0521811848 cambridge university press the chinese neolithic trajectories to early states jan 2005

The Chinese Neolithic This book studies the formation of complex societies in prehistoric China during the Neolithic and early state periods, c 7000–1500 BC Archaeological materials are interpreted through anthropological perspectives, using systematic analysis of settlement and burial patterns Both agency and process are considered in the development of chiefdoms and in the emergence of early states in the Yellow River region Interrelationships between factors such as mortuary practice, craft specialization, ritual activities, warfare, exchange of elite goods, climatic fluctuations, and environmental changes are emphasized This study offers a critical evaluation of current archaeological data from Chinese sources, and argues that, although some general tendencies are noted, social changes were affected by multiple factors in no pre-determined sequence In this most comprehensive study to date, Li Liu attempts to reconstruct developmental trajectories toward early states in Chinese civilization and discusses theoretical implications of Chinese archaeology for the understanding of social evolution L I L I U is Senior Lecturer in Archaeology at La Trobe University She has published various articles on the Chinese Neolithic and is the author of State Formation in Early China (with Xingcan Chen) (2003) NEW STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY Series Editors Wendy Ashmore, University of Pennsylvania Clive Gamble, University of Southampton John O’Shea, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Colin Renfrew, University of Cambridge Archaeology has made enormous advances reccently, both in the voume of discoveries and in its character as an intellectual discipline: new techniques have helped to further the range and rigour of the inquiry, and have encouraged inter-disciplinary communication The aim of this series is to make available to a wider audience the results of these developments The coverage is worldwide and extends from the earliest hunting and gathering societies to historical archaeology For a list of titles in the series please see the end of the book LI LIU The Chinese Neolithic Trajectories to Early States    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521811842 © Li Liu 2004 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 - - ---- eBook (NetLibrary) --- eBook (NetLibrary) - - ---- hardback --- hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Dedicated to my parents, my sisters, and Tom and Vicky CONTENTS List of illustrations List of tables Preface page ix xiii xv Setting the scene Constructing the Longshan culture in archaeology Longshan culture and constructing national history Evolutionary approaches to the study of Longshan culture Alternative research strategies The scope of the book 1 10 13 16 The changing environmental contexts of China’s first complex societies Geographic settings Reconstruction of paleoenvironment and cultural development Conclusion 19 20 22 31 Household subsistence and ritual Introduction Household activities: a general survey A household at Kangjia Implications of Kangjia archaeological remains Conclusions 33 33 34 48 60 71 Spatial organization and social relations in communities Introduction Spatial orders of settlements in the Neolithic period Settlement organization in the late Neolithic period Discussion and conclusions 73 73 74 95 113 Community burial patterns Introduction Alternative approaches to Neolithic burial patterns Regional variability in burial patterns Discussion Conclusion 117 117 118 126 151 157 vii List of contents viii Development and decline of complex societies in the Central Plains Introduction Methods Data Regional settlement patterns Social complexity in the less-circumscribed regions Settlement patterns and social organization Discussion and conclusions 159 159 159 161 162 185 188 189 Development and decline of social complexity beyond the Central Plains Introduction Regional settlement patterns in Shandong Regional settlement patterns in Central Shaanxi Settlement patterns and social organization: a comparison Discussion and conclusions 192 192 193 208 219 221 Trajectories toward early states Introduction: from chiefdoms to states The Erlitou culture – searching for the Xia dynasty The Proto-Shang culture Conclusions 223 223 226 236 238 239 239 239 246 251 Reconstructing social processes Introduction Development of social hierarchy and integration Dynamics of social change Conclusions and further research questions Notes Appendixes References Index 254 256 275 301 I L L U S T R AT I O N S 1.1 Map showing the distribution of the Longshan culture 2.1 Map of the Yellow River valley 2.2 Distribution of major lakes on the Central Plains recorded in ancient texts 2.3 The maximum changing positions of the East Asian Monsoon frontal 2.4 Paleovegetation map of China 2.5 Changes in site frequency from the Early Neolithic to Early Bronze Age 2.6 Holocene sea-level changes in China 3.1 The major sites mentioned in chapter 3.2 The ratio of gender-specific tools from four Neolithic burial sites 3.3 House F17 at Jiangzhai 3.4 House F11 at Huanglianshu 3.5 House F37 at Yuchisi 3.6 Correlations between food vessels, tools, and sizes of houses in the Neolithic period 3.7 House F33 at Yuchisi 3.8 House F204 at Yinjiacheng 3.9 Human skeletons in pit no at Wangchenggang 3.10 Distribution of Longshan houses and pits at Keshengzhuang 3.11 Distribution of the major sites in Lintong mentioned in chapter 3.12 Sketch map of the Kangjia site 3.13 Profile of the vertical distribution of house structures at Kangjia 3.14 Example of the basic house structure at Kangjia 3.15 Animal images painted on the floor of house F267 at Kangjia 3.16 Burials M53, M54 and M55 at Kangjia 3.17 Oracle bones from Kangjia 3.18 Burials M56 and M57 at Kangjia 3.19 Burials M58 and M59 at Kangjia 3.20 Age profiles of water buffalo, pig, and sheep/goat bones from Kangjia 3.21 A comparison of the proportions of pig and deer bones at the Baijia and Jiangzhai sites page 21 22 24 26 28 29 34 36 37 38 39 41 44 45 47 48 49 50 50 52 52 54 54 55 56 58 61 ix References 296 Wang, T 1997, The Chinese archaeological school: Su Bingqi and contemporary Chinese archaeology Antiquity 71: 31–39 Wang Weilin, and Wang 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sacrificial offerings Andersson, J G 5, 91 animals domestication 25, 58–59, 218 as sacrificial offerings 53, 65, 94, 106 wild 59 See also faunal remains Anyang site 6, 48, 119 archaeology based on material remains and historical records 9–10, 13–16, 105, 237 evolutionary approaches 10, 11–13 Morgan-Engels theory 5, 10–11, 79, 117 neo-evolutionary model 11, 191 as national history legends and 223, 224, 235 nationalism and 8–9, 11 quxi leixing model 7–8, 9, 12 Zhongyuan-centered tradition 5–8 architecture building forms 113–114, 190 cave dwellings 95 compound-like house clusters 113 corridors 106, 113 drainage channels 103 ground-level structures 85 longhouses 85 monumental structures 115–116 non-residences 79, 83–85 palace-like buildings 106, 110 palace / temple complexes 230–232 pile-dwellings 75 public buildings 113, 244 semi-subterranean structures 74–75 structure categories 79 Dadiwan site 86 Erlitou culture 230–232 Guchengzhai site 106 Longshan culture 43, 95–96 Lutaigang site, Structure I 248–249, 249 Peiligang culture 74–75 Taosi sites 110 Yangshao culture 79, 83 Armeniaca culgaris 55 arrowheads 63, 64 See also projectile points artifacts 260 comparison of Dagudui quarry and Taosi 112 correlations between 41 Huanglianshu site, F11 38 Jiangzhai site, F17 37 Kangjia site 57, 64–67 non-native 94 Yinjiacheng site 39, 45 Yuchisi site F33 41 F37 39 See also ritual objects; specific artifacts ascribed social status 137, 144, 153, 250 Baijia site 208 faunal remains 60, 61, 61 Bancun site, burials 46–48 Banpo site 46 barbarians 207 bears 68 Beixin culture 25–27, 193 belief systems 82–83, 157, 236 fertility cults 248–249 natural deities 248–249 ocean-spirit worship 201 See also ancestral cults; rituals Bencao Gangmu (Li) 63 Bianxianwang site 204 Blake, M 246, 251 Bohai Bay 29 Bohlin, B bone artifacts awls 131, 132 flutes 122, 124, 126 tools 57, 102 See also oracle bones bronze artifacts 1, 105, 207 metallurgy 224, 233–234, 245 production sites 108, 230 ritual objects 111, 231–232, 234, 235, 245 301 Index Bronze Age 226 Brumfiel, E M 231 Bubalus arnee 68 Bubalus wansjocki 59, 60 buffalo 68 burial locations ash pits 46, 47 cemeteries 46, 75, 110, 118, 132, 133 walls, floors, and foundations 46, 47, 53, 55–57 See also mortuary practices burial patterns cross-cultural comparison 152 Dawenkou culture 65, 138–143, 155 Longshan culture 135–138, 143–146, 155 Majiayao culture 146–148 Miaodigou phase 132–133 Neolithic period early 126 middle 130–135 late 135–138 Peiligang culture 126–130 Qijia culture 148–151 social stratification and 110, 120–125, 138–143, 151–155 Upper Xiajiadian culture 153 Yangshao culture 46, 47, 130–135 Yellow River region lower 138–146 upper 146–151 See also mortuary practices burials Bancun site 46–48 Banpo site 46 Chengzi site 143, 143, 144, 145, 146 Dahecun site 46 Dawenkou culture 139 Dianjuntai site 46 Erlitou culture 230 Hongshanmiao site 132 Hougang sites 46 Huangniangniangtai site 148, 149, 150, 151, 151 Jiahu site 65, 126, 127, 128, 128, 155 Kangjia site 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62 Lingjiatan site 65–66, 67 Longgangsi site 130, 131 Miaodigou site 46 mummies 92 Pingliangtai site 104 research approaches 117–119 Shijia site 133, 133, 135 Shuiquan site 128, 129, 130 statistical analysis 125 Taosi sites 110, 135, 136, 137, 138 Wangchenggang site 47, 47 Wangyoufang site 47 Xiajincun site 137 Xishuipo site 155 Xizhufeng site 204 Yangshan site 146, 147, 155 Yuchisi site 99, 141, 142 See also grave goods; mortuary practices 302 burial sizes 120 grave goods and 140, 142, 144, 147, 264, 266 Capra hircus 59 Carneiro, R L 170, 246 catfish 68 cemeteries 46, 75, 110, 118, 132, 133 Center for the Study of Civilization Central Asia, contacts with 91–93 central places 189, 190, 193, 235, 267, 269, 270, 272 Central Plains lakes 22 ceramic artifacts 98–99 burial urns 82 chao scoops 87, 88–91 clay masks 88 dakouweng large-orifice urns 43, 98 ding cauldrons 43, 45, 87, 203 egg-shell goblets 108, 120, 122, 156, 184 figurines 88, 90, 92 as grave goods 120 guan pots 43, 87 inscriptions on 203, 204 ritual objects 82, 83, 203 vessels for kindling 51 zeng steamers 43, 45 ceramic assemblages 42–46, 218 correlation with tools and house sizes 41 Dadiwan site 87, 87 ceramic production 78, 98, 101 ceramic types black pottery 1–2, Dongxiafeng variant 226 Erlitou variant 226, 235 Haojiatai 182 Keshengzhuang variant 216 Longshan culture 235 in Shandong 207 Xinzhai phase 226 Yangshao painted pottery 2, 91 Chalcolithic period, terracotta figurines 91–92 Chang, K C 2, 99, 238 Chardin, P T de Chen, X 233 Chengzi site 143, 143, 144, 145, 146 burial sizes and grave goods 266 Chengziyai site 5, 6, 203 chickens 59 chiefdoms 11, 116 characteristics 165, 189 complex and integrated 241 definition 13–14, 115 diminished 221 emergence 189, 191 models of 242 Chinemys reevesii 64, 66–67 Chinemys spp 66–67 chronology of archaeological cultures 4, 16 cinnabar 84–85 Cishan culture 25 civilization 12 Clark, J E 246, 251 Clarke, M J 69 climate, See environment Index climatic determinism 32 coefficient of determination (R2 ) 125 coefficient of variation (CV) 125 Cohen, D 207 competition among factions 100 among households 71, 85, 99, 114 inter-polity 113, 205 See also warfare complex societies, economic systems 247 conflict inter-group 63–64, 72, 94, 110, 115, 188, 229 inter-polity 190, 246 Longshan culture and 1, 30 cooperation intra- and inter-community 113 copper 1, 104, 109, 184, 224, 233 bells 111 corporate strategy 249–251 correlation coefficient (R) 125 corridors 106, 113 Costin, C L 114 cowries 234 craft production centers 105, 178 control of 244–245 social organization and 104, 114–115 specialization 73, 81, 105, 199, 201, 231 See also prestige goods; ritual objects craft-production hypothesis 40 crucibles 108 cultural transformations correlated to environment changes 22–23, 27–32, 93 marine transgressions 197–198 culture, definition CV (coefficient of variation) 125 Dadiwan site 86–88 ceramic assemblage 87, 87 F405 86 F901 86, 86 Dagudui quarry 109, 111 artifacts 112 Dahecun site 39, 46 Dantu site 93, 199 data sources 16 settlement data 161–162, 194, 273, 274 Dawenkou culture 2, 16, 35–36, 38, 43, 193 burial patterns 65, 138–143, 155 burials 139 early 25–27 grave goods 140 burial sizes and 265 settlement patterns 203 in Shandong 199 sites 96–100, 185, 186, 187–188 deer Pere David’s deer 31 sika deer 55, 59, 60, 68 tusks as grave goods 99 water deer 53 deities, natural 248–249 delegated decision making 245 designs, anthropomorphic 83 303 Dianjuntai site 46 diet 61–62 health and 93 diguo shidai (the empire period) 13 Dinggong site 203 divination methods 67 Turtle-Trigrams 65 See also oracle bones dogs 59, 68 as sacrificial offerings 106 domestication of animals 25, 58, 218 of plants 25 Donglongshan site 233 Dongyi culture 207 Doubters of Antiquity drainage channels 103 drums 122–123 alligator 122, 136 pottery 123, 124, 147, 151 Dual-Processual leadership strategies 249–251 duoyuan yiti (single entity with multiple components) Earle, T K 13, 14, 15, 231 East Asian monsoon, See monsoon, East Asian East China Sea 28 economic systems in complex societies 247 production on a household-community basis 113 egalitarian societies 35, 113 mortuary practices 133 Peiligang culture 78, 128 transition to stratified societies 13, 113, 146, 151, 153–155 Yangshao culture 42, 83, 131 Eight Trigrams 65, 66 Elaphurus davidianus 31 elephants 30 Elephus maximus 30 elites emergence 114, 156–157 mortuary segregation 151–155, 230, 242–244 production of prestige goods 157 residential segregation 108, 110, 113–114, 242 environment 19 changes correlated to cultural transformations 22–23, 27–32, 93, 175, 186, 216–218 marine transgressions 193, 197–198 environmental determinism 32 ercengtai ledges 121, 138, 141, 143 Erlitou culture 225 burials 230 origins 16, 30–31, 226–229 palace / temple complexes 230, 231, 232 rank-size distribution 226, 228 regional centers 234 settlement hierarchy 226, 228, 232, 235 sites 219, 227 territorial expansion 233–235 Index Erlitou culture (cont.) transition from Longshan culture 235–236, 246 urban core area 229, 230, 232 world system 236 Xia dynasty and 223, 226 See also Yiluo River region erosion 20, 30, 218 exchange, See trade families extended 53 natal, re-burial with 133, 135 nuclear 53 family-size hypothesis 40 faunal remains Baijia site 60, 61, 61 Jiangzhai site 61, 61 Kangjia site 51, 57–58, 58, 62, 261 distribution 69 domesticated animals 58–59 ratio of domestic:wild animals 60, 61–63, 261 wild animals 59 feasting hypothesis 40–46 feasting rituals Akha people (Thailand) 69–70 Erlitou 236 Kangjia site 53, 68–70, 71, 244–245 Fei Xiaotong Fengcheng-Nanshi site 111, 173 Fengyou site 215 fertility cults 248–249 Five Emperors period 9–10, 223 floods 30, 197–198, 216 erosion and 208, 218 protection from 115, 207 See also Great Flood; specific rivers foxes 68 Fung, C 142 Fu Sinian 5, 6, 192 Gao, Q 133 Gaositou site 88 gender division of labor and 36, 151 mortuary treatment and 133–135, 141, 144, 151, 157 tool usage and 35, 36, 39, 43 See also status, social geographic settings 20–22 emergence of states and 246–247 Geoksyur 92 goats, See sheep/goats Gongyi region sites 179 grave goods burial sizes and 140, 142, 144, 147, 264, 266 ceramic artifacts Dawenkou culture 140 deer tusks 99 gender-related use of tools and 35–36 Huangniangniangtai site 151, 266 jade artifacts 99, 136, 148 304 lack of 110 Lingjiatan site 66 Longgangsi site pigs 99, 123 prestige goods 120, 141, 143 stone tools 78 See also burials; mortuary practices Great Flood 31 ground stone implements 78, 85 gucheng guguo guwenhua shidai (the period of archaic towns, archaic states, and archaic culture) 11 Guchengzhai site 106, 107, 108, 113, 184 guguo – fangguo – diguo (archaic state – regional state – empire) 12 guguo shidai (the archaic state period) 13 hairpins 91, 92 Haizang Park site 150–151 Hancheng sites 214 Hangzhou Bay Haojiatai site 185 hares 60, 63 headgear 88–89, 90, 92 health 133 diet and 93 Henan sites 163, 164, 165, 166 Longshan culture 169, 178, 180, 182, 183, 184 hereditary social status, See ascribed social status hierarchies administrative 160, 239, 240 emergence 239 See also segregation; settlement hierarchies; social stratification historical records 31, 64, 192 archaeology based on 9–10, 13–16, 105, 237 Holocene environment 22, 23, 24, 25–26, 27 Homo erectus Hongshanmiao site 131, 132, 133 Hougang sites 46, 181 Houli culture 25, 193, 202 households as basic social units 15, 33–34, 101 competition among 71, 85, 99, 114 general model 34 material possessions 39–40 rituals within 102 segmentation of activities 35–39 house sizes, correlation with ceramic assemblages and tools 41 Huai river 20 Huang-Huai Plains 182–184 Huanglianshu site 39 F11 36–37, 38 Huangniangniangtai site 148, 149, 150, 151, 151 grave goods 266 Huan River valley 181 Huizui site, tool assemblages 263 Hulu River valley 216, 217, 218 human remains 31, 44 See also burials Index human sacrifices, See under sacrificial offerings hunting 63–64, 70 Hutouliang site 24 Huxizhuang site 215 hypotheses craft-production hypothesis 40 family-size hypothesis 40 feasting hypothesis 40–46 Ikawa-Smith, F inequality 102, 114–115, 130 inscriptions 203, 204 See also oracle bones instruments, musical 122 interaction, regional 71–72 jade artifacts bi disks 121, 148–150 cong tubes 121, 136, 184 distribution 123 as grave goods 99, 120, 136, 148–151 as prestige goods 72, 108 turtle shells 65–66, 66, 67 yazhang tablets 121 Jiacun site 213 Jiahu site 35, 75, 76, 77 burials 65, 126, 127, 128, 128, 155 burial sizes and grave goods 264 settlement patterns 75–78, 262 tools associated with burials 256 Jiangxicun site 88 Jiangzhai site 39–40, 42, 79, 80, 82 F17 36, 37 F47 81 faunal remains 61, 61 sex ratios by age groups 134 tools associated with burials 259 Jiaochangpu site 205 Jiaolai plains 193 Jing River sites 214 Jingyanggang site 205–206 Ji River 27, 254 Johnson, G A 161 Kangjia site architecture house foundations 51–53 house plans 52 artifacts 57, 64–67 burials 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62 environment and ecology 60–61 excavations 49, 50 faunal remains 51, 57–58, 58, 62, 261 distribution 69 domesticated animals 58–59 ratio of domestic:wild animals 60, 61–63, 261 wild animals 59 feasting rituals 53, 68–70, 71, 244–245 human sacrifices 57, 63, 102 hunting 63–64, 70 oracle bones 54, 67 305 overview 33, 48, 70–71 painted floor 51, 52, 102 pits 53 H69 53 H71 53, 57, 59, 66, 68–69 H74 56 H77 57 H79 57, 63, 64 settlement patterns 100–103, 213 sketch map 50 tool assemblages 263 Kara-Depe 92 Kent’s model 40, 48–51 Keshengzhuang site 47, 48 kilns 75, 81, 101, 104, 111 kin groups definition 119 stratified 137, 141–143 kinship organization monolineal 99 patrilocal 135 sequential development 11 labor communal 112 gendered division of 36, 151 lacquer ware 57 Lajia site 31 lakes 20, 22, 25 language inscribed artifacts 203 writing systems 1, 207, 224 Laoguantai culture 25, 49, 208, 209 lead 109 leadership strategies 249–251 Lee, Y K 79, 133 legends, national history and 223, 224, 235 Liang, S Liangchangzhen sites 108–109, 199, 201 Liangzhu culture Licent, E Licheng, Shandong Li Chi 5–6, Ligu site 237 lime plaster 95, 102 Li Mountains 57, 60 Linfen basin 170–176 Lingjiatan site 65–66, 67 grave goods 66 Linyi region sites 196 Li Shizhen, Bencao Gangmu 63 lithic materials 78, 82, 99, 108 Li Mountains sources 57 Mount Dagudui quarry 111 Songshan Mountains limestone 105 Liu, L 233 log-normal line 160 Longgangsi site 35, 36 burials 130, 130, 131, 131 grave goods 132 burial sizes and 265 tools associated with burials 257 Index Longshan culture architecture 43, 95–96 arrowheads 64 burial patterns 135–138, 143–146, 155 ceramic types 235 conflict and 1, 30 Gongyi region sites 179 Henan 178–184 sites 169, 180, 183 overview 1–5, 16, 27 rank-size distribution 197, 213 comparisons 175 convex 173, 180, 183 log-normal 173 primate 173 regions 3, 254 settlement hierarchies 195, 212 comparisons 177 three-tiered 177, 180, 182, 183, 210 two-tiered 181, 203, 205 settlement patterns 168 circumscribed clusters 170–176 less circumscribed clusters 178–184, 185–188 semi-circumscribed clusters 176–178 Shaanxi 49, 192–193, 209–214 sites 49 Shandong 192–193, 194–207 sites 196, 200, 202, 206 Shanxi sites 169 Taosi (See also Taosi site) 190 rank-size distribution, primate 188–189 settlement hierarchies, three-tiered 173, 188 tool usage 35–36 transition to Erlitou culture 235–236, 246 Wei River valley sites 211 Yiluo valley sites 179 Longshanoid horizon definition Lubao site 182 Lutaigang site, Structure I 248–249, 249 magicians 91 Majiayao culture 146–148, 224 marble artifacts 150 marine transgressions correlated to cultural transformations 193, 197–198 sites and 198 marriage, pairing 79 matrilineal social organization 79 Mengzhuang site 181–182, 237 metallurgy 111, 184, 224, 233–234, 245 metals, earliest remains of 104 methodology, See research approaches Miaodigou phase 2, 132–133, 165 See also Yangshao culture Miaodigou site 46 migration 174–175, 185, 201, 216–218 306 minimum number of individuals (MNI) 51 moats 96 Monetaian moneta 234 Monetaria annulus 234 monolineal kinship organization 99 monsoon, East Asian 23–24, 24, 25, 27 monumental structures, social organization and 115–116 Morgan-Engels theory of cultural evolution 5, 10–11, 79, 117 mortuary practices burial in urns 82, 132 in egalitarian societies 133 gender and 133, 141, 144, 151, 157 re-burial with natal families 133, 135 segregation of elites 151–155, 230, 242–244 See also burial locations; burial patterns; burials; feasting rituals; grave goods mountain apricot 55 Nanzhuangtou site 24 national history legends and 223, 224, 235 nationalism and 8–9, 11 quxi leixing model 7–8, 9, 12 Zhongyuan-centered tradition 5–8 nationalism, national history and 8–9, 11 neo-evolutionary model of archaeology 11, 191 Neolithic period initial 24 early 25 middle 25–27 late 27 network strategies 249–251 numbers of identified specimens (NISP) 51 ocean-spirit worship 201 oracle bones 6, 47, 48, 53, 63, 254 Kangjia site 54, 67 Ordos sites Ovis shangi 59 paintings on floors 51, 52, 102 paleovegetation 26 Panlongcheng site 233 Pan Qifeng 174 patrilocal kinship organization 135 Pearson, R 35 peer-polity interaction model 246–247 Peiligang culture 16, 25, 35–36 architecture 74–75 burial patterns 126–130 rank-size distribution, convex 162 settlement patterns 162 social organization and 74–78 sites 163 pigs 58, 61 as grave goods 99, 123–125 Pingliangtai site 103, 103, 104, 185 political orientations group 247, 249, 251 individual 247, 249 pollen 23, 27 Index population decline 31, 201, 207, 209–214, 219 estimation 160, 160, 191, 240, 240 growth 30, 174, 180, 194, 208 mobility 221 power religious 155–157 ritual 248–249 prestige goods 184, 224 as grave goods 120–125, 141, 143 production 108, 157, 236 wealth finance economic system and 247, 250 See also ritual objects; specific artifacts projectile points 233 See also arrowheads Proto-Shang culture 225, 236–238 Qijia culture 31, 148–151 Qinghai, Lake 25 Qi River valley sites 215 “Qiushuipian” 31 Qujialing culture 16, 36, 185, 187–188 sites 186 quxi leixing model of national history 7–8, 9, 12 R2 (coefficient of determination) 125 raccoon dogs 60, 63 radiocarbon dates 16, 22–23 ranking 15 rank-size distribution 160–161, 241 convex 164, 188 Erlitou 228 Longshan culture 173, 180, 183 Peiligang culture 162 in Shaanxi 210, 213, 214 in Shandong 196, 203, 205 Yangshao culture 165 log-normal Longshan culture 173 in Shandong 199 Longshan culture 197, 213 comparisons 175 primate Erlitou 226 Longshan culture 173 Longshan culture, Taosi phase 188 Rank-Size Rule 160 rank societies 116 R (correlation coefficient) 125 Renfrew, C 189, 246 research approaches burials 117–119 social complexity analysis of 159, 160, 162, 169–170, 192–193, 225 approaches to 239 further questions 251–253 residential segregation, See segregation, residential resources control of 114–115, 244–245 procurement 232, 233–234 307 ritual objects 72, 124 controlling production of 151, 245 religious power and 155–157 trade 67, 122, 136, 156 trade of 72 See also craft production; prestige goods; specific artifacts ritual practitioners, See shamans rituals 129 within households 34, 102 See also ancestral cults; belief systems; feasting rituals; sacrificial offerings Rizhao region 199–201, 220 sites 200 sacrificial offerings ancestral cults gravesite rituals 119–120, 131, 144–146, 147–148 animals 53, 65, 94, 106 humans 46–48, 204, 205–207 Kangjia site 57, 63, 102 Qijia culture 148 Shang dynasty 46, 48 Taosi sites 110 Wangchenggang site 47, 105 Xishan site 94 See also suttee Sahlins, M 14 salt 233 Sanlihe site 35, 258 sea level, fluctuation in 29, 29, 31, 202 sedentism 24–25 segmentation 34, 113, 128 segregation mortuary 151–155, 230, 242 residential 108, 110, 113–114, 242–244 Service, E R 11, 13 settlement hierarchies 160, 160, 240, 240 four-tiered Erlitou culture 226, 228, 232, 235 Longshan culture 195, 212 comparisons 177 three-tiered 239 Longshan culture 177, 180, 182, 183, 210 Longshan culture, Taosi phases 173, 188 Yangshao culture 165, 166 two-tiered Longshan culture 181, 203, 205 Yangshao culture 166, 166 settlement nucleation 116, 174, 201, 232, 235 settlement organization large settlements 108–111 medium settlements with walls 103–108 without walls 96–103 settlement patterns analysis of 15 Dawenkou culture 203–205 Hulu River valley 218 Kangjia site 100–103, 213 Longshan culture 168, 194–207 circumscribed clusters 170–176 Index settlement patterns (cont.) less circumscribed clusters 178–184, 185–188 semi-circumscribed clusters 176–178 Peiligang culture 162 regional 240–242 in Shaanxi 208, 215–219 in Shandong 193–208 Yangshao culture 163–168, 208 settlement patterns and social organization 73–74, 111–114, 159–160, 188–189, 246–247 Peiligang culture 74–78 in Shaanxi 221–222 in Shandong 219–222 Yangshao culture 167, 168 early 78–83 middle 83–85 late 85–95 settlement systems models 241 mono-centered centripetal 188, 190, 220, 241 multi-centered competing 188–189, 190, 220–221, 241–242 tributary 242 Shaanxi Longshan culture 49, 192–193, 209 rank-size distribution, convex 210, 213, 214 settlement patterns 208, 215–219 social organization and 222 sites 49, 208, 215 shamans 71, 91, 123, 155 social status 158 Shandong ceramic types 207 Dawenkou culture 199 Linyi region 194–198, 220–221 Longshan culture 192–193, 194–207 rank-size distribution convex 195, 203, 205 log-normal 199 settlement patterns 193–208 social organization and 219–222 sites 196, 200, 202, 206 Yueshi culture 207–208 Shang dynasty ancestral cults 119 human sacrifices 46, 48 hunting 70 origins (See also Proto-Shang culture) 2, 6–7 warfare 64, 237 Shanxi sites 169 sheep/goats 58–59, 60 Shelach, G 153 shell tools 102 Shijia site burials 133, 133, 135 sex ratios by age groups 134 Shiji (Historical Memoirs) 64, 70 shiny-leaved yellowthom 55 Shi Zhangru 48 308 Shuiquan site 128, 129, 130 burial sizes and grave goods 264 silk cultivation Silk Road 92 Sima Qian 116 “Yin benji” 70 Sino-American Collaborative Liangcheng Archaeology Team 199, 201 sites change of cultural distribution 217 comparison by size and number 172, 185 frequency by period and region 28 marine transgressions and 198 number 218, 235 vs size 185 by size 180 slavery 106 social change, dynamics of 246–247 economic systems 247 emergence of states 246–247 political orientations 247, 249, 251 ritual power 248–249 social complexity by archaeological period 243 development and decline 192–193, 209, 215, 222 emergence 48, 85, 159, 189, 249–251 from extended families to lineages 135 research approaches 159, 160, 161, 162, 169–170, 192–193, 225, 239, 251–253 segmentation - unity continuum 35 transition from egalitarian to stratified 113, 146, 151, 153 See also chiefdoms; states social organization by archaeological period 240 craft production and 114–115 decentralized 190 diminished 221–222, 241 matrilineal 79 monumental structures and 115–116 settlement patterns and (See settlement patterns and social organization) See also chiefdoms; states social stratification burial patterns and 110, 120–125, 138–143, 151–155 Song Jian Songshan Mountains 105 specialization, See under craft production Spencer, C S 245 spindle whorls 105 staple finance economic system 247 states 12 definition 224–225, 245 emergence 14–15, 31, 223–225, 238, 246–247 territorial 236 status, social ascribed 136, 143–144, 153, 250 markers 15 of men 144, 153, 242 of shamans 158 of women 135, 141, 145, 149, 242 Index stone artifacts 57, 78, 102, 105 as grave goods 78 production centers 108, 111, 178 yu axes 136 See also arrowheads; ground stone implements; projectile points stratified societies 35 definition 15 legitimization 157 transition from egalitarian societies 113, 146, 151, 153–155 See also hierarchies; social stratification Su Bingqi 7–8, 12 suttee 149 See also sacrificial offerings Taiyi mountain system 193 Taosi site 109, 109, 111, 170, 173, 176 architecture 110 artifacts 112 burials 110, 135, 136, 137, 138 human sacrifices 110 Tenghualuo site 198 Thailand 69 Three Dynasties 8, 238 Tianwang site 203 tools assemblages 263 associated with burials 256, 259 bone tools 57, 102 correlation with ceramic assemblages and house sizes 41 gender-specific use 35, 36, 39, 43 potter’s tools 40, 43, 45–46, 98, 101 shell tools 102 towns, See walled settlements trade inter-community 78, 82, 102 of ritual objects 67, 72, 122, 136, 156–157 transegalitarian societies 69, 100, 116 See also chiefdoms transportation 201, 233 tributary settlement systems 242 Trigger, B G 236 turtle shells 64–67, 122, 124, 126 See also jade artifacts Underhill, A 64, 114, 141 Upper Xiajiadian culture 153 Wadian sites 184 walled settlements 115, 272 Bianxianwang 204 Chengziyai 203 Dantu 93, 199 Dinggong 203 Guchengzhai 107, 184 Haojiatai site 185 Hougang 181 Jiaochangpu 205 Jingyanggang 205–207 Mengzhuang 182 309 Pingliangtai 185 Tenghualuo 198 Tianwang 203 Wangzhuang 93, 194 Xikangliu 93, 194 Xishan 93–95, 167–168 Wallerstein, I 236 walls 1, 112 rammed-earth 30, 93, 183, 184, 188, 190, 193, 205 Wangchenggang site 104, 104, 106, 183 burials 47, 47 human sacrifices 105 tool assemblages 263 as Yangcheng 105 wangguo shidai (the dynastic state period) 13 Wangwan Neolithic sequence Wangyoufang site 47 Wangzhuang site 93, 194 warfare inter-group conflict 63–64, 72, 94, 110, 115, 188, 229 inter-polity conflict 190, 246 Longshan culture and 1, 30 Shang dynasty 64, 237 See also competition water buffalo 31, 59, 60 wealth finance economic system 247 Wei River valley 181, 208, 221 environment and ecology 60–61 sites 209, 210, 211, 214 world systems, Erlitou culture 236 Wright, H T 225, 242 writing systems 1, 224 inscribed artifacts 203 (See also oracle bones) Wu Jinding 1, wu shamans, See shamans Xanthoceras sorbifolia bunge 55 Xia dynasty 30, 105, 225, 235, 236, 238 origins 223 Xiajincun site 137 Xiangjiagou site 199 Xiaqiyuan culture 16, 181, 225–226, 227, 236–238 Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project Xikangliu site 93, 194 Xinzhai sites 184, 227, 229 Xipo site, F104 and F105 83, 84 Xishan site 93, 94, 95, 167–168 Xishuipo site 155 Xizhufeng site 204 Yangcheng, Wangchenggang site as 105 Yangshan site 146, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155 burial sizes and grave goods 266 Yangshao culture architecture 79, 83–85 arrowheads 64 burial patterns 46, 48, 130–135 diet and health 93 overview 2, 16, 25–27 Index Yangshao culture (cont.) painted pottery 2, 91 phases 26, 35–36, 42, 208 rank-size distribution, convex 165 settlement hierarchies three-tiered 165, 166 two-tiered 166, 166 settlement patterns 163–168, 208 social organization and 167, 168 settlement patterns and social organization early 78–83 middle 83–85 late 85–95 sites 5, 165, 209 Yan Wenming 2, 8, 13, 64 Yellow River valley 21 climatic and geomorphic changes 19 course changes 20, 29–30, 31, 186–187, 218, 251 Longshan culture variants map sites 74, 118, 171 topography 20–22 See also floods Yiluo River region 176–178 Yiluo valley sites 179 “Yin benji” (Sima Qian) 70 310 Ying River valley 184 Yinjiacheng site 39 F204 43, 45, 46 tools associated with burials 259 Yinjiacun site 208 Yuanjunmiao site, sex ratios by age groups 134 Yuchisi site 39, 96, 97, 100 burials 99, 141, 142 burial sizes and grave goods 265 F33 43, 44 F37 38, 39 food vessel rankings 98 Yueshi culture 16, 30–31, 194, 201, 207–208 Yu the Great 105, 235 Zhao Chunqing 161 Zhaojialai site 101, 102, 215 Zhengzhou region 166–168 Zhongyuan-centered tradition of national history 5–8 Zhou dynasty 91, 219 Zhoukoudian site 5, Zhuangzi 31 Zhuzu, Mount 199 Zipf, G K 160 ... societies to historical archaeology For a list of titles in the series please see the end of the book LI LIU The Chinese Neolithic Trajectories to Early States    Cambridge, ... Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www .cambridge. org... conclusions 192 192 193 208 219 221 Trajectories toward early states Introduction: from chiefdoms to states The Erlitou culture – searching for the Xia dynasty The Proto-Shang culture Conclusions 223