, 154 Croatia, 108 fundamental principle, 117, 125 36, 145 humanitarian occupations and, 73 international law and, 121 2, 125 36 international rejection in practice, 126 32 peacebuilding missions, 42, 51 redrawing boundaries option, 116 sovereignty and, 7, 32 UN principle, 58, 127 Yugoslavia and Kosovo, 86, 89, 97 terrorism, financing, 294, 297 Tito, Marshal, 84 Togo, 162 Togoland, 35 6, 41, 162 Tomuschat, Christian, 274 treaties extraterritorial application, 244 invalidity of coerced treaties, 10, 179 81 nature of occupation agreements, 192 UN Charter supremacy, 184 5, 222, 292 trusteeship territories generally, 33 40 self-government, 34 9, 105 sovereignty, 34 transition to statehood, 33 winding down, 41 index Tudjman, Franjo, 110 Turkey, 123 4, 137, 138, 146 Uganda, 200 Ukraine, 166 United Kingdom See also Iraq East Timor and, 100 humanitarian interventions and, 196 Kenya and, 25 Kosovo and, 85, 131 mandates, 27, 30 occupation law, 236, 246, 264 Palestine mandate, 30, 137, 138 Resolution 1483, 267 Rhodesia and, 25 trusteeship territories, 25, 34, 35 United Nations Agenda for Peace, 47, 49, 63, 72, 111 Charter, supremacy over competing treaties, 184 5, 222, 292 commitment to continued existence of states, 147 Declaration on Minorities, 123 democracy and human rights, 160 effectiveness, 150 election monitoring, 162 humanitarian law and, 222 customary law, 225 32 treaty law, 223 Irian Jaya, 43 membership, 144 Montenegrin membership, 128 occupation law, applicability to, 222 32 post-conflict See peacebuilding missions promotion of democracy, 155 recognition of rebel groups, 194 reform, 160 Security Council See United Nations Security Council state equality principle, 58 state sovereignty principle, statehood and, 219 territorial integrity principle, 58, 127 trust territories See trusteeship territories United Nations Democracy Fund, 161 United Nations Security Council Bosnia See Bosnia mission Chapter VI, 61 Chapter VII See Chapter VII resolutions Cold War stalemate, 46 dispute resolution, 281 humanitarian occupation authority, jus cogens and, 10 11, 12 legislation, 288 303, 307 competence, 289 90 319 legitimacy, 294 303 practice, 290 94 powers, 182, 184, 204, 289 90 reformist agenda, 254, 255 70 Rwanda and, 232, 278 secessionist movements and, Secretary-General’s independence from, 288 sovereignty and humanitarian occupation, state-centred order, 307 collective agenda, 285 lack of adjudicatory mechanisms, 286 norms, 275 reciprocity, 279 transcending, 274 88 Sudan, ICC referral, 293 terrorism, financing, 294, 297 use of force, 180, 181 violations of humanitarian law, 192 weapons of mass destruction, 297 United States See also Iraq; Iraq War (2003) choice of law, 281 Dayton Accords and, 76, 78 East Timor mission and, 188 Haiti, intervention in, 183 hegemony, 283 human rights v democracy, 167 humanitarian law and multilateral operations, 224, 232 ICC and, 291 jus cogens, 206 Kosovo Contact Group, 85 mandates, 25, 30 Montenegrin policy, 128 occupation law, 236, 243, 245, 264 Resolution 1483, 267, 268 trusteeship territories and, 34, 35 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 158, 159 UNTAES See Eastern Slavonia mission UNTAET See East Timor mission use of force humanitarian interventions, 195 200 justifiable force, 195 200 liberation struggles, 190 proportionality, 198 200 self-defence, 198 UN authority, 180, 181 UN prohibition, 298 utilitarianism, 247 Van Evera, Stephen, 74 Vattel, Emmerich de, 234 Venezuela, 151, 292 320 index Versailles Treaty (1919), 26, 58, 178 Vieira de Mello, Sergio, Vienna Congress (1815), Vietnam, 145, 146, 197, 20 1, 22, 24, 25, 104 20 200 Walker, William, 88 Walzer, Michael, 141 Watson, Adam, 273 weapons of mass destruction, 294, 297 Western New Guinea, 43 5, 59 Western Samoa, 35, 41 Westphalia, Treaty of (1648), 275 Wilson, Woodrow, 21, 26, 31 Wippman, David, 53, 69, 195 Woodward, Susan, 78 World Bank, 100, 104, 171 2, 188, 190 Wright, Quincy, 29, 31, 32 WTO, 150 Yalta Conference (1945), 256 Ydit, Meir, 18 Yeltsin, Boris, 130 Yemen, 126 Yoo, John, 218 19, 237, 238, 239 Yugoslavia See also Bosnia; Croatia; Serbia Belgrade Agreement (2002), 129 break-up, 130, 144 debate, 84 ethnic cleansing, 107, 136 7, 139 population movement to Turkey, 137 territorial integrity, 86, 89, 97 Zacher, Mark, 133, 145 Zanzibar, 41 Zimbabwe, 157 cambridge studies in international and comparative law Books in the series Humanitarian Occupation Gregory H Fox The International Law of Environmental Impact Assessment: Process, Substance and Integration Neil Craik The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration: Versailles, Iraq and Beyond Carsten Stahn United Nations Sanctions and the Rule of Law Jeremy Farrall National Law in WTO Law Effectiveness and Good Governance in the World Trading System Sharif Bhuiyan The Threat of Force in International Law Nikolas Stă urchler Indigenous Rights and United Nations Standards Alexandra Xanthaki International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights Michelle Foster The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict Roger O’Keefe Interpretation and Revision of International Boundary Decisions Kaiyan Homi Kaikobad Multinationals and Corporate Social Responsibility Limitations and Opportunities in International Law Jennifer A Zerk Judiciaries within Europe A Comparative Review John Bell Law in Times of Crisis Emergency Powers in Theory and Practice Oren Gross and Fionnuala Ní Aoláin Vessel-Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation Alan Tan Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law Christian J Tams Non-Governmental Organisations in International Law Anna-Karin Lindblom Democracy, Minorities and International Law Steven Wheatley Prosecuting International Crimes Selectivity and the International Law Regime Robert Cryer Compensation for Personal Injury in English, German and Italian Law: A Comparative Outline Basil Markesinis, Michael Coester, Guido Alpa, Augustus Ullstein Dispute Settlement in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Natalie Klein The International Protection of Internally Displaced Persons Catherine Phuong Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law Antony Anghie Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States Judith Gardam International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of International Justice The Rise of the International Judiciary Ole Spiermann Great Powers and Outlaw States Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order Gerry Simpson Local Remedies in International Law C F Amerasinghe Reading Humanitarian Intervention Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law Anne Orford Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of Law Joost Pauwelyn Transboundary Damage in International Law Hanqin Xue European Criminal Procedures Edited by Mireille Delmas-Marty and John Spencer The Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law Liesbeth Zegveld Sharing Transboundary Resources: International Law and Optimal Resource Use Eyal Benvenisti International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law René Provost Remedies against International Organisations Karel Wellens Diversity and Self-Determination in International Law Karen Knop The Law of Internal Armed Conflict Lindsay Moir International Commercial Arbitration and African States Practice, Participation and Institutional Development Amazu A Asouzu The Enforceability of Promises in European Contract Law James Gordley International Law in Antiquity David J Bederman Money Laundering: A New International Law Enforcement Model Guy Stessens Good Faith in European Contract Law Reinhard Zimmermann and Simon Whittaker On Civil Procedure J A Jolowicz Trusts: A Comparative Study Maurizio Lupoi The Right to Property in Commonwealth Constitutions Tom Allen International Organizations before National Courts August Reinisch The Changing International Law of High Seas Fisheries Francisco Orrego Vicu˜na Trade and the Environment A Comparative Study of EC and US Law Damien Geradin Unjust Enrichment A Study of Private Law and Public Values Hanoch Dagan Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe Malcolm D Evans Ethics and Authority in International Law Alfred P Rubin Sovereignty over Natural Resources Balancing Rights and Duties Nico Schrijver The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law Donald R Rothwell Fragmentation and the International Relations of Micro-States: Self-determination and Statehood Jorri Duursma Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations C F Amerasinghe ... Humanitarian Occupation Gregory H Fox CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge. .. international law of occupation I Applicability of occupation law to multilateral humanitarian occupations A UN ratification of humanitarian law treaties B The UN and the customary law of occupation C... permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-38667-1 eBook (EBL) 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