English Words: History and Structure is concerned primarily with the learned vocabulary of English, the words borrowed from the classical languages and French It initially surveys the historical events that define the layers of vocabulary in Old English (c 450–1066) Middle English (1066–1476), Early Modern English (1476–1776), and Present-Day English It is both an introduction to some of the basic principles of linguistic analysis and a helpful manual for vocabulary discernment and enrichment Exercises to accompany each chapter and further readings on recent loans and the legal and medical vocabulary of English are available on-line at http://uk.cambridge.org/linguistics/resources/englishwords • Introduces students to some basic linguistic terms needed for the discussion of phonological and morphological changes accompanying word formation • Designed to lead students to a finer appreciation of their language and greater ability to recognize relationships between words and discriminate between meanings • An informative appendix discusses the history and usefulness of the best known British and American dictionaries • On-line readings and exercises designed to deepen and strengthen the knowledge acquired in the classroom is Professor Emeritus at the Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles He is co-editor of Linguistic Change and Generative Theory (with R Macaulay, 1972), coauthor of Major Syntactic Structures of English (with Paul Schachter and Barbara Partee, 1973) and author of Foundations of Syntactic Theory (1977) is Professor of English at the University of California, Los Angeles She has published widely in the fields of English and Germanic historical phonology and syntax, historical dialectology and English historical metrics She is the author of The History of Final Vowels in English (1991) English Words: History and Structure R O B E RT S T O C K W E L L A N D D O N K A M I N KOVA Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521790123 © Robert Stockwell and Donka Minkova 2001 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2001 - isbn-13 978-0-511-06707-5 eBook (NetLibrary) - isbn-10 0-511-06707-0 eBook (NetLibrary) - isbn-13 978-0-521-79012-3 hardback - isbn-10 0-521-79012-3 hardback - isbn-13 978-0-521-79362-9 paperback - isbn-10 0-521-79362-9 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Wittgenstein: “The limits of my language are the limits of my world.” Contents An introduction to the textbook Chapter One: Word origins 3 4 Inheritance Neologisms (Creation de novo) Blending Acronyms 4.1 Initialisms 4.2 Reverse acronyms Creation by shortening Derivation 6.1 Derivation by affixation 6.2 Derivation without affixation Compounding Eponyms 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Based on personal names Based on geographical names Based on names from literature, folklore, and mythology Based on commercial brand names 10 11 11 12 12 15 15 16 16 17 Other Sources 18 Chapter Two: The background of English 19 The family history of English 19 1.1 Indo-European 1.2 The Germanic branch 1.3 English 23 26 28 Historical influences on the early vocabulary of English 2.1 The indigenous vocabulary of Old English 2.1.1 Earliest loanwards 2.1.2 The Scandinavian element 2.2 English becomes a hybrid 2.2.1 French loanwords in Middle English 30 30 31 33 34 36 Chapter Three: Composition of the Early Modern and Modern English vocabulary 39 39 41 46 54 The Early Modern English cultural scene Vocabulary enrichment during the Renaissance Transmission, etymology, source identification Summary of early British history and loanwords in English vii viii Contents Chapter Four: Smaller than words: morphemes and types of morphemes 56 The smallest meaningful units 56 1.1 Morphemes and syllables 1.2 The properties of morphemes Types of morphemes 2.1 Roots 2.2 Affixes 2.3 Functions of affixes Compounds Hyphens Cognates 57 58 61 61 63 64 66 68 68 5.1 Shared derivation 5.2 Shared form and meaning 70 71 Finding roots in a dictionary 71 Chapter Five: Allomorphy, phonetics, and affixation 73 Morphological rules 73 1.1 Types of allomorphy 1.1.1 Zero allomorphy 1.1.2 Irregular allomorphy 1.1.3 Regular allomorphy 1.1.4 Derivation 1.2 Origins of allomorphy 1.2.1 Phonetic change 1.2.1.1 Ease of pronunciation 1.2.1.2 Age or time of entry of the word into English 1.2.1.3 Frequency of use 1.2.1.4 Origin 1.2.1.5 Transparency 1.2.1.6 The fossilization of allomorphy The sounds of English 2.1 Phonetic notation systems 2.2 Phonetic symbols and square brackets 2.3 Consonantal parameters 2.3.1 Place of articulation 2.3.2 Manner of articulation 2.3.3 Voicing 2.3.4 English consonants: summary 2.4 English vowels 2.4.1 Vowel variation 2.4.2 Vowel parameters 2.4.3 Reduction of vowels The affixes of English 3.1 Prefixes 3.2 Suffixes 73 73 75 75 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 80 80 80 81 82 82 83 84 84 85 86 88 89 89 92 Chapter Six: Replacement rules 95 Assimilation and types of assimilation Labial assimilation 95 96 2.1 Exceptions to labial assimilation Voicing assimilation 3.1 Sound versus spelling 3.2 Left-to-right voicing assimilation 98 99 100 100 Contents Total assimilation 4.1 Total assimilation of prefixes 4.2 Double consonant spellings Other replacement rules 5.1 T-Lenition 5.1.1 T-Lenition and spelling 5.1.2 T-Lenition, palatalization, and affrication 5.1.3 Summary of palatalization and affrication after T-Lenition 5.2 D-Lenition 5.2.1 Summary: palatalization and affrication of dental stops 5.3 v-Vocalization Vowel replacements 101 101 103 104 104 105 105 106 106 107 108 108 6.1 A-Lenition 6.2 E-Lenition 6.3 Multiple Lenition 109 109 110 Backness assimilation 110 Chapter Seven: Deletion rules and other kinds of allomorphy 112 Consonant deletion 112 1.1 S-Degemination 1.1.1 Spelling exceptions 1.1.2 Exceptions to S-Degemination 1.1.3 Other affixes in -s 1.2 X-drop 1.2.1 Exceptions to X-drop 1.3 N-drop 1.3.1 Pronunciation and boundaries 1.3.2 N-drop in other prefixes Vowel deletions 113 114 114 115 116 118 118 119 120 121 2.1 V-drop in hiatus 2.1.1 Exceptions 2.2 Syllable syncopation 2.1.1 Preservation of and 121 122 123 124 Expansion rules: vowel or consonant epenthesis 125 3.1 U-Epenthesis 3.2 P-Epenthesis 125 126 Chapter Eight: Fossilized allomorphy: false cognates and other etymological pitfalls 128 11 Fossilized allomorphy 12 Gradation 128 129 2.1 Gradation in Germanic 13 Rhotacism 3.1 Rhotacism in Latin 3.2 Rhotacism in Germanic 14 Metathesis (transposition) 15 Obscure cognates: completely unpredictable allomorphy 16 False cognates 6.1 Boundary misplacement 6.2 Homophony in roots and affixes 6.2.1 Root homophony 6.3 Affix homophony 6.3.1 Phonetic rules and homophony 6.3.2 Homophony of grammatical suffixes 130 130 130 132 132 133 135 135 136 137 139 140 141 ix English Words: History and Structure 194 MORPHEME 27 anim MEANING “mind” (3) 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 ann -ant, -ent anteanteanth anthrop anti- “year” (2) “one who” (5) “before, old” (5) “preceding” (5) “flower, collection” (11) “man, human being” (6) “opposed, instead” (5) 35 36 37 38 39 40 apt arch(aeo) arch-arian art -ary “fit, capable” (3) “rule, begin, foremost” (2) “chief, principal, high” (2) “member of a sect” (5) “skill” “having a tendency” (5) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 aster -ate -ate -ation aud aug autoav(i) “star” (2) “cause X to happen” (5) “full of ” (5) “state of being X-ed” (5) “hear” (4) “increase” (7) “self, same” (5) “bird, fly” (11) 49 50 51 52 53 54 barbar bell bene, bon bibio bol, bl “uncivilized” (12) “war” (8) “good, well” (8) “twice, double” (5) “life” (6) “throw” (10) 55 brev 56 burs “short” (2) “pouch, money” (9) 57 cad, cas “fall” (5) 58 camp “field” (11) 59 can, cyn 60 cant 61 cap(it) “dog” (11) “sing” (4) “head” (3) 62 cap, cup, ceiv “to take, contain” (9) 63 car(n) “flesh” (3) 64 card, cord “heart, agree” (3) 65 cast “purify, fortify” (3) 66 cata67 ced, ceed “down, away, back” (5) “go, let go” (7) EXAMPLES animate, animosity, animadversion, animal annals, annual, superannuated, annuity agent, defendant, participant antenuptial, ante antechamber, ante-Norman anthology, anthophore, anthropology, anthropoid, anthrolatry antidote, antisemitic, antacid, anti-Chistian aptitude, ineptitude, inept archaeology, archaic, archaeism archbishop, archduke utilitarian, egalitarian, euthoritarian artful, inertia secondary, discretionary, rudimentary, tributary asteroid, astronomy create, contaminate, frustrate, terminate passionate, affectionate, extortionate purification, organization, contemplation audit, auditory, auditorium, audience auction, augment, augur, august, August automaton, autobiography, automobile aviary, aviation, aviator barbarian, barbarous bellicose, belligerent, antebellum benefit, beneficent, beneficiary, bonanza bifocal, biennial, bipolar, bisulphate biology, biogenic, biography, biogenetic symbol, hyperbole, metabolism, parabola, parable abbreviate, breve, breviloquent bursar, bursa, bursitis, disburse, reimburse cadaver, cadence, decadence, case, casual, occasion camp, campaign, campus, decamp, encamp canaille, canary, canine, cynic incantation, incentive, enchant cape, capital, capitol, capitulate, recapitulate, captain capable, capsule, captive, accept, anticipate carnal, carnage, carnivore, carnival, carrion, incarnate cardiac, cardiology, accord, accordion, concord, record caste, castigate, castle, castrate, chateau, chaste catapult, catastrophe concede, precede, proceed, access, accessory, ancestor SOURCE L anim(us) L annu L -antem L ante L anteG anth(os) G anthrop(os) G antiL apt G archaeG arch L -arian(us) OFr art L -ari(us) G aster L -at(us) L -at(us) L -ation L aud(ire) L aug G auto(s) L avi(s) L barbar(us) L bell(um) L ben L biG bio(s) G ball(ein) L brev(is) L burs(a) L cad(ere) L camp(us) L can(is) L cant(are) L cap(ut) L cap(ere) L carnal(is) G kard L cast(us) G kataL ced(ere) Appendix II MORPHEME 68 ceive 69 cele(b)r 70 cer(t), cr MEANING “take” (9) “swift, frequent” (2) “separate, judge, settle” (9) 71 cere, cre 72 chrom(at) 73 chron “come forth, grow” (7) “color, embellishment” (10) “time” (12) 74 cid, cis “cut, kill” (11) 75 circum76 cit 77 civ, cit “around” (5) “arouse, summon” (9) “city, refined” (8) 78 clam “call out” ( ) 79 clar 80 class “clear” (12) “group” (7) 81 cli, cliv, clin “lean, lie, bed” (5) 82 clud, claus, clos “close” (2) 83 co-, con84 col, cult “together, jointly” (5) “live, inhabit, grow” (11) 85 com 86 contra87 cor, curv “comic, comedy” (12) “against, opposite” (5) “round, around” (10) 88 corp “body, flesh” (3) 89 cosm “universe, world, order” (12) 90 counter91 crat “against, opposite” (5) “rule” (8) 92 cre 93 cre, cred “grow” (12) “believe, trust” (8) 94 crit 95 crypto96 cub, cumb “discern” (12) “secret, hidden” (5) “lie, hollow” (5) 97 cur, car, cor, cour “run” (9) 98 99 100 101 dedei, div del dem “away from, down” (5) “god, augury” (2) “erase, wipe out” (11) “people” (8) 102 den, odon “tooth” (3) 103 dexter “right hand, adroit” (3) EXAMPLES conceit, conception, deceit, deception celerity, accelerate, celebrate, celebrity certain, certify, critic, crime, excrement, secret accrue, create, decrease, recruit chromatic, chromatophilic, chromosome chronology, chronic, chronicle, anachronism decide, fratricide, genocide, concise, incisor, precise circumnavigate, circumspect, circumcise cite, excite, recite, solicit, resuscitate civic, civil, civilian, civilization, citadelle, city exclaim, declaim, exclamatory, proclamation clarity, declare, clarify classic, classical, classicism, classify, declassé client, climate, climax, clinic, decline, incline conclude, exclude, include, preclude, closet, disclose coexistence, cooperate, concur bucolic, colonial, cultivate, culture, horticulture comic, comedy, comedian contradiction, contrary corona, coroner, coronary, corolla, corollary corporal, corporate, incorporate, corporeal, corpse cosmic, cosmology, cosmos, cosmetic, microcosm counterfeit, counterbalance autocrat, aristocracy, bureaucracy, democracy creature, creation, excrescence credence, credential, credible, credit, credo, creed critic, criticize, critical, criticism cryptography, cryptoanalytic concubine, cube, cubicle, incumbent, succumb current, cursive, incur, recur, car, career, carry decay, debase, deny, depend deify, deism, deity, divine, divinity delete, indelible, deleterious demagogue, democracy, endemic, epidemic dent, dental, indent, indenture, dandelion, mastodon dexterity, dextrorotatory, dextrose, dextrous 195 SOURCE L cip(ere) L celebr L cert(us) L cre(are) G khrom(a) G khron(os) L incid(ere) L circum L cit(are) L civil(is) L clam(are) L clar(us) L class(is) G cli(ma) G claus(us) L comL cult(is) G com(os) L contraL curv(us) L corp(us) G kosm(os) L contra G krat(os) L cre(are) L cred(ere) G kritik(os) G krupt(os) G kub(os) L curr(ere) L deL de(us) L del(ere) G dem(os) L den(s) L dexter English Words: History and Structure 196 MORPHEME 104 di105 dia106 dic(t) MEANING “two” (5) “across, through” (5) “speak, give” (4) 107 dis108 dis109 doc, dog “apart, reversal, lacking” (5) intensifier (5) “teach, praise” (4) 110 dol, dolor 111 dom, domin “suffer” (11) “control, lord, master” (8) 112 112 113 114 115 “give” (7) don, dat, dot, dor, dos, dow dudubi duc(t) “two, double” (5) “doubt” (12) “lead, pull” (8) 116 dur “hard, lasting” (11) 117 dys- “bad, badly” (5) 118 eco 119 -eer “environment” (12) “one who deals in X” (5) 120 ego “self ” (3) 121 electr- “electric” (12) 122 123 124 125 -en enepiequi “to become” (5) “in, into” (a form of in-) (5) “on, over”(5) “even, level” (10) 126 127 128 129 -er erg, urg, org ero err “agent” (5) “work” (9) “physical love” (6) “wander, go wrong” (12) 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 -ery, -ry -esc -ese -esque esth -ess etym eu “collectivity” (5) “become” (5) “belonging to a place” (5) “having the style of X” (5) “feel” (11) “feminine of X” (5) “true, source” (12) “good, well” (8) 138 ex-, ec- “out from, away” (5) 139 extra- “outside the scope of ” (5) 140 fa, pho, fe, phe “speak, spoken about” (4) 141 fac 142 fem 143 fend “do, make” (7) “effeminate, female” (12) “strike, ward off” (8) EXAMPLES dioxide, ditransitive, dichloride diameter, diachronic dictate, edict, verdict, benediction, contradict, addict displease, disallow, distaste disturb, disgruntle, disannul doctrine, indoctrinate, doctor, document, dogma condolence, doleful, indolent, dolorous domestic, domicile, domain, dominate, domineer donate, data, addition, editor, antidote, dose, endow duple, duplicate, duplicity dubious, dubiety, indubitably abduct, aqueduct, conduct, deduce, educate, induce durable, duration, duress, endurance, endure, obdurate dyslogistic, dyspeptic ecosystems, ecology engineer, balladeer, mountaineer, profiteer ego, egocentric, egoism, egoist, egomania, egotism electricity, electrode, electron (Gk rootϭ“amber”) darken, chasten, cheapen, deafen encapsulate, enclose epiglottis, epidermis, epicycle equanimity, equator, equilateral, equinox, equity baker, thriller, worker, sweeper, retriever energy, erg, synergism, metallurgy erotic, erogenous aberrant, err, errant, erratic, erratum, erroneous, error masonry, carpentry, slavery, savagery tumescent, coalesce Japanese, New Yorkese, journalese romanesque, lawyeresque, statuesque esthetic, phonaesthetic tigress, laundress, stewardess etymology, etymon eucalyptus, eugenics, eulogy, eupeptic, euphony exconsul, exwife; eccentric; educate, eradicate, emit extraordinary, extramarital fable, affable, fame, famous, infant, preface, aphasia fact, affect, infect, office, suffice feminine, female, effeminate, defend, defence, fence, fend, fender, offense SOURCE G diG diaL dic(ere) L disL disL doc(ere) L dolor(e) L domin(us) L don(are) L du(o) L dubi(um) L duc(ere) L dur(are) G dusG oik(os) Fr -ier L ego G elektron OE -en G enG epi L aequ(us) L -arius G organ(on) G ero(s) L err(are) L -ari(a) L -esc L -ens(is) Fr -esque G aesth Fr -ess G etum(on) G eu G exL extraG phe, L fa L fac(ere) Fr fem(elle) L defend(ere) Appendix II MORPHEME 144 fer, pher, phor MEANING “bear, send, bring” (5) 145 fess “admit, acknowledge” (12) 146 fid, feder “trust, faith” (8) 147 148 149 150 151 152 “form” (10) “end” (12) “strong” (12) “bend, turn” (2) “strike” (3) “flow, river” (5) fig, fing finfirm flec flict flu, fluc, fluv 153 fore- “before” (5) 154 form 155 fort 156 frag, frang “shape” (12) “strong” (12) “break, deflect” (7) 157 fug 158 -ful 159 fuse, fund “flee, flight” (12) “full of X” (5) “pour, melt, blend” (12) 160 gam 161 gen(er), gn, gon, germ(in) 162 geo “marriage, sexual union” (6) “birth, origin” (5) 163 ges(t), ger “carry, bring, offer” (5) 164 glos, glot “tongue, speech” (4) 165 gn, gnos, gnor “to know” (4) 166 grad, gress “step, go” (5) 167 graph, gram “make lines, write, record” (4) 168 grat “thankful, pleased, kind” (8) 169 grav 170 greg “heavy, serious” (10) “flock, gather” (8) 171 gyn, gynec “woman, female” (11) 172 hab, hib 173 heli 174 hem, em “to have, hold” (11) “sun” (7) “blood” (3) 175 hend 176 her, heir 177 hes, her “seize” (7) “heir” (10) “stick, hold back” (2) 178 hetero- “other” (7) “earth” (11) EXAMPLES circumference, conifer, defer, differ, fertile, infer confess, confession, profess(or), profession(al) affidavit, bona fide, confide, federation, infidel figure, figurative final, finish, define, definite affirm, affirmative, affirmation, infirm flexible, reflect, reflex, deflect, circumflex inflict, conflict, afflict fluent, fluid, influence, affluent, effluent, fluvial (in time or space) forecast, forefinger, foreskin conform, uniform, formation, formal comfort, effort, fortification fragment, fraction, fracture, refraction, frangible refuge, fugitive, fugue peaceful, powerful, skillful fuse, confuse, diffuse, effusive, infuse, profuse bigamy, gamete, monogamy, polygamy general, generate, gender, genesis, genius, germ geodesic, geology, geometry, apogee, George gesture, gestation, digest, congest, ingest, suggest gloss, glossary, glottis, epiglottis, polyglot cognition, incognito, recognize, agnostic, ignore grade, gradation, gradual, graduate, degrade, aggressive agraphia, autograph, telegraph, biography, grammar grateful, gratify, gratis, gratitude, congratulate, grace aggravate, gravity aggregate, congregate, congregation, egregious androgynous, gynarchy, gynocracy, misogynist inhibit, exhibit, habitable heliotrope, parahelion, helioscope hemoglobin, hemophilia, hemoptysis, anemia apprehend, comprehend, prehensile inherit, inheritance, hereditary adhere, coherent, incoherent, inherent, cohesive heterosexual, heteronym, heteromorphic 197 SOURCE L fer(re) LL fess(us) L fid(es) L figur(a)a L fin(ire) L firm(us) L flect(ere) L flict(us) L flu(ere) OE fore L form(a) L fort L frang(ere) L fug(ere) OE full L fund(ere) G gam(os) L gen(us) G geo L ger(ere) G glossa G gnos L grad(us) G graph(e) L grat(us) L grav(em) L greg G gun(e) L hab(ere) G heli(os) G haim(a) L (pre)hendL her(es) L haer(ere) G hetero English Words: History and Structure 198 179 180 181 182 183 184 MORPHEME hom(o), homeo hon -hood hor hum hyd(r) MEANING “same” (6) “worthy” (10) “state of, condition of ” (5) “shudder”(7) “damp, wet” (7) “water” (11) 185 hyper186 hypo- “over, to excess” (5) “under, slightly” (5) 187 -ia 188 iatr “condition” (5) “treat (medically)” (3) 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 -ic -ician -icity idio -ify, fy inininfrainter- “having the property X” (5) “skilled in art/science” (5) “abstract noun from -ic” (5) “particular” (7) “to cause to (be) X” (5) “in, into, within” (5) “negative” (5) “below, underneath” (5) “between, among” (5) 198 199 200 201 intrais-, iso-ish -ism 202 203 204 205 206 isol, insul -ist -ity -ive -ize “inside” (5) “equal” (5) “to become like X” (5) “doctrinal system of principles” (5) “island” (11) “one connected with” (5) “state, quality” (5) “characterized by” (5) “to cause to be X” (5) 207 jac(t) “throw, lay, lie” (2) 208 journ 209 jug, jung “day” (9) “join” (2) 210 kine, cine “move” (5) 211 lab “take, seize” (5) 212 213 214 215 lat lat later, lat leg, lect 216 leg 217 leg, log 218 -less EXAMPLES homogeneous, homomorphic, homonym honor, honorable, dishonor, honesty childhood, womanhood, priesthood abhor, horrible, horror humid, humidity dehydrate, hydrant, hydrate, hydraulic, hydrogen hyperactive, hypersensitive hypotactic, hypoglossal, hypotoxic SOURCE G hom(os) L honor OE hood L hor(er) L hum(ere) G hudr(o) amnesia, paranoia iatrogenic, geriatric, psychiatry, pediatric, podiatry alcoholic, atheistic, naturalistic, romantic physician, musician, magician historic/historicity, electric/electricity idiom, idiolect, idiot, idiosyncratic purify, denazify, sanctify, verify, amplify inaugurate, inchoate indiscreet, ineffectual, incredible, illegible infra-red, infrastructure interchange, interpose, intersect, interloper intracity, intramural, intracellular isochrony, isosceles, isotope churlish, boyish, peckish, stylish communism, realism, romanticism G L-ia G iatr(os) G hyperG hypo- L ic(us) L icϩian Fr -icité G idios L fac(ere) L in*nL infraL interL intra G isoGmc -ish G -isma isolate, insular, insulate, peninsula socialist, perfectionist, dentist, pugilist agility, diversity, actuality abusive, contradictive, retrospective popularize, legalize, plagiarize, miniaturize L insul(a) G -ist(es) Fr -ité L -iv(us) Fr -ise ejaculate, adjacent, reject, inject, eject, project journal, sojourn, journey jugate, conjugal, conjugate, jugular, juncture L eic(ere) L diorn L iung(ere) kinetic, kinesics, kinesiology, telekinesis, G kine cinema epilepsy, narcolepsy, prolepsis, syllable, astrolabe “carry” (6) correlate, elated, legislate, relate, translate “hidden” (10) latent “wide, broad, side” (10) lateralization, latitude “choose, gather” (4) legion, elegance, sacrilege, elect, select, neglect “law, charge” (4) legal, legislate, allege, delegate, legitimate, privilege “speak, write, read, reason” (4) logo, logic, apology, biology, eulogy, prolog “without, free from” (5) forms adjective from noun, as in faultless, keyless L lep, lab L lat(us) L lat(ere) L lat(us) L leg(ere) L leg G log(os) OE less Appendix II MORPHEME 219 -let 220 lev MEANING “diminutive” (5) “light, rise” (2) 221 222 223 224 225 226 liber lig liqu liter lith loc “free” (9) “bind” (2) “fluid” (9) “letter” (9) “stone” (11) “place” (2) 227 loqu, locu “speak” (4) 228 lud “play” (9) 229 lumin 230 -ly “light” (12) “appropriate, befitting” (5) 231 macro232 mag(n), maj “large, broad scale” (5) “great, large” (10) 233 mal234 mal, male “ill, evil, wrong” (5) “bad” (8) 235 mand 236 mani “order” (9) “intense desire” (6) 237 mar 238 mater, metr 239 medi “sea” (9) “mother, womb, surrounding substance” (6) “middle” (10) 240 memor “recall” (9) 241 men, min, mon, mn “think, remind, warn” (3) 242 -ment 243 merc 244 merg, mers “condition of being X” (5) “pay, trade, sell” (7) “dip, plunge” (9) 245 meta246 meter “transcending, changed” (5) “measure” (10) 247 micro248 mid249 migr “tiny, small scale” (5) “middle” (5) “wander” (6) 250 “little, least” (10) 251 252 253 254 “badly, wrongly” (5) “mix” (9) “hate” (6) “send, go” (5) mismisc miso mit, mis 255 mob, mot “move” (5) 256 mod “moderate, measure” (8) EXAMPLES leaflet, driblet levity, levitate, lever, elevate, alleviate, leavening liberty, liberate, deliberate ligature, ligament, oblige, religion liquidate, liquid, liquor illiterate, literature lithograph, lithosphere, monolith locus, local, locative, locomotion, allocate locution, circumlocution, loquacious, colloquial allude, delude, elude, interlude, prelude, ludicrous illuminate, lumen, luminous friendly, timely, shapely, fatherly macroeconomics, macroclimatology magnanimous, magnify, maximum, major, majority malfeasance, malodorous, malpractice dismal, malady, malaise, malapropism, malaria mandatory, command, reprimand bibliomania, mania, maniac, megalomania marine, submarine, mariner material, maternal, matrix mediocre, media, medieval, Mediterranean memorize, memorial, memorable, memory mental, mentor, dementia, monitor, mnemonic advancement, treatment, abandonment mercantile, mercenary, mercy, commercial emerge, merge, merger, submerge, immerse metaphysics, metamorphosis metric, metrics, metronome, perimeter, symmetrical microorganism, microscope midwinter, midlands, midnight emigrate, immigrate, migrate, transmigration diminish, diminutive, minor, minority, minuscular misspent, miscalculate, mislead promiscuous, miscellaneous, mixture misanthrope, misogamy, misogyny emit, omit, transmit, admission, promise, missive motion, motor, promote, remote, emotion, mob mode, model, accommodate, commode, modal 199 SOURCE Fr -(l)ette L lev(is) L liber L lig(are) L liqu L liter(a) G lith(os) L loc(us) L loqu(i) L lud(us) L lumen OE -lice G makr(os) L maior L male L male L mand(are) G mania L marin(us) L mater L medi(us) L memor L mem(or) L -ment(um) L merc L merg(ere) G metaG metr(on) G mikr(os) OE midd L migr(are) L min(or) OE misL misc(ere) G mis(ein) L mitt(ere) L mov(ere) L mod(us) English Words: History and Structure 200 MORPHEME 257 mon 258 mono MEANING “advise, warn” (9) “one” (7) 259 morph 260 mor(t) “form” (10) “death” (11) 261 multi262 mun “many” (5) “common, public, gift” (8) 263 mus 264 mut “one of the muses” (9) “change” (9) 265 nat 266 nav(t) 267 nec(ro), noc(s) “be born” (9) “sail, swim, boat” (9) “death, harmful” (11) 268 269 270 271 272 “not, no” (7) “new, recent” (5) “state, condition” (5) “law, system” (8) “name” (4) neg neo-ness nom nom, onom, onym 273 non274 nunc “not” (5) “speak” (8) 275 -ob276 -oid 277 oligo278 omni279 op(t,s) “inverse” (5) “having the shape of, resembling” (5) “few” (5) “all” (5) “eye, sight, look at” (3) 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 “work, creation” (7) “order” (7) “straight” (10) “connected with” (5) “mouth, speak” (4) “full of, abounding in” (5) “of the nature of X” (5) oper ordin ortho -ory os, or -ose -ous 287 pac “bind, agreement, peace” (8) 288 palp 289 pan, panta “touch, feel” (3) “all, all embracing” (7) 290 par 291 par 292 par, por “beget, produce” (6) “show” (7) “part, share, equality” (6) 293 para294 pass “beside, along with” (5) “spread out, go” (6) 295 pass 296 past, pan 297 pater “suffer” (7) “food, dough, bread” (9) “father, sponsor” (6) EXAMPLES monitor, monster, admonish monochrome, monogamy, monograph, monologue amorphous, morphology, morphogenesis immortal, mortal, mortgage, moritfy, mortuary multifaceted, multivalent, multiform communion, communism, community, immune music, muse, museum mutate, immutable, mutant SOURCE L mon(ere) G mon(os) natural, native, innate naval, navy, aeronaut, aquanaut, nautical nectar, nectarine, internecine, pernicious, necrophilia negate, neglect, renegade, renege neonatal, neolithic, neotype bitterness, fairness, idleness autonomous, anomie, economy, antinomy anonymous, antonym, homonym, ignominy nonsense, non-resident, non-intervention annunciate, enunciate, pronunciation, renunciation L nat L nav(is) G nekr(os) G morph(e) L mort(us) L multiL mun(us) G mousa L mut(are) L neg G neos OE -ness G nom(os) G onum(a) L nonL nunti(us) (in the opposite direction) object, obverse L obhumanoid G oeid(es) oligarchy, oligotrophic omnipotent, omniscient, omnidirectional presbyopia, amblyopia, myopia, optical, optometry opera, operate, operand, opus ordinal, ordain orthography, orthodontist, orthopedics obligatory, inflammatory, dormitory adore, oral, oratory, peroration, osculate verbose, morose, jocose virtuous, torturous, glorious, grievous pact, compact, impact, pace, pacific, pacifism palpate, palpitate, palpable panacea, pandemonium, panorama, panoply parent, viviparous, repertory parade, apparition, appear, transparent compare, disparate, parity, parse, part, depart, impart paramedic, parallel pass, compass, encompass, passport, surpass passion, impassionate, impassive companion, pannier, pantry, pasta, repast paternal, patriarch, patrimony G olig(o) L omni(s) G opt(os) L oper L ordin G orth(os) L -ori(us) L os, or L -os(us) L -us L pax L palp(are) G pan L par(ere) L par(ere) L pars G para L pass(us) L pass(ionem) L pan(is) L pater Appendix II MORPHEME 298 path(et) 299 pati 300 ped, paed 301 ped, pod, pus 302 pel 303 pen(i)(t), pun 304 pend, pond 305 per306 peri307 pet 308 phag 309 phan, phen, fan 310 phil 311 phob, 312 phon 313 phot, phos 314 phys 315 ple(c), ply 316 plen, pleo, pleth 317 pol(is)(it) 318 poly319 pon, pos 320 popul 321 port 322 post, poster 323 pot, poss 324 prag 325 pre-, pro326 prec 327 prec 328 prim 329 princ 330 priv 331 pro- MEANING “feel, suffer, illness” (3) EXAMPLES apathy, allopathy, electropathy, hydropathy, empathy “suffer, endure” (7) patience, patient, impatient “child, training, education” (6) pediatric, encyclopedia, orthopedics, pedagogy “foot” (3) biped, centipede, millipede, expedite, impede “push” (9) compel, dispel, expel, propel, repel, compulsory “punishment” (8) penal, penalty, penitent, penitentiary, repent, punish “weigh, hang, consider, pay” (8) append, depend, expend, pendulum, suspend “through, thoroughly” (5) perspire, pernicious, pervade “around, nearby” (5) perimeter, peristomatic “go, seek” (6) appetite, compete, competent, impetuous, impetus “eat” (9) anthropophagous, dysphagia, necrophagous “show, appear” (2) phantom, sycophant, phenomenon, fancy, fantasy “love” (6) Anglophile, bibliophile, philanthropy, philology “fear” (11) phobia, arachnophobia, hydrophobia “speech, sound” (5) phonetic, microphone, telephone “light” (7) photography, photosynthesis, phototropism “natural” (11) metaphysics, physic, physical, physician, physicist “fold, tangle” (10) complex, accomplice, complicate, complicity “abundance” (3) plenty, pleonasm, plethora, complete “city, state” (8) acropolis, cosmopolitan, police, policy, political “many” (5) polychromatic, polyangular, polygamy “place, put” (5) composite, deposit, expose, impose, oppose “people” (3) depopulate, people, population, popular “carry” (6) deport, export, import, portly, purport, rapport “after, behind” (10) post-mortem, post-pone, post-script, posterior “be able, powerful” (9) potent, omnipotent, potential, possible, possess “do” (9) practical, pragmatic, pragmatics “before, in front of ” (5) preconceive, preposition, progress, professor “entreat, pray” (8) deprecate, precarious, imprecate, imprecation “worth, value” (9) appreciate, depreciate, precious, preciosity “first, foremost” (10) primal, primary, primate, prime, primer, primeval “ruler” (5) “prince, principle, principal [“take first”] “secret, not public” (5) private, deprive, privy “on behalf of ” (5) pro-British, pro-education 201 SOURCE G path(os) L patient G paed L ped L pell(ere) L penten(s) L pend(ere) L per G peri L pet(ere) G phag(os) G phan(ein) G phil(os) G phob(os) G phon(e) G phos, phot G phus(is) L plec *pl G pol(is) G polyL pon(ere) L popul(us) L port(are) L post L pot, posse G prag(m) L prae-, proL prec(ari) L preti(um) L primus L primϩcip L privG pro English Words: History and Structure 202 MORPHEME 332 prob, prov MEANING “test, find good” (9) 333 prol 334 proto- “offspring” (6) “first, chief ” (5) 335 pseudo336 psych “false, deceptive resemblance” (5) “spirit, soul, mind” (3) 337 338 339 340 “people” (5) “feel shame, cast off” (6) “point, prick” (11) “cut, reckon, consider” (7) publ pud pung(t) put EXAMPLES probable, probe, probation, prove, approve, probity proletariat, prolific, proliferate proto-organism, protoplasm, prototype pseudonym, pseudo-prophet, pseudoarchaic psyche, Psyche, psychedelic, psychiatry, psychic republican, publicity, publish impudent, pudendum, repudiate expunge, punctuation, puncture amputate, deputy, dispute, repute, reputation antipyretic, pyre, pyretic, pyrite, pyromania SOURCE L prob(are) L proles G proto G pseud(es) G psukhe L public(us) L puden(s) L pung(ere) L put(are) 341 pyr “fire, fever” (3) 342 ques, quer “ask, seek” (4) question, request, exquisite, query, conquer, acquire L quaer(ere) 343 344 345 346 rat rere reg(t), roy “reckon, reason” (8) “anew, again, back” (5) “thing” (5) “straight, lead, rule, king” (8) L ratio L reL re(s) L reg(ere) 347 348 349 350 retrorig riv rog “backwards, back” (5) “stiff,” rigor, rigid” (5) “river, shore, stream” (6) “ask, take away” (6) rational, ration, ratio, ratify regenerate, rehearse, restore, reward real, reality, realize regal, regent, regicide, regimen, region, regular, royal retrogression, retrospection rigid, rigor derive, arrive, rival, river, rivulet abrogate, arrogant, derogatory, interrogate, prerogative catarrh, diarrhea, gonorrhea, hemorrhage abrupt, bankrupt, corrupt, disrupt, erupt, interrupt L rump(ere) 352 rupt “flow, steam, measured motion” (5) “burst, become unsound” (7) 353 354 355 356 “safe, healthy” (9) “satisfy” (9) “know, discern” (8) “write” (4) 351 rrh, rh salv sat, satis sci scrib 357 se-, sed358 sec, seg 359 sed 360 sel(t), sal, saul(t) 361 sembl 362 semi363 sen(t,s) 364 sequ, secut 365 ser(t) 366 -ship salvation, salvage, salute, salutation insatiable, sate, saturate, satisfy science, conscience, conscious, prescience scribe, proscribe, prescribe, describe, ascribe “apart” (5) separate, select, sedition, seduce “cut, split” (6) segment, dissect, insect, sect, section, secant, sex “sit, stay” (5) sedate, sedentary, sediment, supersede, assiduous “jump” (9) salient, assail, assault, somersault, exult, insult “similar” (5) resemble, semblance, dissemble “half, partly” (5) semicolon, semifinal, semi-annual “feel, agree, think” (3) assent, consent, dissent, presentiment, resent “follow” (5) sequel, sequence, sequester, subsequent, consequence “put, arrange, write, speak” (4) series, serial, assert, desert, dissertation, exert “state, condition” (5) dictatorship, trusteeship, workmanship G pur L retro L rigid(us) L ripa L rog(are) G rhein L salv(us) L sat(is) L sciens L scrib(ere) L se(d) L sec(are) L sed(are) L salt(are) L simil L semiL sent(ire) L sequi L ser(ere) OE scipe Appendix II MORPHEME 367 sim, simil, sem MEANING “same, one” (10) 368 soci “companion” (5) 369 sol “alone, single” (7) 370 sol 371 sol, hol “sun” (11) “whole” (7) 372 solv “loosen, unbind” (7) 373 some “like, characterized by, apt to” (5) “sound” (8) 374 son “wise” (8) “look, see” (3) 375 soph 376 spec, skep, scop, speci 377 sper, spor “scatter, seed” (6) 378 spir “breathe, animate” (3) 379 spond “pledge” (5) 380 stat, stit st, “stay, stand, make firm” (2) 381 struct, stru “build” (9) 382 383 384 385 “under, below” (5) “over, above” (5) “over, above, beyond” (5) “with, together” (5) subsupersursyn- 386 tac(s,t) “order, arrange” (7) 387 tag(t), tang 388 tec(hn) “touch, feel” (3) “build, skill” (7) 389 temp 390 ten, tain “measure” (5) “hold, maintain” (7) 391 ten(d) “stretch, thin” (2) 392 ter 393 termin “frighten” (4) “limit” (4) 394 thanat 395 the “death” (11) “place, put” (2) 396 theo “god” (2) 397 therm 398 tom, tm “heat” (9) “cut” (7) 399 top “place” (4) EXAMPLES simple, simplex, assimilate, facsimile, simile social, society, socialism, sociable, associate desolate, sole, soliloquy, solipsism, solitary, solitude parasol, solar, solarium, solstice solid, consolidate, solder, catholic, holistic, holocaust solve, solvent, insolvent, absolve, dissolve, resolve cumbersome, awesome, bothersome sonorous, consonant, dissonant, sonata, sonnet philosophy, sophist, sophisticated specious, species, speculum, spectator, aspect aspersion, disperse, intersperse, sperm, sporadic aspiration, conspire, expire, inspire, perspire sponsor, correspond, respond, despondent state, statue, apostasy, armistice, substitute construct, obstruct, instruct, superstructure subdivision, subtraction, subtitle supernatural, supererogatory, superman surtax, surrealistic synthetic, synchronic tactics, syntax, syntactic, taxidermy, taxonomy contagious, contiguous, contact, intact polytechnic, technical, technique, technology temper, temperature, tempered tenant, tenement, tenet, tenure, sustenance, tenable attend, tend, extend, intend, intense, ostensible deter, determine, terror terminate, indeterminate, terminus, terminal euthanasia theme, thesis, anathema, apothecary, hypothesis theism, atheism, pantheism, theology, theocracy thermal anatomy, atom, dichotomy, entomology, epitome topic, topology, topography, toponomy, isotope 203 SOURCE L simil(is) L soci(us) L sol(us) L sol L solid(us) L solv(ere) OE sum L son(us) G soph(os) L spec(ere) G spor(a) L spir(are) L spond(ere) G stat(os) L stru(ere) L subL superL superG synG takt(os) L tang(ere) G tekhne L temperL ten(ire) L tend(ere) L terr(ere) L termin(us) G thanat(os) G the G theo G therme G tom(os) G top(os) 204 English Words: History and Structure MORPHEME 400 tor(t) MEANING “twist” (10) EXAMPLES contortion, distort, extortion, retort, torturous, torture tractable, traction, tractor, attract, abstract, contract tribute, contribute, tributary, distribute, attribute tropic, trope, entropy tutor, tutelage, intuition, tuition contumely, detumescence, intumescence, tumor transalpine, transoceanic, transhuman triangle, tridimensional 401 tract “drag, pull” (6) 402 trib “give, pay” (4) 403 trop 404 tu(i)t 405 tum “turn” (10) “watch, instruct” (4) “swollen” (10) 406 trans407 tri- “across, surpassing” (5) “three” (5) 408 ultra409 un- “beyond, extreme” (5) “not” (5) 410 un411 uni412 uter hyster “opposite” (5) “in place of, instead” (5) “womb, hysteria” (6) 413 vac, van “empty” (10) 414 val “strong, useful” (9) 415 ven “come, bring, happen” (5) 416 ver “true” (8) 417 ver, vers, vor “turn, roll” (10) 418 via, voy “way, road” (5) 419 vic(t), vinc 420 vid, vis, id, eid “conquer” (9) “see” (3) 421 vir “male, man” (6) 422 viv 423 voc, vok “alive” (4) “speak, call” (4) 424 volv “turn, roll” (7) 425 -y “full of, characterized by” (5) mighty, moody, healthy OE -ig 426 xen “foreign, strange” (8) xenophile, xenophobe, xenon G xen(os) 427 zo “animal” (10) protozoan, spermatozoa, zoo, zoology G zo(on) ultraliberal, ultramodest, ultraviolet unclean, uneven, unmindful, unbearable, uncouth untie, unlock, uncoil vice-consul, vice-president hysterectomy, hysteria, hysterogenic, uterus vacate, vacancy, vacation, evacuate, vacuous, vacuum valid, valor, value, equivalent, convalescence adventure, circumvent, convent, convention, event veracity, verdict, verify, verisimilitude, veritable adverse, adversary, controversy, converse, conversion deviate, devious, impervious, obviate, obvious, trivial evict, victory, convince, invincible evident, provide, video, vide, advise, television, visit triumvirate, virago, virile, virtue, virtually vivisection, vivacious, vivid, revive vocal, vocabulary, advocate, vociferous, vocation evolve, devolve, involve, revolve, revolt, voluble SOURCE L tort(us) L trac(ere) L tribu(ere) G trop(os) L tueri L tum(ere) L transG tri *ulter G anG entL un(us) G hustra L vac(ere) L val(ere) L ven(ire) L ver(us) L vers(are) L via L vinc(ere) L vid(ere) L viril(us) L viv(ere) L vox L volv(ere) Index accent, 41, 71, 106, 130, 169; see also stress acronym(s), 7–9, 157 affix, 11, 41–42, 51, 54, 58, 61–68, 70–75, 89, 104, 112–13, 115, 122, 136–37, 139, 140–42, 146, 175–76 inflectional affixes, 66, 100, 171 affricate, 83, 100, 105–07 affrication, 105–07 A-Lenition, 109–10; see also lenition allomorph(s), 60–61, 69, 73–76, 79–80, 88, 100, 119–21, 128–33, 135, 139–40, 145 allomorphy, 60, 68–69, 73–76, 79–80, 85, 89, 95, 112, 119, 126, 128, 131–34, 139 alveolar, 81–82, 87, 97–98, 100, 105–06, 116; see also consonant amelioration, 156, 159–60 analogy, 5, 19, 90, 131, 134, 152–55 Angles, 29 Anglo-Norman, 36 Anglo-Saxon, 29–30, 32–34, 50, 54, 123, 168, 172 antonym, 148 article, indefinite, 78, 118–19, 121 articulation, 77, 81–83, 85, 95–98, 101, 104, 126 manner of articulation, 126 place of articulation 81–83, 96 assimilation, 37, 43, 95–05, 110–12, 121, 128, 134, 136, 140, 165 backness assimilation, 111 full/total assimilation, 96, 98, 101, 103 labial assimilation, 97–98 palatal assimilation 105–08 partial assimilation, 96 voicing assimilation, 99–101 back formations, 10 Barnhart, Clarence, 184 Bede, 28 bilabial, 82, 125–26; see also consonants blend, blending, 3, 6–7, 45, 50, 97, 192 borrowing, 3, 13, 16, 18, 34, 36–37, 42–44, 46–48, 54, 57, 69–70, 76, 97, 106, 121 boundary misplacement, 135; see also false cognate Burchfield, Robert, 181 Caesar, 24, 28–29 Cassidy, Frederick G., 191 Caxton, William, 39–40, 54 Celts, 24, 28–29, 31, 54 Chaucer, Geoffrey 38, 54, 179 Christianity, 32–33, 46, 54, 151 Classical, 24, 38, 42, 54, 79, 103, 114, 119, 130–31, 133–34, 144, 146, 163–66, 168, 176 classical language(s), 4–5, 23, 33, 40–43, 51, 53–54, 59, 62, 64, 78, 85, 89, 99, 106, 108, 132, 137, 141, 152, 163–65, 168–70, 177, 185, 190 classical origin, 62, 78, 108, 141, 163 classical roots, 62, 132, 169 classical vocabulary, 152, 170 clitic, 118–20, 122–23 cognate(s), 47–49, 68–71, 75–76, 79–80, 109, 116, 121, 128–29, 131–33, 135, 137, 142, 145, 150, 158 false cognates, 128, 135 co-hyponym, 155; see also hyponym compound, compounding, 3, 12–14, 62–63, 66–68, 72, 75, 143, 176 conquest, 28, 30, 34–37, 46, 49–50, 54, 179 consonant(s), 7, 76–78, 81, 84, 87, 95, 97, 100–05, 108, 110–13, 117–22, 126, 130–31, 133–34, 141, 164–65, 167–68, 173 alveolar, 81–82, 87, 97–98, 100, 105–06, 116 bilabial, 82, 125–26 consonant chart, 84 consonant cluster(s), 77, 113, 121, 126 continuants, 83, 104 dental, 82, 99, 107, 126 double consonants, 103, 112 fricative, 83, 99, 104–05, 117, 121 labial, 96–101, 103–04, 121, 126, 138 labio-dental, 82, 108 nasal, 83, 98, 103 retroflex, 83, 104, 123 sonorant, 83, 85, 123, 125–26, 131 stop(s), 82–83, 99–100, 104, 106–07, 113, 117, 125–26 velar, 99–100, 125–26, 133 205 206 Index consonant(s) (cont.) voiced consonants, 83, 116–17 voiceless consonants, 83, 102, 117–18 conversion, 3, 12, 141 Craigie, William A 190 Danelaw, 33–34, 54 Danish, 26–27, 33 degeneration, 159; see also pejoration deletion rules, 95, 112, 125 N-Drop, 118, 120–21, 123, 140 syllable syncopation, 123–24 V-drop in hiatus, 121–22, 140 X-Drop, 116–18 dental, 82, 99, 107, 126; see also consonants derivation, 3, 6, 11–12, 65–66, 70, 75, 106, 124, 127, 130 derivatives, 73, 99, 109–10, 116, 131, 133–35, 144–45, 149, 167 dictionaries, Dictionary, 9–14, 21, 28, 39, 42, 47, 60, 62, 67, 70–72, 80, 85, 88, 116, 125, 133–34, 137, 148, 155, 160, 163, 167, 169, 177–87, 189–92 of americanisms, 178, 190 American Dictionary, 183 American Heritage Dictionary, 21, 70, 88–89, 134, 148, 160, 167, 185–89 Barnhart Dictionary of New English, 192 Century Dictionary, 183–84 Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, 184 Chambers Dictionary, 88, 184 Chambers, 11, 80, 88, 89, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 192 Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 182 Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles, 190 Dictionary of American Regional English(DARE), 191 Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles, 190 Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary, 85 Historical Dictionary of American Slang, 191 Merriam-Webster, 67, 80, 89, 155, 179, 180, 182–83, 185–87 Modern Guide to Synonyms, 191 New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 182 New Standard Dictionary, 184 Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 182 Oxford English Dictionary (OED), 5, 13–14, 17, 40, 42, 45, 51, 57, 67, 70, 78, 80, 85, 97–98, 118, 123, 167, 179–82, 184–90 Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 187 Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, 116, 125, 183, 185–86 Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, 155, 191 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 181 Standard Dictionary of the English Language, 184 Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English Language, 183 Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 186 Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms, 155, 191 Webster’s New International Dictionary, 182, 186 Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language, 185, 187 Webster’s New World Dictionary of the English Language, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189 Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 186 Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, 186 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, 182 diphthongs, 87, 173; see also vowels D-Lenition, 106–07; see also lenition double consonants, see consonants Dutch, 4, 26–27, 44–46 Early Modern English, 30, 39–43, 45–46, 106 echoic words, 3, 17–18 E-Lenition, 109–10, 139; see also lenition epenthesis, 125–28 P-Epenthesis, 126–27 U-Epenthesis, 125–26 eponym(s), 15 etymology, 4, 21, 45–46, 49, 51, 53, 59, 72–73, 116, 136, 153, 182, 185, 187, 189–90 expansion rules, 95 extension of meaning, 152 false cognates, see cognate folklore, 15–16 French, 3, 25–26, 29, 33, 35–38, 41–43, 45, 47–48, 50–51, 53–55, 57, 62, 79, 87, 106, 116, 119, 134, 139, 141, 149, 165–67, 179 fricative, see consonant full assimilation, see assimilation geminate, gemination, 96, 112–16 German, 6, 16, 26–28, 46, 53–54, 129, 143, 165, 167, 179, 183 Index Germanic, 22, 24, 26–34, 36, 45–50, 53–54, 62, 69, 78–79, 98, 128, 130, 132 Gildas, 28 Gove, Philip Babcock, 186 gradation, 75, 128–30, 132–33 Greek, 3–4, 6, 16–17, 22, 24–26, 32, 38, 41–43, 45–48, 50–51, 53, 55, 57, 62, 64, 66, 75–76, 79, 81, 89, 97, 121, 130, 144, 146, 166–68, 174, 177 Grimm’s Law, 75 Hastings, battle of, 35; see also Norman Conquest hiatus, 55, 121–23 homograph, homography, 122, 140, 147 homonym, 77, 138 homophone, homophony, 122, 136–37, 139–42, 147 Hulbert, James R., 190 hyponym, 149, 154–55 co-hyponyms, 155 hyponymic, 154–56, 158 Indo-European, 20–23, 25–26, 28, 30–31, 47–49, 51, 70, 128–31, 133–34, 185, 189 Indo-European roots, 70, 134, 185, 189 Proto-Indo-European, 20–22, 185 inflection(al), see affix initialisms, 8–9 IPA, 80–81, 88–89 Italian, 16, 25, 33, 43–45, 48, 69, 79, 87, 112, 163, 179 Johnson, Samuel 39, 137, 177, 179, 181 Jones, Daniel, 85 Jones, William, 22 labial, see consonant(s) labial assimilation, see assimilation labio-dental, 82, 108; see also consonant(s) Landau, Sidney, 178, 183, 184 Latin, 3, 4, 22, 24–25, 29, 31–34, 37–38, 41–43, 45–48, 50–51, 53–55, 57, 61–62, 64, 66, 69, 72, 75–76, 78–79, 89, 114–15, 119, 121, 130–31, 133–34, 137, 141, 146, 149, 156, 163–68, 174, 177 lenition, 104–10, 139 A-Lenition, 109–10 D-Lenition, 106–07 E-Lenition, 109–10, 139 Multiple Lenition, 110, 139 T-Lenition, 104–06, 108, 170 Lighter, J E., 191 loanwords, 28, 31–32, 34, 36, 42, 44, 50, 53–54, 119, 134, 168, 190; see also borrowing long consonants, 103, 112; see also double consonants, consonants main stress, 98, 168–72; see also stress manner of articulation, 126; see also articulation Mathews, Mitford, 190 metaphor, 19, 28, 46, 122 metathesis, 132–33 metonymy, 152 Middle English, 30, 36–39, 41, 43, 48, 51, 54, 130, 134, 179, 189 monophthongs, 87; see also vowels morpheme, 57–62, 64, 68–69, 73–76, 78–79, 95–98, 100–03, 105, 110, 112–26, 128, 134–36, 146, 161–62 Multiple Lenition, 110, 139; see also lenition multiple replacements, 108 Murray, James A H., 180, 181, 190 mythology, 15–16, 18, 57, 183 narrowing (of meaning), 153, 158 nasal, 83, 98, 103; see also consonants N-Drop, 118, 120–21, 123, 140; see also deletion rules neologisms, New Latin, 33, 79 Norman, 30, 34–39, 46, 49, 54, 92, 139, 179 Norman Conquest, 34; see also conquest Norman French, 36 Old English, 30–34, 36–38, 46–47, 49–50, 54, 66, 77–78, 98, 118, 120, 128, 133, 137, 140, 189 Old Norse, 33, 59 Onions, C T., 182 opaque, opacity, 10, 13–14, 61, 73, 133–34 orthography, 58, 74, 84–85, 87, 103, 164; see also spelling palatal 82, 84, 100, 105–08; see also consonants palatal assimilation 105–08; see also assimilation palatalization, 82, 105–08 paradigm, paradigmatic, 128–31 parse, parsing 49, 59, 124, 135–37, 139, 141, 143–44, 161, 168 partial assimilation, 96; see also assimilation pejoration, 156–59 P-Epenthesis, 126–27; see also epenthesis phonetic change, 76, 79, 127 phonetics, 58, 83 phonotactic constraint(s), 77, 117–18 place of articulation 81–83, 96; see also atriculation polysemy, 144, 147 207 208 Index prefix, 48, 64–65, 75, 78–79, 97–98, 102–03, 113–21, 123, 134, 139–40, 172 Proto-Indo-European, 20–22, 185; see also Indo-European reduplication, 18 Renaissance, 25, 33, 39–44, 46, 62, 134, 163 replacement, 95, 100–01, 104, 108–09, 112, 128, 167 retroflex, 83, 104, 123; see also consonant reverse acronym(s), rhotacism, 75, 128, 130–32 Roman(s), 23–25, 28–29, 32, 42, 46, 51, 54, 72, 177 Romance, 25–26, 33, 36, 38, 50, 79, 89, 106, 119, 122 root, 34, 41, 47–48, 58, 61–62, 65, 67–78, 89–90, 101, 108–10, 112, 115, 118, 121, 124, 128, 130–31, 133–40, 142–45, 147–48, 151, 154, 167–68, 170, 185, 189 Saxon(s), 28–29 Scandinavian, 4, 27, 31, 33–34, 36–37, 46 scope change, 158–59; see also semantic change S-Degemination, 113–18 semantic change, 49, 149, 152, 156–59 scope change, 158–59 semantic bleaching, 89, 146, 157–58 status change, 157–59 shortening(s), 3, 10, 47, 62 sonorant(s), see consonant Spanish, 25, 33, 45, 79, 87, 165, 179 specialization, 3, 114, 158, 190 spelling, 39, 57, 58, 60, 80–81, 85, 98–100, 103–05, 107, 111–15, 118–20, 123–24, 127, 133–34, 167–68, 174 spirant, 108; see also fricative status change, 157–59; see also semantic change stop(s), 82–83, 99–100, 104, 106–07, 113, 117, 125–26; see also consonant stress, 98, 105, 114, 118, 124, 130, 142, 168–76, 192 main stress, 98, 168–72 stress-changing, 175 stress-neutral, 169, 170 unstressed syllables, 108, 117–19, 122–24 suffix, 6, 10, 16, 64–67, 72, 76, 92, 102, 105, 125, 133, 135, 141–42, 170, 176 inflectional suffixes, see also affix syllabic vowels, 122; see also vowels syllable(s), 4, 10, 32, 43, 57–61, 71–72, 75, 88, 97, 100–01, 105, 108–10, 114, 117, 121–25, 132, 138, 143, 165, 168–74, 176 syllable syncopation, 123–24; see also deletion rules synonym, 146, 149 T-Lenition, 104–06, 108, 170; see also lenition total assimilation, 98, 101, 103; see also assimilation transparent, transparency, 6, 10–14, 49, 61, 64, 67, 73, 77, 79, 98–99, 101, 109–10, 114, 116, 124, 128, 132–34, 144, 158, 174 U-Epenthesis, 125–26; see also epenthesis unstressed syllables, 108, 117–19, 122–24; see also stress, V-Drop 121–23, 140; see also deletion rules velar, 99–100, 125–26, 133; see also consonants Viking(s), 29, 33, 34, 36 voiced consonants, 83, 116–17; see also consonants voiceless consonants, 83, 102, 117–18; see also consonants voicing, 82–83, 95–96, 99–100, 106, 114, 117, 126, 132 voicing assimilation, 99–101; see also assimilation vowel(s) 7, 16, 75, 77–78, 84–89, 95, 100–11, 114, 117, 119–25, 128–33, 139, 163–65, 167–68, 173–74 diphthongs, 87, 173 monophthongs, 87 vowel reduction, 89, 108 vowel-drop, 122, 140; see also deletion rules v-Vocalization, 108 Whitney, William Dwight, 183 widening, 158; see also scope change William, Duke of Normandy, 26, 35–37 Worcester, Joseph, 183 X-Drop, 116–18; see also deletion rules ... distinctive words and phrases of American English (The American Language and two Supplements, New York, 1936 [4th edn., the supplements in 1945 and 1948]) English Words: History and Structure like... English Words: History and Structure A question which everyone wonders about, and often asks of instructors, is “How many words does English have?” And even more commonly, “How many words does... São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www .cambridge. org