Languages in a globalising world Throughout human history, the fate of languages has been closely linked to political power relationships Political shifts in the international system continue to affect linguistic patterns, which today are still in a state of flux following the end of the Cold War This book considers the effects of present-day trends in global politics on the relative status of languages, and the directions in which the linguistic hierarchy might develop in the future What are the prospects for the continuing spread of English? Will other traditionally prominent languages such as French and German gain or lose influence? Will languages such as Arabic and Japanese increase in international status? Will minority languages continue to lose ground and disappear? Part I of the book considers theoretical and practical issues, while Part II focuses on language patterns in the main world regions Part III considers change and continuity in the global language hierarchy by focusing on six languages of wider communication With its interdisciplinary approach, this book will appeal to researchers and students of sociolinguistics and language planning as well as of international relations Jacques Maurais is currently with the Conseil de la langue fran¸caise in Qu´ebec City He has edited various works on sociolinguistics and language planning and is the author of more than one hundred specialised articles and chapters in books on language planning, sociolinguistics and terminology, as well as monographs Michael A Morris is Professor of Political Science at Clemson University where he holds a joint appointment as Professor of Languages Dr Morris has written and edited some twenty books and monographs and over fifty articles on subjects including language politics and maritime affairs Languages in a globalising world Editors Jacques Maurais and Michael A Morris The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © English translation Cambridge University Press 2004 First published in printed format 2003 ISBN 0-511-04287-6 eBook (netLibrary) ISBN 0-521-82173-8 hardback ISBN 0-521-53354-6 paperback Originally published in French as ‘Géostratégies des langues’ in Terminogramme by Les Publications de Quộbec 2001 and â Office de la langue franỗaise 2001 First published in English by Cambridge University Press 2003 as Languages in a globalising world Contents List of figures List of tables Notes on contributors Acknowledgements page vii viii x xv Introduction jacques maurais and michael a morris Part I Global communication challenges Towards a new global linguistic order? jacques maurais 13 The geostrategies of interlingualism mark fettes 37 Language policy and linguistic theory douglas a kibbee 47 Babel and the market: Geostrategies for minority languages jean laponce 58 Forecasting the fate of languages william f mackey 64 Part II Major areas Language geostrategy in eastern and central Europe: Assessment and perspectives ferenc fodor and sandrine peluau 85 Languages and supranationality in Europe: The linguistic influence of the European Union claude truchot 99 v vi List of contents Regional blocs as a barrier against English hegemony? The language policy of Mercosur in South America rainer enrique hamel 111 10 Effects of North American integration on linguistic diversity michael a morris 143 11 Sociolinguistic changes in transformed Central Asian societies birgit n schlyter 157 12 Language and script in Japan and other East Asian countries: Between insularity and technology stefan kaiser 188 13 Sub-Saharan Africa roland j -l breton 203 14 Australasia and the South Pacific richard b baldauf jr and paulin g djit e´ 217 Part III Languages of wider communication 15 The international standing of the German language ulrich ammon 231 16 Arabic and the new technologies foued laroussi 250 17 Russian in the modern world vida i o mikhalchenko and 260 yulia trushkova 18 Geolinguistics, geopolitics, geostrategy: The case of French robert chaudenson 291 19 Towards a scientific geostrategy for English grant d m C connell 298 20 On Brazilian Portuguese in Latin American integration maria da grac¸ a krieger 313 Conclusion 21 The search for a global linguistic strategy humphrey tonkin 319 Index 334 Figures 2.1 The present hierarchy of languages according to Graddol (1997) page 17 2.2 The predicted hierarchy of languages in the year 2050 according to Graddol (1997) 17 7.1 Evolution of the number of pupils in Hungary learning foreign languages other than Russian 89 7.2 Evolution of the number of pupils in Hungary for four main foreign languages in high schools and vocational high schools, 1989–97 93 7.3 Number of pupils (in thousands) learning English, French and German in six central European countries, school year 96 1994–95 11.1 Map of Central Asia 158 15.1 Language choices between speakers of different nations and languages 232 vii Tables 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 5.1 5.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 14.1 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 viii The major languages according to the ‘engco’ model page 16 Languages present on the internet in 1997 20 Change in the number of internet users by language 21 English-speaking and non-English-speaking users of the internet 22 Percentage of web pages by language in 2000 22 Number of pupils enrolled in foreign language courses in the USA, 1990 and 1995 24 Language of articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts by year 60 Dominant language, minority language and support of scientific research in a field such as chemistry 61 Evolution of the number of pupils in Hungary learning foreign languages other than Russian 89 Evolution of the number of pupils for four main foreign languages in high schools and vocational high schools, Hungary, 1989–97 92 Number of pupils learning English, French and German in six central European countries, school year 1994–95 96 Languages used in primary texts of the European Commission 104 Summary language situation for polities in Australasia and the South Pacific 218 Number of native speakers of major languages 234 Number of native speakers of official EU languages within EU 235 Economic strength of languages 236 Economic strength of official EU languages within EU 237 Number of countries with language of correspondence for German business contacts 238 Required languages skills in newspaper advertisements, 1991 239 Languages with official status in four or more countries 239 EU countries with official status of official EU languages 240 Strength as official and working language in international organisations 241 List of tables 15.10 Oral use in EU institutions in the early 1990s 15.11 Languages of home pages on the internet 15.12 The most influential books of the twentieth century in sociology 15.13 Shares of languages in Berlitz schools 15.14 Percentage of individuals in EU (a) having studied the language as a foreign tongue and (b) able to communicate in the language 15.15 Languages’ extent of being studied as a foreign tongue in eastern Europe, 1994 17.1 Russian as a teaching medium in the Russian Federation (primary and secondary levels) 17.2 Demographic strength of Russian in the republics of the former USSR at the time of the collapse of the USSR 17.3 Distribution of pre-school educational institutions in the countries of the former USSR, by languages of education 17.4 Number of pupils of secondary schools in the countries of the former USSR with Russian as a teaching medium 17.5 Trends in education in Russian in Ukraine (1999) 17.6 Distribution of the public schools of Belarus by languages of instruction (urban and rural schools) 17.7 Comparison of Russian and Belorussian in higher education (university level) in the republic of Belarus 17.8 Demographic power of Russian in the Baltic states 17.9 The number of pupils in public schools of the Baltic states with Russian as a teaching medium (1989–95) 19.1 Three types of language country profiles using an adaptation of the historical (FCL) model: East and Southeast Asia 19.2 Three types of language country profiles using an adaptation of historical (FCL) model: Europe and the former USSR 19.3 Summary of learning through and of English in Central and South America in the 1980s ix 242 243 245 246 247 247 264 266 269 270 274 276 276 278 280 307 308 310 The search for a global linguistic strategy 331 a provision can only come about by raising the ethical stakes so high that those with vested interests in the status quo cannot find any political high ground on which to fight It is here that realism and liberalism meet Even getting such an approach on to the international and global agenda will require an intense and systematic effort, but, as Jacques Maurais suggests in Chapter of this volume, it is high time that such an effort be made I have already suggested that data-gathering is the place to begin, but such data-gathering and the advocacy that it might produce requires the creation of mechanisms to bring linguists and other experts together around a common dialogue, a common research agenda and a coordinated publication programme These efforts should include the study of alternative scenarios for change, such as those laid out by Fettes in Chapter At the same time, a global effort is needed to expand the number and quality of linguistic facilitators, i.e those who can move messages from language to language through translation and interpretation and through fluency in several languages, and those who can teach these skills to others Equally important is the continued development of technological means of overcoming linguistic barriers, particularly if they can be deployed to preserve the smaller languages by linking their speakers easily with the speakers of other languages, and if they can overcome such obstacles as differing writing systems (see, for example, Kaiser’s contribution in Chapter 12 of this volume) Special attention needs to be given to expanding the reach of the technology, in order to engage those populations currently cut off from it by poverty or politics or both Long overdue is an expanded international effort to provide resources for corpus development in those languages that aspire to greater autonomy Of course, none of these efforts will solve, as if by miracle, the huge ethical and political dilemmas that language presents, such as those brought about by power shifts in the former Soviet Union, or those that African countries confront because of limited financial resources, or those faced on a daily basis in the great metropolises of the world because of migration or the displacement of populations Nor will these efforts give us much guidance on the debate between free trade and cultural protectionism However, in these as in other matters, a greater understanding of the issues involved – and a greater awareness that these issues have been faced before – may help ultimately to move our collective strategy towards a linguistic order that is fairer, more equitable and more effective References Barber, Benjamin 1996, Jihad vs McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism are Reshaping the World, New York, Ballantine Bauman, Zygmunt 1998, Globalisation: The Human Consequences, New York, Columbia University Press 332 Humphrey Tonkin Boli, John and Thomas, George M (eds.) 1999, Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations Since 1875, Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press Crystal, David 2000, Language Death, Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press de Swaan, Abram 1988a, ‘A political sociology of the world language system (1): The dynamics of language spread,’ Language Problems and Language Planning 22(1): 63–75 de Swaan, Abram 1988b, ‘A political sociology of the world language system (2): The unequal exchange of texts,’ Language Problems and Language Planning 22(2), 109–128 Dezalay, Yves and Garth, Bryant 2000, ‘L’imp´erialisme de la vertu,’ Le Monde Diplomatique, May: 8–9 Edwards, John 1995, Multilingualism, London, Penguin Fishman, Joshua A 1991, Reversing Language Shift, Clevedon and Philadelphia, Multilingual Matters Friedman, Thomas L 1999, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, New York, Farrar Straus Giroux Galeano, Eduardo 2000, Upside Down: A Primer for the Looking-Glass World, New York, Henry Holt Graddol, David 1997, The Future of English?, London, The British Council Grimes, Barbara F (ed.) 2000, Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 14th edition, Dallas, TX, SIL International Haugen, Einar 1966, ‘Dialect, Language, Nation,’ American Anthropologist 68: 922–935 Kaplan, Robert D 2000, ‘Where Europe vanishes,’ Atlantic Monthly November: 67–81 Kellman, Steven G 2000, The Translingual Imagination, Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska Press Labrie, Normand 1993, La construction linguistique de la Communaut´e europ´eenne, Paris, Champion Marcuse, Herbert 1964, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, Boston, MA, Beacon Press Morgenthau, Hans 1948, Politics Among Nations, New York, Knopf Măuhlhăausler, Peter 1997, Language ecology: Contact without conflict, in Martin Păutz (ed.), Language Choices: Conditions, Constraints, and Consequences, Amsterdam, Benjamins, pp 3–15 Nettle, Daniel 1999, Linguistic Diversity, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press Pearl, Stephen B 1996, ‘Changes in the pattern of language use in the United Nations,’ in Kurt E Măuller (ed.), Language Status in the Post-Cold-War Era, Lanham, MD, University Press of America, pp 29–42 Ramonet, Ignacio 2000, ‘Un d´elicieux despotisme,’ Le Monde Diplomatique, May: Ruggie, John Gerard 1998, Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalization, London and New York, Routledge Schlossmacher, Michael 1994, Die Arbeitssprachen in den Organen der Europăaischen Gemeinschaft: Methoden und Ergebnisse einer empirischen Untersuchung,’ Sociolinguistica 8: 101–122 The search for a global linguistic strategy 333 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 2000, Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?, Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove and Phillipson, Robert (eds.) 1995, Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination, Berlin and New York, Mouton de Gruyter Tonkin, Humphrey 1997, ‘Language as a social phenomenon: A perspective on the emergence of sociolinguistics,’ in Christina Bratt Paulston and G Richard Tucker (eds.), The Early Days of Sociolinguistics: Memories and Reflections, Dallas, TX, Summer Institute of Linguistics, pp 247–252 Index Abdal language 159 Afghanistan 238 Africa African languages 28, 206, 209, 212–213, 214–215, 216, 329 colonialism in 211–213 definition of divisions of Africa 203 future of French language in future of Hausa and Swahili languages 16 language teaching in 32, 33 also see sub-Saharan Africa Afrikaans 209 Albania 85, 308 Algeria 15 Alliance Fran¸caise 29 Alliance Isra´elite Universelle 29 Alsatian language 50 Amharic language 205, 210 Americas language teaching in the 32 language trends in the Amerindian languages 50, 55 Amhara language 214 Andorra 306, 308 Anglo-Saxon language 70 Angola 313–314 Anguilla 310 Antigua 310 apartheid 13, 14 Arab countries language policies of 251, 256–257 mother tongues in 256, 258 reliance on foreign language web sites 252–253 Arabic language 24 Arabic alphabet and the computer 253–254 and new information technologies 20, 21, 76, 250–251 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a language of wider communication challenges to coding of Arabic characters 254–255 334 economic strength of 236, 238 future of 16, 258 in Algeria 15 in France 252 in north Africa 70, 78, 210 number of native speakers 234, 302 political strength of 239, 241 spread of 70, 208, 251–253 standardisation of 256, 257–258 Aramaic language 26, 75 Argentina 4, 69 indigenous languages in 120 in Mercosur 116, 119–120 monolingualism in Spanish 119, 120 teaching of foreign languages in 120, 310 Armenia 266, 269, 270, 271, 308 Asia language trends in 4, 21, 304, 305–306 see also Central Asia, East Asia, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia Australasia language trends in 4, membership in also see South Pacific Australia 5, 55, 69, 199, 218, 221, 223, 301 language policy 223 see also Australasia Austria 241, 308 Automatic translation, see translation Azerbaijan 14, 266, 269, 270, 308 Babylonian Empire 75 Bahamas 310 Baltic states 277–281 language policies of 277–281 Bambara language 212, 213 Baoule language 54 Barbados 310 Basque language 3, 19, 112 Belarus 270, 275–276 language policy in 275, 276, 308 Belorussia 266, 268, 269 Index Belorussian language 275–276 Belgium 49, 59, 64, 212, 241, 306, 308 post-colonial relations 208 Bengali language 16, 75 number of native speakers 234 Belize 310 Benin 18, 208 Berber language 78 Berlin conference of 1885 308 Bermuda 310 Bete language 54 Bhojpuri langauge 67 Bihari language 67 Bislama (pidgin) 222, 224 Bolivia 310 Bollywood 75 Bombay 75 Bornuan expansion 205 Brazil 4, 113 and spread of the Portuguese language 9, 313–314 immigration and language in 123, 124–125 indigenous languages 123–124 in Mercosur 116, 117, 123–125 language policy of 123, 124, 313 teaching of foreign languages in 25, 124–125, 310 Breton language 50 Britain, see Great Britain British Council 29, 298 British Council report on English 15, 298, 299, 304 see also David Graddol British Virgin Islands 310 Brunei 218, 307 Bulgaria 85, 308 foreign language study in 95–96 influence of French language in 86, 88 Bulgarian language 27 Burkina Faso 212 Burundi 210, 211 Calvet, Louis-Jean 112–113 Cambodia 224, 307 Cameroon 212, 215 Canada 5, 68, 69, 301 and languages in cities 77–78 and new information technologies 19, 76, 77 English-speaking Canada 151, 154 English-speaking Canada and Quebec compared 151 language policy of 62, 65, 68, 146 study of Spanish in 23 Cantonese language 18, 66, 67 Cape Verde 313 335 Cartier, Jacques 71 Catalan language 3, 21, 112 Cayman Islands 310 census surveys 64, 65 Central African Republic 18, 212 Central Asia and China 179 and English language 179, 325 and South Korea 179, 181–182 changing role of Russian 162, 170–172, 179, 182 implementation of language policies 168, 172, 182 language policies 4, 6, 165, 166, 180 map 158 minority languages of 163, 165, 170, 181, 182 multilingualism in 157, 159, 161, 162 proposed Latin alphabets 173–174, 177 role of Iran in 177 role of Turkey in 14, 177, 178–179 Russian population 170, 182 Soviet language policy 161, 165, 166 see also Kazakhstan, Kirghizstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan Central Europe, see Eastern Europe Chad 208 Chaghatay language 164 Channel Islands 308 chaos theory 17 Chichewa language 211 Chile 238, 310 China, People’s Republic of 66 and study of Japanese language 199 Classical Chinese 188, 189, 193 language policy 4, 183, 188, 190, 303–304, 307 Chinese language 24, 67, 188, 193, 194, 224 and technology 18, 20, 21, 76, 195, 197, 201 and the ‘engco’ model 16 and the spread of English 201, 224 economic strength of 235, 238 future of 16, 28, 31, 225 in scientific literature 60 number of native speakers 234 political strength of 241 potential candidacy as a language of wider communication 7, 201 study strength of 246 cities and languages 77 Colombia 77, 310 Commonwealth of Independent States 260, 265–272 national languages in the 265 336 Index Commonwealth of Independent States (cont.) language policies in the 265, 267–272, 306–308, 309 Russian-speaking population in the 268 Comoros 208 Congo-Brazzaville 14, 208 Congo-Kinshasa 211, 212, 215, 294 Cook Islands 218 Corsican language Costa Rica 310 Couvert, C 291–292 Croatian language 52 Crystal, David 27, 301 Cuba 310 and the United States 66 cuneiform writing 18 cyberspace, see virtual space Czech Republic 85 see also Czechoslovakia foreign language study in 94–95 Czech language 21, 27 Czechoslovakia 308 foreign language study in 94–95 influence of German language in 86 See also Czech and Slovak Republics Daimler-Chrysler 237 Dalmatian language 52 Danish language 21, 101, 235, 237, 238, 240, 242 decolonisation 206 Denmark 308 developing countries and new information technologies 17–20 Djibouti 18, 208 dominant languages 60, 61, 77 resentment against 73 Dominica 310 Dominican Republic 18, 310 Dutch language 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, 238 cultural strength of 243 political strength of 240, 242 study strength of 246 East Asia language policies 4, 6, 305–306, 307 Eastern Europe 5, 13 foreign language study in 85, 88, 90, 96 impact of Soviet Union on 86 influence of English language in 87, 88, 89, 96, 97 influence of French language in 8, 87, 88, 89, 90, 96, 97 influence of German language in 87, 88, 89, 90, 96, 97 influence of Russian language in 86–89, 90, 97 monolingualism in 86 multilingualism in 85 East Germany 87 ecological theorists, see linguistic theory economic integration, see regional economic integration economic power and languages 72–73 Ecuador 77, 310 Egypt 18 Egyptian hieroglyphics 18 El Salvador 310 endangered languages, see linguistic diversity ‘engco’ model 16, 236, 304 England 68–70 colonial empire 206 post-colonial relations 207 English language 69 and globalisation 24, 104, 322, 326 and linguistic theories 47, 50 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22, 43, 76, 243, 302 and regional economic integration and standard language 38 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a dominant language 61, 330 as a language of wider communication 7, 74 concentric circles of speakers of 7–8, 220, 301, 302, 322 creole version of 303 cultural strength of 243–245 during World War II 78 economic strength of 235, 236, 237, 238 future of 16, 26, 27, 28, 29, 48–49, 79, 298 in Australasia and the South Pacific in Central and Eastern Europe 5, 14 in Central Asia in China 303–304 in East Asia 6, 70, 75, 304 in England 70 in Europe 306–309 in the European Union 5, 101, 103, 104–105, 242 in the former USSR region 306–309 in francophone countries 14–16 in India 302 in international organisations 41 in Latin America 306, 309, 315 in Mercosur 6, in north Africa 78, 252–253 in North America 25, 68 in scientific literature 60, 62, 244–245 in South Asia Index in Southeast Asia 200, 305–306 in southern Africa 14 in Sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 213, 214, 216 in West Africa 15–17 influence on French by 51, 61 influence by French on 70 measuring the spread of number of native speakers 234, 235, 298, 302 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 publications by Germany in 32 spread in higher education 32 spread of 1, 2, 9, 30, 324 spread affecting other languages 111–112, 324 spread in Japan 200 study in Germany of 32 study in Latin America of 25, 119 study strength of 246, 247 teaching in Africa of 32 use by Chaucer of 74 see also World English English–speaking countries 72 and computer users 75 foreign language learning in 25 Equatorial Guinea 18 Esperanto 30, 31, 37, 38, 43–45, 222–223 Estonia 14, 277, 278, 279–281, 308 Ethiopia 208, 210 Ethnologue 300, 323 Eurocrats and Spanish language decrees 18 European languages and new information technologies 19, 21 Europe future of French language in great powers of influence of German language in language teaching in 31 language trends in 4, 22, 40, 308, 327 see also Eastern Europe European Central Bank 105 European integration, see European Union European Union (EU) and great powers of Europe and languages 22–23, 41, 59 and linguistic diversity 23, 54, 113, 327, 329 and Spanish language decrees 18 community law and language laws 105 influence of the English language in the 101, 102, 104, 108–109 influence of the French language in the 101, 102, 104, 108 influence of the German language in the 7, 101, 104, 108 337 jurisprudence about language issues 23, 106–107 languages used in the 100–101 language policy 3, 5–6, 39, 106–108, 328 linguistic services of the 109 limits of institutional multilingualism in the 101–102 Lingua 100, 108 linguistic influence of the 100 membership in the minority languages in the 107 spread of English in the 22 translation and interpretation costs 30 use of Spanish in the 102 see also EU member countries (i.e., Britain, France, Germany, Italy, etc.) ´ e language 212 Ew´ Falkland Islands 310 Fanagalo language 206 Faeroe Islands 308 Ferguson, Niall 71 Fiji 218, 223 Finland 108, 308 Finnish language 19, 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, 240 Flanders 212 Flemish language 209 forecasting, see language forecasting France 69 and new information technologies 19, 20 and colonialism 49, 206 and post-colonial relations 207, 294 Arabic-speaking populations in 8, 252 colonial legacy of 211 in Africa 294, 295 in Europe in North America 60, 105, 294, 296, 308 language policy of 32, 294, 296–308 Francophone countries (Francophonie) 8, 9, 55 and new information technologies 18 in Africa 14–16, 294 language policy of 113, 291, 293, 294 free-market theorists, see linguistic theory Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) 133 French Guiana 310 French language 67, 69 and Africa French 215 and impact of English 51, 61, 324 and linguistic theories 47, 50 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22, 76, 243 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a language of wider communication 7, 8, 73, 112 338 Index French language (cont.) as a minority language 61 cultural strength of 243 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 in Australasia and the South Pacific 224 in Central and Eastern Europe 13, 297 in England 70 in English Canada 26 in the European Union 3, 5, 101, 103–105, 242 future of 16, 28, 29, 49, 65–66, 247, 292, 294, 296–297 historical evolution in France 23 influence of German language on 70 in the francophone countries in French-speaking Africa 14–16, 54, 212–213, 294, 295–296, 297 in integration of the Americas 26 in Latin America 115, 119 in Luxembourg 39 in New Brunswick 27 in north Africa 78, 252–253 in North America 24, 25–26 in Nunavut 68 in Quebec 3, 64 in scientific literature 60, 244 in sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 214, 216 in Vietnam 294 number of native speakers 234, 235, 291, 292–294, 302 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 study in Germany of 32, 238 study in Latin America of 26 study in the United States of 23, 24 study strength of 246, 247 French Polynesia 218 Fulani language 205, 213 Gabon 18 Galician language 112 Gan language 67 Gaul 70 geographical regions and languages geography and languages Georgia 266, 269, 270, 308, 325 German Chambers of Commerce 237 German language 67 among Turkish migrants 236 and German colonisation 210 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22, 76, 243 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a language of wider communication 7, 8, 112 cultural strength of 243–245 economic strength of 235, 236, 237, 238 future of 16, 231, 246–248 impact of English on 324 influence on French language by 70 in Central and Eastern Europe 14, 105, 236, 238, 246 in Latin America 115, 119 in Luxembourg 39 in scientific literature 60, 244–245 in the European Union 5, 101, 105, 235 international standing of 233 number of native speakers 234, 235 political strength of 239, 240, 241–242 study in the United States 23, 24 study strength of 246, 247 Germany 241, 308 colonial empire 206, 212 in Europe language teaching in 32 publications in English by 66 unification of 5, 13 Gibraltar 306, 308 global communication 1–2 globalisation and languages of wider communication 7, 8, 13, 330 and languages 1–2, 9, 22 and language competition 5, 9, 13, 330 and the spread of American culture 320–321 and the spread of English 24, 39, 104, 322 definition of 21, 319 global language hierarchy, see language hierarchy Goethe Institute 29 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast 170 Graddol, David predictions of 27, 302 report on future of English 16, 27, 48–49, 55, 304–305 see also British Council report Great Britain 301, 308 in Europe 4, 103 study of foreign languages in 237, 238 study of Russian in 14 Greece 308 Greek language 21, 24, 70, 101, 235, 237, 240, 242 and Mycenian Greek 18 Grenada 310 Groener case 23 Guadeloupe 218 Guaran´i language 26, 123, 132 Index Guatemala 310 Guinea 208, 212 Guinea-Bissau 313 Gujarati langauge 75 Guyana 311 Haiti 18 Hakka language 18, 67 Hausa language 16 Hebrew language 21, 24 Hezhou language 160 Hindi language 5, 67, 75 and the ‘engco’ model 16 economic strength of 236 number of native speakers 234 potential candidacy as a language of wider communication 7, 67 Hiri Motu (pidgin) 222 Hokkian language 18 Holland 40, 212, 237, 308 Hollywood 75 Honduras 310 Hong Kong 194, 197, 307 Hungary 85 and foreign language study 89–93 and influence of German language 86, 91, 238 and monolingualism 86, 90, 308 Hungarian language 21 Huntington, Samuel 27, 28 Iceland 19 Icelandic language 21 Ikinyarwanda-Kirundi language 214 illiteracy 32–33 India 5, 301 future of local languages in 28 future of regional (state) languages 16 language policy of 28, 31, 67, 303–304 technological challenges to Indian languages 20 Indo-European languages and new information technologies 19 Indonesia 218, 221, 225, 307 Indonesian language, see Malay language information technologies, see technology integration, see regional economic integration interdependence, see globalisation international organisations and languages of wider communication 7, 41, 328 interlingualism 2, 38 International Center for Research on Language Planning 298 international standing of languages 339 Inukitut language 68 Iran, see Central Asia Ireland 301, 308 Irish language 23 Isle of Man 308 Italy 238, 241, 308 colonial empire 206 Italian language 20, 21, 22, 24, 32, 67 and new information technologies 76, 243 as a language of wider communication 112 cultural strength of 243 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 in Latin America 115, 119 number of native speakers of 235 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 study strength of 246 Ivory Coast 18, 54, 215, 221 Jamaica 311 Japan language policy 4, 6, 188, 190, 201, 307 spread of English in 200 Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme 199 Japan Foundation 29, 199 Japanese language 24, 194, 224 and new information technologies 19, 20, 21, 22, 76, 196, 197–199, 243 and the ‘engco’ model 16 and the spread of the English language 201 cultural strength of 243 economic strength of 235, 236 in scientific literature 60 number of native speakers 234 spread of 190, 201, 224 study strength of 246 Jordan, David K 17 Kaby´e language 212 Kadazandusan language 222 Karakalpak language 164, 169–170, 174, 181 Karakalpakistan 169 Kazakh language 164, 166, 170 Kazakh Language Association 172 Kazakhstan 14, 157, 176, 238, 266, 269, 270, 271, 308 English in 306 Kenya 211 Kinyarwanda language 15, 210 Kirghiz language 166, 170, 183, 268 Kirghizstan 14, 157, 176, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 308 English in 306 Kirundi language 210 Kiswahili language 210, 211, 212, 214 also see Swahili language 340 Index Kituba language 212 Korean language 21, 22 and new information technologies 195, 197 language policy 190 Kriol (pidgin) 222 Kyahta language 160 Lakhdar-Ghazal, Professor 253 language academies 68 language change models of 77–78, 323–324 languages definition of 66, 68 fate of 79 language competition 1–2 and globalisation and linguistic diversity 9, 73–74, 326 and languages of wider communication and technology language contraction 28, 324 measurement of 9, 78, 79, 299 language data banks 305, 306, 328, 331 language decline, see language contraction language expansion 28, 69, 324 measurement of 9, 78, 79 language forecasting 2, 9, 26, 47, 64, 323–324 through dynamic models 79, 298, 305–309 through the extrapolation of trends 74 language hierarchy 1, 13, 44 language maintenance measure of language policy 77 language spread 29, 71, 299 see also English language language shift, see language contraction; language expansion; language maintenance language teaching 31–33 languages of wider communication 1–2, 3, 16 and linguistic theories 47 definition of 7, 231 future of 26–29, 30, 298 impact of 73 impact of globalisation on 13 impact of spread of English on 112 in Australasia and the South Pacific 217, 221–222 in Eastern Europe 85 users of 66, 298, 300–301 language vitality 305 Laos 307 Latin language 24, 26, 70, 78, 85 Latin America and linguistic globalisation 111–115 and the English language 113–114, 115, 306 immigrant languages of 115 indigenous languages of 113, 115 language teaching in 32, 33 linguistic challenges of 113–115 study of English in 25 study of French in 26 Latvia 277, 278, 279, 280, 308 English in 306 League of Nations 41 Lebanon 18, 77 Letzburgish language 39 lesser languages, see linguistic diversity Liechtenstein 241, 308 linear B syllabary 18 Lingala language 206, 212 lingua franca 70 linguistic diversity 1, 2, 33, 40 and endangered languages 54, 111, 300, 329–330 and Esperanto 43 and languages of wider communication 7–8 and linguists 55 and regional economic integration and NAFTA 6, 147 and linguistic theories 47, 49, 54, 56 and technology 77 English language threat to 49, 326 future of 26–29, 42, 45 in Australasia and the South Pacific 7, 221–222 in the European Union 23, 327 in sub-saharan Africa 7, 329 also see language competition; minority languages linguistic ecology, see linguistic theories linguistic human rights 44, 47, 54, 111, 112 linguistic pluralism 38–40, 44 linguistic relativity 52 linguistic standardisation 37, 54 linguistic theories and chaos theory 17 ecological theorists on 2, 47, 52, 111 free-market theorists on 2, 47, 68 see also territoriality and languages Lithuania 277, 278, 279, 280, 308 London 77 Los Angeles 66, 75, 77 Lusophone countries Luxembourg 39, 241, 308 English in 306 see also Letzburgish language Maastricht Treaty 100, 105 Macao 307, 313 McIntyre v Canada 54 Index Madagascar 18, 70, 210 Magahi language 67 Maithili language 67 major languages, see languages of wider communication Malagasy language 205, 214 Malawi 211 Malaysia 218, 222, 223, 307 Malay language 16, 19, 21, 31, 67, 197, 222, 224, 225 economic strength of 236 number of speakers of 234 Mali 212 Malinke language 54 Malta 308 Mandarin language 67, 196 Maori language 223 Martinique 310 Mercosur (Common Market of the South) and NAFTA compared 117, 129, 136 and European Union compared 129, 136 and regional linguistic dynamics 116–118, 128 border areas and languages 131–132 English language learning and influence in 133–136 language policy 3, 5–6, 25, 118–119, 128–131, 136–137 membership in private initiative promoting Spanish and Portuguese 131 promotion of Spanish and Portuguese in 4, 9, 118, 129–130, 133–136 see also Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay Meroitic writing 18 Mexico and indigenous languages 150–151, 152 and status of Spanish 3, 148 and the United States 66, 148, 149 English language in 151–152, 155, 310 language policy of 146, 147, 148 Miami 66 Middle East Arabic-speaking populations in 8, 70 military domination and languages 69–71 Min language 67 minority languages and new information technologies 19 demands of 73 in France 23 protection of 54, 61, 62 in the Americas 64 revitalisation of 112 341 users of 66, 300 also see linguistic diversity modernisation in sub-saharan Africa of Arabic-speaking countries as a challenge for Arabic Moldova (formerly Moldavia) 266, 269, 270, 271, 306, 308 Mongolia 238, 307 Mongolian language 67, 183 Monaco 308 monolingualism 40, 78 Montserrat 311, 313 Morocco 18 Mossi resistance 205 Mozambique 313 multilingualism, see linguistic pluralism Mutsch case 23 Myanmar (Burma) 307 Mycenian Greek 18 Namibia 238 nation-state and language 68–69 native American languages, see American languages Near East, see Middle East Netherlands, the (see Holland) Netherland Antilles 310 New Brunswick 27 New Caledonia 218, 224 New Zealand 218, 223, 301 New York City 66, 77 Nicaragua 310 Niger 18 Nigeria 213 and French language 15, 208 Norse language 70 north Africa 78, 203 North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) and Mercosur compared 117 central role of United States in 147, 154 comparison with the European Union 145 English language and 144, 146, 147, 154 French language and 151, 154 language policy 3, 6, 146 language issues in 23, 144, 145, 146 linguistic diversity in 147, 155 membership in problems of 143, 144 Spanish language and 144, 146, 150 successes of 143 see also Canada, Mexico and the United States North America 76 342 Index North American integration, see North American Free Trade Area North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea) 188, 191, 201, 307 Northern Ireland 308 Norway 308 Norwegian language 20, 21, 243 Nunavut 68 Nyamwesi language 211 Oceania languages 50 Oromiya language 210 Pacific region 52 Panama 310 Papua New Guinea 215, 218, 221, 222 Paraguay 116, 125–127 bilingualism in 125–127 foreign language teaching in 127, 310 incursions of Portuguese in 127 Pasar Malay (pidgin) 222 Persian language 164 Philippines, the 219, 221, 301, 307 Phillipson, Robert 27, 29, 54, 56 pidgins 222–223 Piedmont Language Academy 68 Pisin (pidgin) 222 pluralism or plurlingualism, see linguistic pluralism Poland 18, 85, 308 foreign language study in 93–94, 108 influence of German language in 86 Polish language 21, 27, 60 Portugal 308 colonial empire 206, 211 post-colonial relations 208 Portuguese language 24 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22 and the ‘engco’ model 16 and Portunhol 315–316 as a language of wider communication 9, 112, 114, 118–119, 313 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 importance of Brazil for 313–314 in European Union 101, 235 in integration of the Americas 26 in sub-Saharan Africa 4, 6, 214, 216 number of native speakers 234, 235 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 Portuguese-Spanish interaction 314, 315, 316 promotion by Mercosur of 4, 6, 9, 21, 25, 313, 314–315 study strength of 246 post Cold War period and technological challenges prediction, see language forecasting Programme for Mexican Communities Living in Foreign Countries (PMCLFC) 149 psychosocial factors and languages 73–74 Puerto Rico and NAFTA 4, 23 and status of English 153, 155 and status of Spanish 3, 153, 155 and the United States 66, 146, 153–154 language policy of 146 Punjabi language 75 Quebec anglophones in 54 foreign language study in 25 and North American integration 151, 154, 155 Quechua language 25 refugees 68–69 regional economic integration and languages 3, 13, 21–26 Romania 85, 308 and multilingualism 86 and the Soviet Union 87 influence of French language in 8, 86, 88 Romanian language 21 Russia 238 language policy of 165, 265, 308 status of Russian in see also Soviet Union Russian Federation Russian language within the 261–265, 269 national languages within the 262, 263 Russian language and new information technologies 21, 22, 286–287 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a language of wider communication 8, 112 diaspora of Russian speakers 283–284 economic strength of 236, 238 future of 16, 27, 279–281, 287–288 impact of English on 324 in Belarus 275–276 in Central and Eastern Europe 5, 14, 86–89, 112 in Central Asia 6, 14, 161, 165, 170–172 in East Asia 285 in scientific literature 60 in the Baltic states 277–281 Index in the Commonwealth of Independent States 265–272 in the Russian Federation 261–265 in the Ukraine 272–275 number of native speakers 234 political strength of 241 study in Europe of 14, 32, 285 study in the United States of 14, 23, 24, 285 study strength of 246 also see Russia; the Soviet Union Rwanda 15, 208, 210, 211, 294 St Christopher 311 St Lucia 19, 311 St Vincent 311 Samoa, American 219 Samoa, Western 219 Sangăo language 206, 212 Sankara,Thomas 212 San Marino 308 S Tom´e and Principe 313 Sapir, Edward 50 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 47, 50 Scandinavian countries 40 Scotland 308 self-governing regions 68–69 Senufo language 54 Serbo-Croatian language 27, 91 Shanghai Chinese language 18 see also Wu language Singapore 197, 219, 220, 301, 307 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 54, 56 Slavic languages 27 Slovak Republic 85 foreign language study in the 95 see also Czechoslovakia Slovak language 21 Slovenian language 21 Solomon Islands 219, 222 Somalia 208, 210 Songhai expansion 205 South Africa, Republic of 14, 203 foreign language implications of end of apartheid 294–295 Southern Africa 14 South American integration, see Mercosur South Asia Hindi in local languages in Southeast Asia 305–306 South Korea (Republic of Korea) and study of Japanese language 199 language policy 188, 191, 194, 201, 307 343 South Pacific language trends in 4, membership in also see Australasia Soviet Union collapse of 5, 13–14, 294, 306 and Africa 208, 294 and Central Asia 6, 161 and Eastern Europe 86–89 language policy 4, 166–167, 265–267, 282, 285, 308 language policies in the former states of the 8, 265–272, 277–281, 308 national languages in the 265 also see Russia Spain 112, 238, 308 Spanish Armada 71 Spanish language 69 and new information technologies 20, 21, 22, 243 and the ‘engco’ model 16 as a language of wider communication 7, 112, 114, 118–119 and European integration 3, 101 and Mercosur 116–118 cultural strength of 243 decrees by Spain about 18 economic strength of 236, 237, 238 in Mexico in North America 25 in Puerto Rico 3, 23 in South America 309, 313–314 in Spain 112 number of native speakers 234, 235, 302 political strength of 239, 240, 241, 242 promotion by Mercosur of 4, 6, 9, 25 Spanish-Portuguese interaction 314, 315, 316 study in Canada of 23 study in Germany of 32 study in Quebec 25 study in the United States of 23, 24 study strength of 246 sub-Saharan Africa 203 English-language sphere 204 French-language sphere 204 language diversity in 204–206 language trends in 4, 6, 203–204 membership in Portuguese-language sphere 204 Spanish-language sphere 204 Sukuma language 211 344 Index Summer Institute of Linguistics 300 Surinam 310 Swaan, Abram de xv, 325 Swahili language 16, 206, 210, 213 see also Kiswahili language Sweden 108, 308 Swedish language 14, 20, 21, 101, 235, 237, 240, 243 Switzerland 32, 59, 241, 308 Taiwan 190, 194, 197, 307 Tajikistan 157, 164, 266, 269, 270, 306, 308 Tajik language 160, 161, 163, 164, 166 language policy 170, 176 Tanganyika 210 Tanzania 210, 213 technology and East Asian languages and endangered languages 55 and Francophone countries 18 and languages 5, 20–31, 40–43, 75–76 and technologically advanced countries 55 and the Arabic language implications for developing countries of 17–20 standardisation of territoriality and languages 3, 59, 136 and protection of minority languages 62 and the market 60 Thailand 219, 307 Thai language 21 theories, see linguistic theories Third World countries, see developing countries Tibet 183 Tigrinya language 210, 214 Togo 212 Tok Pisin (pidgin) 16, 215, 222 Tonga 219 Toronto 77 Tour´e, S´ekou 212 Translation automatic 31, 41 problems of 31 and teletranslation 42–43, 44 Transylvania 85 Treaty of Amsterdam 102 Trinidad and Tobago 311 TRON project 195 Tshiluba language 212 Turkestan 164, 180 Turkey 5, 238 in Central Asia 6, 14, 177, 178–179 Turkic languages 14 Turkish language 21, 32, 238 Turkmen language 166, 175, 176 Turkmenistan 14, 157, 266, 269, 270, 271 Turks and Caicos Islands 311 Tuvalu 219 Uganda 211 Uighur language 159, 183 Ukraine 266, 269, 270, 271, 272–275 language policy in the 273, 275, 308 Unesco and languages 213 Unicode project 17, 194, 195 United Kingdom, see Great Britain United Nations 41 language policy 328 language statistics 299 United States 5, 69 and Cuban-Americans 153–154 and Mercosur 116, 117 and minority languages 4, 55 and new information technologies 76 and study of Japanese 199 bilingual education 153 border with Mexico 129 English-only laws 49, 153, 154 in North America 4, 147 language policy of 146, 155 language teaching in 24, 31, 32, 50 Mexican migration to 144, 148, 152 study of Russian in 14, 24 study of Spanish in 23, 24, 155 US Information Service 29 Urdu language 75 see also Hindi Uruguay 117 in Mercosur 121–123 monolingualism in Spanish 122 relationship to Portuguese language 121, 122 teaching of foreign languages in 122 USSR, see Soviet Union Uzbek language 160, 161, 163, 164, 166 language policy 169–170, 176 Uzbekistan 14, 157, 170, 266, 269, 270, 308 Vanuatu 219, 221, 222, 223, 224 Vatican City 308 Venezuela 310 Vietnam 18, 188, 194, 219, 224 language policy of 294, 307 Vikings 70 Index 345 virtual space and geographic space 17–20 and languages Wu language 18, 66, 67 Wantok languages 216 Whorf, Benjamin 50 Wolof 53 World English (or global English) 38–40, 44, 73 and Australasia and the South Pacific 217 see also English language Yaghnobi language 170–172 Yoruba power 205 Yue language 67 Yugoslavia 306, 308 Xiang language 18, 67 Zaire, see the Democratic Congo Zapatista National Liberation Army 152 ... East Asia including Japan and China are assessed by Kaiser, and the chapter on Central Asia by Schlyter also includes part of China Rising powers and their languages in a globalising world are... prominent languages such as French and German gain or lose influence? Will languages such as Arabic and Japanese increase in international status? Will minority languages continue to lose ground and... international languages In addition, inasmuch as Spanish is included in the chapters by Hamel and Morris in Part II, seven languages in an international leadership position are included All of