Cover Page i Handbook of International Law A concise account of international law by an experienced practitioner, this book explains how states and international organisations, especially the United Nations, make and use international law The nature of international law and its fundamental concepts and principles are described The difference and relationship between various areas of international law which are often misunderstood (such as diplomatic and state immunity, and human rights and international humanitarian law) are clearly explained The essence of new specialist areas of international law relating to the environment, human rights and terrorism is discussed Aust’s clear and accessible style makes the subject understandable to non-international lawyers, non-lawyers and students Abundant references are provided to sources and other materials, including authoritative and useful websites ANTHONY AUST is a former Deputy Legal Adviser of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London A solicitor, he now practises as a consultant on international law and constitutional law to governments and international organisations, both privately and with the law firm Kendall Freeman of London He is a visiting professor at the London School of Economics His publications include Modern Treaty Law and Practice (Cambridge University Press, 2002) Page ii This page intentionally left blank Page iii Handbook of International Law ANTHONY AUST London School of Economics and Kendall Freeman Solicitors Page iv CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521530347 © Anthony Aust 2005 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 ISBN-13 978-0-511-13699-3 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-10 0-511-13699-4 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-13 978-0-521-82349-4 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-82349-8 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-52153034-7 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-53034-2 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Page v For Kirsten Page vi This page intentionally left blank Page vii Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Table of treaties Table of MOUs Table of cases Glossary of legal terms List of abbreviations International law Private international law/co!nflict of laws The nature of international law The sources of international law Domestic law Subjects of international law States and recognition Criteria for statehood Recognition of states Self-determination Secession Recognition of governments De jure and de facto recognition Means of recognition Overseas territories Territory Boundary, border or frontier? Delimitation and demarcation Page viii Intertemporal principle Critical date Means of acquisition Res communis Common heritage of mankind Territorial integrity and uti possidetis Jurisdiction Territorial principle Nationality principle Passive personality principle Protective principle Universal and quasi-universal jurisdiction Effects doctrine Alien Tort Claims Act 1789 Abduction The law of treaties The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 What is a treaty? MOUs Capacity to make treaties Credentials and full powers Adoption and authentication Final act Consent to be bound Rights and obligations before entry into force Reservations Entry into force Treaties and domestic law Territorial application Successive treaties Interpretation Third states Amendment Duration and termination Page ix Invalidity The depositary Registration and publication Sources of treaty texts Further reading on treaties Diplomatic privileges and immunities The establishment of diplomatic relations and permanent diplomatic missions The functions of a diplomatic mission The members of the mission The premises of the mission Inviolability of mission archives Means of transport Freedom of movement Freedom of communication The diplomatic bag Diplomatic couriers Personal inviolability Inviolability of the private residence Inviolability of private papers, correspondence and property The difference between diplomatic immunity and state immunity Diplomatic immunity Waiver of immunity Social security exemption Exemption from taxation Exemption from personal services Exemption from customs duties and inspections Members of the family of a diplomatic agent Administrative and technical staff Service staff Private servants Nationals and permanent residents of the receiving state Egypt 392, 403 Suez canal 363 crisis (1956) 217, 363 Eichmann, Adolf 49 elections, free 242, 243 employment contracts, state immunity and 168–9 energy sector 382 environment 327–9 Antarctica 358–9 biological diversity conservation 337–8 definitions 329 development of international environmental law 329–30 environmental impact assessment (EIA) 332–3 liability for damage 342–3, 344 marine environment 323, 341–3 dumping at sea 343 emergencies 342 fishery protection 334–6 liability for damage 342–3 whaling 322, 333–4 nuclear material 340–1 ozone layer and climate change 338–40 polluter pays principle 331–2 precautionary approach 330–1 sustainable development 332 trade in hazardous wastes 343 wildlife 336–7 erga omnes obligations 10 Eritrea 24 error correction, treaties 110–11 Estonia 26, 393 succession to treaties and 398–9 estoppel (preclusion) European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) 467 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 467 European Convention on Human Rights 237–8, 440 European Court of Human Rights 246 European Economic Area (EEA) 482 European Space Agency 370 European Union (EU) 2, 196, 197, 466–7 acquis communautaire 481 acquis communautaire 481 air services 350 comitology 481 competence 481 documentation 485 effects doctrine and 47 European Police Office (EUROPOL) 264 extradition in 267, 268 Page 492 fishing policy 319, 320, 335 foreign and security policy 478–9 history 467 human rights and 480–1 institutions 470 Commission 471–2 Council of Ministers 470–1 Court of Auditors 473 Court of First Instance 476–8 Court of Justice 475–6, 477–8 European Council 471 Parliament 472–3 languages 482 law 474–5 application of EU law in UK 83 legal personality and treaties 479–80 legislative procedure 473–4 co-decision procedure 474–5 consultative procedure 473–4 member states 468 MOUs and 56 police and judicial co-operation 478–9 preliminary rulings 477–8 proposed Constitution 483–4 qualified majority voting (QMV) 482 recognition of states and 18 Schengen Agreement 184, 483 structures 468–70 subsidiarity principle 483 exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 304–6 construction of artificial islands 309 construction of artificial islands 309 delimitation 310–11 fishing 319–20 rights, jurisdiction and duties of coastal state 305–6 rights of other states 306 exhaustion of local remedies 235, 441–2 exile, governments in 25 expression, freedom of 242 expropriation of property 185–7 bilateral investment treaties and 376–8 extradition 264–8 human rights issues 266 political exception 266, 291 request for 265 simplified 267–8 terrorism 290–1 extraterritorial jurisdiction, effects doctrine 46–8 fair trial, right to 241 Falkland Islands 229, 348, 440 family life, right to respect for 241 federations state immunity and 163 treaties and 57, 86, 88 financing of terrorism 291, 292–3 fishing 319–22, 332 conservation 334–6 Antarctica 360–1 in EEZs 319–20 high seas 316, 320–1 internal waters and territorial sea 319 sedentary species 321 shared/straddling stocks and highly migratory species 321 force, use of 223–2 against aircraft 352–3 humanitarian intervention 229–32 prohibition of use of force 224 Security Council authorisation 224–6 interdiction 225 intervention 225 protection of civilians 226 self-defence 226–9, 416 force majeure 416 forced labour, prohibition of 240 forum prorogatum 439 forum prorogatum 439 framework treaties 67 France 393 overseas territories 29 recognition of governments by 25 frustration, treaties 104–5 general international law, as source of international law 10–12 general principles of law 8–10 genocide 270–1 Georgia 20 Page 493 geostationary orbit 369 Germany 392 Kiel canal 364 succession to treaties 397 Gibraltar 22, 37 Goa 39 good faith good offices 435 governments in exile 25 recognition of 24–6 state immunity and 163, 177–8 Grenada 228 Grotius (Hugo de Groot) Guantanamo Bay 39 Guyana 106 Hague Conference on Private International Law (1893) Haiti 216, 225 Hans Island 33 Hart, H L A heads of state, state immunity and 177–8 civil proceedings 177 criminal proceedings 177–8 Higgins, Rosalyn 450 high seas 312–19 fishing 316, 320–1 freedom of navigation 312–15 hot pursuit right 315 other freedoms 315–16 special zones 314 Hong Kong 39, 401, 405 hostilities see armed conflict law hot pursuit right 315 Huber, Max 35 human rights issues 233–4 derogations from treaty obligations 245–6 enforcement 246–50 European Court of Human Rights 246 ICCPR Human Rights Committee 248–50 other regional treaties 248 other UN monitoring bodies 250 EU and 480–1 exhaustion of local remedies 235 extradition 266 general qualifications to rights 244–5 legal nature of rights 235 outline of principle rights 239–44 freedom of assembly and association 242 freedom of expression 242 freedom of movement 242, 243 freedom of thought, conscience and religion 242 no punishment without law 241 prohibition of discrimination 244 prohibition of slavery and forced labour 240 prohibition of torture 239–40 respect for private and family life 241 right to education 244 right to fair trial 241 right to free elections 242, 243 right to liberty and security 240 right to life 239 right to marry 242 right to property 243–4 regional treaties 237–8 African Charter 238, 248 American Convention 238, 248 Arab Charter 238, 248 European Convention 237–8 reservations to treaties 75 state immunity and 162 United Nations and 216, 221–2, 234, 235–6, 250 universal treaties 235–7 who enjoys the rights 234–5 humanitarian intervention 229–32 humanitarian law see armed conflict law immunities diplomatic see diplomatic privileges and immunities, consular relations and international organisations state see states, immunity Page 494 impossibility of performance, treaties 104 indexes, treaties 115–16 India 393, 403 Goa 39 UN membership 18, 205 individual responsibility 429 individuals, as subjects of international law 13 Indonesia 206 INMARSAT 370 innocent passage 302–3 right of coastal state over ships in 303–4 insurrection movements 413 intellectual property rights, state immunity and 171 INTELSAT 370 interdiction 225 internal waters 299–300 fishing 319 right of access by foreign ships 299–300 internally displaced persons (IDPs) 189 International Atomic Energy Agency 340 International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) 378, 379–82 International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) 389 International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) 316, 345 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 15, 196, 262 International Court of Justice 208, 373, 430, 448–65 admissibility 457–8 advisory opinions 463–5 applicable law 458 chambers 450–1 composition 449–50 judgments 462–3 judicial review 460–1 jurisdiction 451–2 non-appearance 459 procedure and practice 461–2 provisional/interim measures of protection 459–60 reciprocal declarations 452–3 reservations 453–7 exclusion by reference to time 455 exclusion of certain categories of disputes 455 resort to other means of settlement 455 self-judging reservations 455–6 Vandenberg amendment 456 third party intervention 458 International Criminal Court (ICC) 254, 270, 277–82 jurisdiction 277–9 personal responsibility of individual 280 procedure 281–2 surrender of accused person 278, 279 United States and 280–1 international criminal law 263 extradition 264–8 human rights issues 266 irregular means 268 political exception 266, 291 request for 265 simplified 267–8 terrorism 290–1 international crimes 268–73 aggression 272 crimes against humanity 271–2 genocide 270–1 piracy 269, 312–13 responsibility of superiors 272–3 slavery 269–70, 313 superior orders 257 international tribunals 220, 258 Rwanda 220, 254, 261, 270, 272, 275–6 Sierra Leone Special Court 276 Yugoslavia 220, 254, 261, 270, 272, 274–5 see also International Criminal Court (ICC) International Labour Organisation (ILO) 237 Page 495 international law nature of 2–5 as real law 3–4 see also individual topics International Law Commission 210 international lawyers 4–5 international organisations 196–7 capacity to make treaties 58 dispute settlement 203–4 United Nations 203–4 immunities and privileges 199–202 legal personality 198–9 legally binding measures 67 liability 202 membership and representation 197–8 reservations to treaties forming 71 responsibility of 428–9 as subjects of international law 14 succession of states and 403–5 International Sea-Bed Authority 311–12 International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 196, 371 international trade trade in hazardous wastes 343 UN embargoes 218 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 323 International Whaling Commission (IWC) 196, 322, 333–4 INTERPOL 263 interpretation of treaties 88–97 context 90–1 implied terms 95–6 interpretive declarations 68 multiple languages 96–7 preparatory work (travaux préparatoires) 94–5 relevant rules of international law 93 special meaning 93 subsequent agreements and practice 91–3 supplementary means of interpretation 93–5 intertemporal rule 35, 414 invalidity of treaties 107–9 investment see bilateral investment treaties Iran 47 US hostages 414 Iran–US Claims Tribunal 445 Iraq 396 annexation of Kuwait (1990) 37, 214, 215, 217 hostage-taking during 294 reparations 419 UN Compensation Commission 446–8 border demarcation 34, 220 humanitarian intervention in 230 nuclear reactor destruction (1981) 228 UN sanctions 219, 220, 225 weapons of mass destruction 219 Ireland citizenship 181 Sellafield nuclear plant and 328 islands 302 archipelagos 307–8 construction of artificial islands 309 Israel 26–8, 37, 260 Entebbe airport raid 227 Iraqi nuclear reactor destruction (1981) 228 Jennings, Robert judgments enforcement 173–4, 463 judgment in default 174 International Court of Justice 462–3 registration of foreign judgment 172 judicial decisions as source of international law 10 judicial review, International Court of Justice 94, 460–1 jurisdiction 43 abduction cases 49–50 aircraft 351–2 diplomatic mission’s immunity from 126–7 dispute settlement 436–41 effects doctrine 46–8 International Court of Justice 451–2 Page 496 International Criminal Court (ICC) 277–9 nationality principle 44 non-justiciability and 161 passive personality principle 45 protective principle 45 territorial principle 44 universal and quasi-universal 45–6, 284 terrorism 289 jus cogens 11 Kelsen, Hans kidnapping see abduction Kiel canal 364 Kosovo 20, 225, 230, 232 Kuwait border demarcation 220 boundary demarcation 34 Iraq’s annexation (1990) 37, 214, 215, 217 hostage-taking during 294 reparations 419 UN Compensation Commission 446–8 liberation of 225, 229 Latvia 26, 393 succession to treaties and 398–9 lawyers, international 4–5 League of Nations mandated territories 32 leases, acquisition of territory by 39–41 legal personality EU 479–80 international organisations 198–9 see also corporations legal process, service on diplomatic missions 126 Leonine (unequal) treaties 107, 108–9 lex ferenda 9, 10 lex lata 10 Liberia 230 liberty, right to 240 Libya UN sanctions 218, 219, 221 US attack on (1986) 228 life, right to 239 life, right to 239 Lithuania 26–8, 393 succession to treaties and 398–9 Lockerbie air disaster 294, 295, 412 Macau 401, 405 Man, Isle of 30 mandated territories 32 Mauritius 454 mediation 435 mercenaries 258–9 MERCOSUR 388–9 Monaco 31 monitoring bodies, treaties 75–6 Moon 41, 368 Morocco, Western Sahara and 28 MOUs 53–4, 55–7, 112 registration 112 movement, freedom of 242, 243 diplomatic mission members 131 Namibia (formerly South West Africa) 32 national law see domestic law national liberation movements as subjects of international law 14 nationality 179–84 aircraft 183, 348–9 citizenship 180–1 diplomatic protection 183 dual nationality 179 legal persons 182–3 nationality of claims rule 441 passports 181 as principle for jurisdiction 44 right to leave and return to state of nationality 181 ships 183, 316–17 statelessness 181–2, 189 succession of states and 405–6 navigation freedom of rivers 364–5 seas 312–15 see also innocent passage necessity defence 417 negotiation 431–3 New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) 31 New Zealand 30 ... Acknowledgments Table of treaties Table of MOUs Table of cases Glossary of legal terms List of abbreviations International law Private international law/ co!nflict of laws The nature of international law The... good idea of its shape and contours, and this is a valuable service at a time of overspecialisation James Crawford Whewell Professor of International Law University of Cambridge 28 April 2005 Page... intentionally left blank Page iii Handbook of International Law ANTHONY AUST London School of Economics and Kendall Freeman Solicitors Page iv CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne,