This page intentionally left blank P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 5:15 Roots of Hate On the eve of the Holocaust, antipathy toward Europe’s Jews reached epidemic proportions Jews fleeing Nazi Germany’s increasingly antiSemitic measures encountered closed doors everywhere they turned Why had enmity toward European Jewry reached such extreme heights? How did the levels of anti-Semitism in the 1930s compare to those of earlier decades? Did anti-Semitism vary in content and intensity across societies? For example, were Germans more anti-Semitic than their European neighbors, and, if so, why? How does anti-Semitism differ from other forms of religious, racial, and ethnic prejudice? In pursuit of answers to these questions, William I Brustein offers the first truly systematic comparative and empirical examination of anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust Brustein proposes that European anti-Semitism flowed from religious, racial, economic, and political roots, which became enflamed by economic distress, rising Jewish immigration, and socialist success To support his arguments, Brustein draws upon a careful and extensive examination of the annual volumes of the American Jewish Year Book and more than forty years of newspaper reportage from Europe’s major dailies The findings of this informative book offer a fresh perspective on the roots of society’s longest hatred William I Brustein is Professor of Sociology, Political Science, and History and the director of the University Center for International Studies at the University of Pittsburgh His previous books include The Logic of Evil (1996) and The Social Origins of Political Regionalism (1988) i P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 ii 5:15 P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 5:15 Roots of Hate ANTI-SEMITISM IN EUROPE BEFORE THE HOLOCAUST William I Brustein University of Pittsburgh iii Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521773089 © William I Brustein 2003 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2003 - isbn-13 978-0-511-06890-4 eBook (EBL) - isbn-10 0-511-06890-5 eBook (EBL) - isbn-13 978-0-521-77308-9 hardback - isbn-10 0-521-77308-3 hardback - isbn-13 978-0-521-77478-9 paperback - paperback isbn-10 0-521-77478-0 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 5:15 To the memory of and with inspiration from David Cooperman, Herbert Goldfrank, and George L Mosse v P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 vi 5:15 P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 052177308 July 1, 20035:15 Contents List of Figures and Tables page viii Preface xi Introduction: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust The Religious Root 49 The Racial Root 95 The Economic Root 177 The Political Root 265 Conclusion 337 Appendix: Coding Instrument – Anti-Semitic Questionnaire for European Press (1899–1939) 355 Bibliography 361 Index 377 vii P1: FpQ CY257/Brustein-FM 52177308 July 1, 2003 5:15 F i g u r e s a n d Ta b l e s figures 1.1 Mean number of anti-Semitic acts per million people by country, 1899–1939 page 11 1.2 Mean number of violent anti-Semitic acts per million people by country, 1899–1939 13 1.3 Total anti-Semitic acts per million people in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Romania (combined), 1899–1939 15 1.4 Anti-Semitic acts per million people in Romania, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy by year, 1899–1939 16 1.5 Total number of newspaper articles discussing Jews and/or Jewish issues in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Romania (combined) by year, 1899–1939 22 1.6 Newspaper articles discussing Jews and/or Jewish issues by country and year, 1899–1939 23 1.7 Newspapers’ orientation toward Jews by country, 1899–1939 24 1.8a Newspapers’ orientation toward Jews by country, 1899–1913 26 1.8b Newspapers’ orientation toward Jews by country, 1914–23 27 1.8c Newspapers’ orientation toward Jews by country, 1924–32 28 1.8d Newspapers’ orientation toward Jews by country, 1933–39 29 viii P1: GCQ 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Agrarian League, 214 agrarian problems, linked to Jews by Nazi Party, 222 Agrarian Reform Act, 241 Ahasuerus, 56, 57, 61, 63, 66, 76, 274 Ahlwardt, Hermann, 138 Alderman, Geoffrey, 114 Aliens Act, 149 Alliance Isra´elite Universelle, 246, 265, 278–79, 282, 311 American Jewish Year Book, 14, 19, 92; Kristallnacht pogrom, reportage of, 34; overview, 8–12; variations in reportage of economic anti-Semitism, 257–60 anthropology, 96–97; see also race science Anti-Semitic League, 199 “Anti-Semites Petition,” 137 anti-Semitism: acts of, (see also violence against Jews); economic practices of Jews, perceived, 45–46; events, 5–6; German “eliminationist” ideology, 41; Hitler’s ascension to power, and increase in, 14, 337; new wave of, 6–7; other prejudices and, 44; policies, 3, 52; political, 266–76; political culture theory, role of, 43; “popular anti-Semitism,” 5; and socialist left, 90, 337–38, 341–342; spatial variation in, 8, 42, 46–48, 329, 337; strains of, 45–48; temporal variation in, 8, 14, 38–39, 42, 46–48, 329, 337; typology of, 9; see also British antiSemitism; French anti-Semitism; German anti-Semitism; Italian anti-Semitism; Jews; Romanian anti-Semitism Armbuster Law, 203 Arnold, Matthew, 145 Bainville, Jacques, 282 Balfour Declaration, 298–99 Bamberger, Ludwig, 212 Banca Commerciale, 255 Bankier, David, 222 banking, 207–210, 222, 237; Jewish families in, 183–84, 226, opportunities for Jews in, 181–85; see also Rothschild financial house Bannister, Joseph, 148 Baron, Jules, 281 Barr`es, Maurice, 121, 123, 143, 281 Bauer, Yehuda, 265 Bavarian Socialist Republic, 294 Beamish, Henry, 149–50, 235 Belli, G G., 192, 256 Berliner Morgenpost, 17–18, 25, 174, 208, 346 Bermuda Conference, Bernanos, Georges, 126 Birnbaum, Pierre, 39, 128 Black Plague, Jews blamed for, 53 Blackshirt, 151 Blair, Frederick, Blalock, Hubert, 38 “blood libel” accusations, 6, 53–54, 71, 72; see also ritual murder Blum, L´eon, 61, 69, 128, 201, 284, 286, 287, 325, 326 Boeckel, Otto, 137, 143, 212–13 Boer War, 145, 229, 231, 309; Jews blamed for, 230, 297, 300 377 P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 378 52177308 July 9, 1904 15:14 INDEX Bolshevik Revolution, 7, 47, 204, 266, 270–71, 275, 279, 309–10, 339, 342; effects of, in Great Britain, 268, 299–301; as a Jewish plot, 308; as responsible for heightened anti-Semitism in Great Britain, 300; see also “Jewish” Bolshevism Bolshevik “virus,” 291 Bontoux, Paul Eug`ene, 192 Boris (king of Bulgaria), 4, 338 boycotts (of Jewish businesses): in Germany, 41, 223; in Italy, 260; in Poland, 3–4; in Romania, 246 Brasillach, Robert, 126 Bresciani, Antonio, 73, 76 British anti-Semitism: Bolshevik revolution and, 299; British fascist movement and, 151–52; British politicians and, 309–10; economic, 224–37; Enlightenment critique of, 88–90; immigration as a reason for, 232; racial, 144–53; religious, 65–60, 144–45; restrictions on Jewish immigration and, 232 British Brothers’ League, 149, 232 British Communist Party, 303, 310 British Fascists, 151 British Labour Party, 301, 304 British Union of Fascists, 151, 236 Broca, Paul, 96 Brunner, Sebastian, 63 Brym, R J., 269–70 Bulgaria, 338 Burns, John, 148 Butnaru, I C., 241 Cafagna, Luciano, 249 Cameron, Rondo, 199 Candide, 127 Canepa, Andrew, 37, 253 capitalism: good and bad (as defined by Hitler), 221–223; Jewish invention, seen as, 230 “capitalist Jew,” 89 Caprivi trade treaties, 213 Carducci, Giosu´e, 92 Carli, Mario, 256 Caron, Vicki, 127 Cavour, Camillo, 251 C´eline, 127–28, 288 Central German Peasant League, 213 Chamberlain, Houston, 132–33, 134, 156, 336 Chamber of Deputies, 287 Chesterton, A K., 235–36 Chiarini, Louis, 59 Christian Europe, “superior” attitude of, 100 Christianity (Christians): accusations of, 57–62; assumptions of, 51–56; in British literature, 65–66; “blood libel” charge, 53; in French literature, 62–63; stereotyping of Judaism, 56–57, 60, 68 Christian Nationalist Defense League, 156–57 Christian Socialist Workers Party, Churchill, Winston, 132, 149, 234, 309 Civil Service Law, 141 Clarke, John Henry, 66 Class, Heinrich, 138 Codreanu, Corneliu Zelia, 69, 157–58, 311 communism, 285; Jewish role in Great Britain, 273, 303, 305 Communism in Germany (Ehrt), 295 Communist Party of Great Britain, 303–5 Conscription Act, 297–98 Conta, Vasile, 68, 154–55 Contemporary Review, 145 Conway, J S., 64 copper market, collapse of, 193, 280 Corriere della Sera, 18, 25, 176, 235 Counter-Reformation (in Italy), 70 Cremieux, Aldophe, 278 Cristea, Miron, 70 Cuza, Alexandru, 68–69, 154–55, 157–58, 245 Daily Herald, 18, 25; Kristallnacht pogrom, reportage of, 65 Daily Mail, 18, 25, 174, 236, 303, 308, 350; coverage of Jewish immigration, 115; Kristallnacht pogrom, reportage of, 65; publication of anti-Semitic serial novels, 65 Dalmier, Albert, 202 Damascus Affair, 5, 278 D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 166 Darwin, Charles, 97 Daudet, L´eon, 124, 200, 201, 282 Dawidowicz, Lucy, 142 De Biez, Jean, 156 de Clermont-Tonnere, Stanislas, 82 de Felice, Renzo, 168, 172, 254, 321 de Gobineau, Arthur, 101 de la Fouchardiere, Georges, 127 de Lagarde, Paul, 132 de Lapouge, Vacher, 122 de la Rochelle, Drieu, 126 Der sieg des Judentums uă ber das Germanentum, 131 Des Mousseaux, Gougenot, 62 Destouches, Louis Ferdinand, see C´eline de Toussenel, Alphonse, 83, 117, 191 Deutschsoziale Partei, 136 “Devilish Judaism,” 68, 154 d’Holbach, P H., 78, 79, Diderot, Denis, 78–79 P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 July 9, 1904 INDEX Die Judenfrage als Rassen-Sitten-und Kulturfrage, 88 Disraeli, Benjamin, 66, 145–47, 226, 297 Dobrogeanu-Gherea, Constantin, 312, 315, 318 Dohm, Christian Wilhelm von, 78 Drexler, Anton, 140 Dreyfus Affair, 59–60, 82, 84, 121–22, 199, 261, 279–80, 281, 299, 337; conspiracy, claimed to be (Captain Dreyfus), 73 Drumont, Edouard, 6, 131, 143, 193, 199, 282, 284; accusations of Jewish plots against France, 279; accusations of Jews, 58–59; divorce, 69; “Jewish peril,” warning of, 201; “Jewish Problem” as racial, 118–121; socialist link to Jews, 266, 270 Duehring, Eugen, 88, 132 “Eastern Crisis,” 66, 146–147 Eatwell, Roger, 150 Ehrt, Adolf, 295 Eidelberg, Philip G., 242 Eisenmenger, Johann Andreas, 63 Eisner, Kurt, 292–93 Eliade, Mircea, 69 “eliminationist” theory, 40–41; see also Hitler; German anti-Semitism Eminescu, Mihail, 154–55; on Jewish immigration, 104–9 Enlightenment, 5, 70–71; anti-Semitic propaganda, 83; emphasis on national unification, 98–99; modernization of anti-Semitism and; 77–82 Entdecktes Judenthum, 63 eugenics, 96, 135, 164–65; see also racial theory Evian Conference, 1–2, 31; as a critical discourse moment, 19–20; press coverage of, 34 Evian-les-Bains, 1, 31 Excellence of Our Race and the Protection of the Weak, The (Ploetz), 134 Fabricus, Wilhelm, 70 Fanfulla della Domenica, 164 Farinacci, Roberto, 322 fascism, Jewish participation in, 167–68; see also revolutionary movements; socialism Fein, Helen, xii, 348 Ferry Laws, 62, 280 Finzi, Roberto, 3, 117 Fischer, Eugen, 135–36 Fischer-Galati, Stephen, 318 Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, The (Chamberlain), 132 Fourth Lateran Council, 55 15:14 379 Fraenkel, Leo, 269 Freeman, E A., 146 French anti-Semitism: and Christian attitudes, 65–66, 82–85; economic, 189–205; Enlightenment critique, 57–59, 82–85; leftist, 84–85; in newspapers, 129–30, 284; political, 278–88, 329; quotas placed on Jews, 203–4; racial, 117–130; religious, 58–62; role of Jews in scandals, 202, 280; writers of, 119–25, 284 French Enlightenment, 57 French Popular Front, 286–87 French Revolution, 82 French Third Republic, 61, 280 Friedberg, Heinrich von, 63 Friedlaender, Saul, 41 Fritsch, Theodor, 138–39 “Galician Jew,” 293, 294 Galton, Francis, 97 Gamelli, Father Agostino, 74 Gannon, Franklin Reid, 17 GDP, as predictor of variations in anti-Semitism, 341–43 Georgescu, N., 69 German anti-Semitism: blame of Jews for stock market crash, 210–11; economic, 205–24; economic changes, effect on, 217–18; “eliminationist” ideology, 41; Enlightenment critique, 85–88; and German Catholic Church, 143; and German Protestant Church, 64–65; political, 288–96, 329; quotas placed on Jews, 216; racial, 130–44; religious, 63–65, 143; theories of immigration’s effect on, 139, 291; violent attacks on Jews, 294; Weimar years, 220 German Communist Party, 292, 295 German National Socialist Workers’ Party, 140 German Reichstag, 136–38, 141, 214, 281, 291 German Social Democratic Party, 289 German stock market crash, 210–11 German Third Reich, 103–4, 295 Giradoux, Jean, 124 Giudaismo-bolscevismo-plutocrazia-massoneria (Preziosi), 323 Giustina, Guiseppe Alessandro, 76, 256 Glagau, Otto, 211 “Godly Christianity,” 68, 154 Goga Cuzist government, 4, 159 Goga, Octavian, 157–59 Gohier, Urbain, 124, 279–80, 284 Goldhagen, Daniel J., xxi, 41, 142, 345–46 Golding, Louis, 271 Goldman, Cesare, 327 P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 July 9, 1904 380 15:14 INDEX Gonen, Jay, 41 Gordon, William Evans, 149 grain market, in Romania, 239–41 Gramsci, Antonio, 92 Great Depression, 185–86, 188, 224, 234, 235, 241 Grunebaum-Ballin, Paul, 62, 280 Grynszpan, Herschel, 31 Guenot, Charles, 60 Gunzberg, Lynn M., 256 Gypsies, antipathy toward (compared to Jews), 349–50 Haeckel, Ernst, 136 Has¸deu, B P., 246 Hase, Karl August von, 86 “hep hep” riots, Herder, John Gottfreid von, 99 Herici, Ernst, 136–37 Himmler, H., 222 Hirsch, Karl, 269 Hitchins, Keith, 244, 317 Hitler, Adolf, 296, 325, 348; ascension to power, 14, 40, 435; early years of, 140–41; emigration, views on, 103; “stab in the back” accusation, 296, 327 Hobson, J A 147–48, 228–30 Holocaust, 7, 70, 205, 224, 244, 256, 319, 348; inevitability of, 40–41; Romanian role in, 161 Homo Europeus, 122 “Horrendous Murder of a Child, The,” 72 Hossenfelder, Joachim, 64 Hyndman, Henry, 230 “illuministi” movement, 91 Il Messaggero, 18, 25 Il Popolo d’Italia, 323–24 Imperial Fascist League, 150 Imperialism: A Study, 229 Independent Labor Party, 301, 303 Indian silver case, 233 industrialization: crisis in, 184; in Great Britain, 224; in Italy, 248–49 interracial marriage, attitudes on, 125, 137, 153, 170; in Italy, 172, 191 In una chiesa gotica (Carducci), 92 Invernizio, Carolina, 76 Iorga, Nicolae, 155, 247 Iron Guard, 70, 157–58 Issacs, Godfrey, 233 Issacs, Sir Rufus, 233 Istoczy, Gyozo, Italian anti-Semitism: absence of, 251, 253, 319–21, 322; economic, 248–60; Enlightenment critique and, 91–94; and Italian Catholic Church, 72; in Italian novels, 76; Jewish stereotypes, 75; in literature, 256; mixed marriages, 91, 170; myths of, 71; policies against Jews, 170; political, 319–30; political left and, 91–92; race science and, 163; variations in, 257 Italian fascist movement, 319, 325–28, 342; see also, revolutionary movements; socialism Italian government, Jewish representation in, 320 Jacolliot, Louis, 85 Jaur´es, Jean, 198 Je Suis Partout, 126, 127 “Jewish” Bolshevism, 307–8, 310, 311, 323, 325; Jewish disloyalty to, 311 Jewish civil rights: and Jews of Rome, 70; and Romanian Assembly, 67–68 Jewish disloyalty, suspicions of: in France, 295–97; in Great Britain, 297; in Romania, 311 Jewish ghettos, 55, 339; in Rome, 70 Jewish immigration: analysis of, 338–43; campaign against, in Germany, 139; as cause for anti-Semitism, 102; effect on popular anti-Semitism, 46–47; from Eastern Europe, 46–48, 102; into France, 122–23, 203–4, 170; into Great Britain, restrictions on, 149, 236; into Italy, lack of, 162; restrictions on, 123, 203–4, 170 “Jewish peril,” see Drumont, Edouard “Jewish Problem,” 7; Britain’s proposed solution to, 94; Christian proposed solution to, 94; Cuza’s solution to, 156; Italian publications, attention to, 169; Italian solution to, 173; in Italy, 74; Marr’s proposed solution to, 131; Papini’s solution to, 77 Jewish (Third) Republic, 59, 193 “Jewish world conspiracy,” myth of, 265 Jews: banking industry, representation in (Germany), 207–8, (Great Britain), 226–27, (Romania), 318; blamed for agricultural problems in Germany, 213; diabolization of, 51, 54, 59, 62, 65, 67; economic practices of, perceived, 45, 134, 177–81, 191, 236; emancipation of, and the Enlightenment, 79–80, 81; French Communist Party, participation in, 285; German depression, alleged responsibility for, 210–11; inferiority of, according to De Lapogue, 122, 125; as inferior race, 125; as intermediaries in Romania; 242–43; as “Italian,” 255; Italian government, representation in, 321; Italian military, representation in, 320–21; Jesus Christ’s P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 July 9, 1904 INDEX death, alleged responsibility for, 51–52, 59, 69, 352; as middleman minority, 38; pogroms, victims of, in Italy, 70–71; pseudonyms, use of, 271; restrictions on employment, 179; restrictions on, in Italy, 169; restrictions on, in Romania, 247; Romanian leftist parties, participation in, 318; as usurers, 65, 163, 177, 247; wheat and wine markets in France, blamed for decline in, 195–97; Zionism, alleged support for, 278 Jews and Modern Capitalism, The (Sombart), 134 Jews, Kings of the Epoch, The (Toussenel), 191 Jews, The (Boeckel), 212 John Paul II (Pope), 352 Joly, Maurice, 274 Jouin, Ernst, 277 Joyce, William, 235 Judaism: Christian accusations of, 51; Christian antipathy toward, 49 Justice, 148 Kabbalist Jews, 62 Kahan, Boris, 305 Katz, Jacob, 78–79 Kauders, Anthony, 93–94, 139 Kautsky, Karl, 88 Kindleberger, Charles P., 286, 250 Kishinev pogrom, 88 Knox, Robert, 144–45 Kog˘alniceanu, Mihail, 90–91 Kristallnacht pogrom, 2, 34, 36; as a critical discourse moment, 19–20; as reported in the American Jewish Year Book La Civilt`a Cattolica, 71–74, 76, 166, 321 La Croix, 199, 201; religious attacks on Jews, 60–62 L’Action franc¸ aise movement, 123, 124, 129, 199, 200, 282 La D´epˆeche de Toulouse, 18, 25; Kristallnacht pogrom, coverage of, 34 La France juive, 6, 59, 119, 194, 279, 284 La Jeunesse antis´emite et nationaliste, 121 La Juive au Vatican, 59 La Libre Parole, 120, 193–94, 199, 282 La Ligue antis´emitique, 120–21 Langbehn, Julius, 132 Langmuir, Gavin I., 49 Lassalle, Ferdinand, 88, 268–69, 289, 323 Lassen, Christian, 118 Lattes, Dante, 322 Laval Law, 204 La Vengeance d’un juif (Guenot), 60 “Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor,” 42 15:14 381 League of National Christian Defense, 68, 69 L’ebreo di Verona, 76 Lebzelter, Gisela, 150 Leeden, Michael A., 167 Leese, Arnold, 150 leftist party (parties), see political left leftist movement (movements), see political left Le Juif, le judaisme des peuples chretiens (des Mousseaux), 62 Le Juifs rois de l’´epoque: histoire de la f´eodalit´e financi`ere (Toussenel), 83 Lenz, Fritz, 101, 135–36 Le Petit Parisien, 18, 25, 261; Kristallnacht pogrom, coverage of, 34 Le Temps, 127 “Letter of the Ten,” 306–7 Levine, Hillel, 179, 180 Levy, Richard S., 42 Lind, Massimiliano, 256 Life of Jesus (Renan), 85, 86 Ligue Antis`emitique Francaise, 198 Lindemann, Albert, 36, 42 L’ind´ependence, 62, 84 Litvinov, Maxim, 305 Lohalm, Uwe, 43 Lombroso, Cesare, 163 L’orfana del ghetto (Invernizio), 76 Loria, Achille, 326 Lumea, 31 L’Union nationale, 120, 121 Luther, Martin, 40, 63, 64 Luxemburg, Rosa, 289, 291, 293, 296 Luzzatti, Luigi, 253, 320 Maddison, Angus, 250 Maimonides, Moses, 180 “Manifesto of the Racist Scientists,” 169–70 Manin, Daniele, 320 Mantegazza, Paolo, 164 Marconi Scandal, 233 Marr, Wilhelm, 130–31, 133–34, 137, 211, 270; and Jewish link to revolutionary movements, 270 Marrus, Michael, 103 Martial, Ren`e, 126–27 Martin, Conrad, 63 Marx, Karl, 87, 89, 215, 268–69, 288, 289, 309 Massouti`e, Louis, 61 Maurras, Charles, 124, 200, 279, 282, 284 Mayall, David, 350 May Laws, 103 McDonald, Ramsay, 303 media, see newspapers P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 382 July 9, 1904 INDEX Mendelsohn, Ezra, 161 Mendez-France, Pierre, 128, 282 Mery, Joseph, 59 modernization thesis, 38 Modigliani, Emanuele, 326 Momigliano, Felice, 74 Monarchy and the Working Class (Valois), 200 Morning Post, 306, 307–8 Morselli, Enrico, 162 Mortara Affair, 5, 71–72, 278 Mortara, Edgardo, 71 Mosley, Oswald, 151, 152, 236–37, 308, 310, 327 Mosse, George, 101, 144 Muenchner Neueste Nachrichten, 25, 34, 346–48 Mussolini, Benito, 201, 328, 323–28, 342; anti-Jewish campaign, 325; national unity based on race, rejection of, 167; and Zionist movement, 322 Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas M., 153, 161 Napoleon, Louis, 191 Naquet, Alfred, 61 Nast Law, 203 Nathan, Ernesto, 74 natural selection, 97; see also eugenics Nazi Party, 104, 140–43, 221–23, 338; anti-Semitic propaganda, 220–222; history of anti-Semitism, 40–41 Neue, Zeit, 88 newspapers: critical discourse moments in, 19–20; divergence between primary and secondary, 25; economic variations in anti-Semitic acts, 257–64; Kristallnacht pogrom, differences in reportage of, 33–34; overview of role, 14–17; purposive samples of, 19; random samples of, 9; role of, in anti-Semitic attitudes, 17, 21, 25, 31, 34, 129–30; role of, in anti-Semitic attitudes in France, 60–61; role of, in anti-Semitic attitudes in Germany, 346–47; role of, in anti-Semitic attitudes in Italy, 16; and spatial variations in political anti-Semitism, 330–34 Niceforo, Alfredo, 163 Nilus, Sergei, 275 Nostra Aetate, 352 Nuremberg Laws, 141 Oberammergau, Passion Play, 57 Oldson, William, 153–54 Olivetti, Camillo, 254–55 Oppenheim, Abraham, 205–6 Oppenheim, Harry, 226 Opportunist Party, 280 Orano, Paolo, 169 15:14 Oremus pro perfidis judeis, 75 Oriental Jews, 102 Origin of Species (Darwin), 97 O’Rourke, Kevin, 181 Outline of Human Genetics and Racial Hygeine (Lenz), 136 Panama Scandal, 193, 202, 253, 261, 280 Papini, Giovanni, 76–77 Pasqualigo, Francesco, 165–66 Patellani, Serafino, 165 Pauker, Ana (Rabinovici), 316, 317, 318 Pauker, Marcel, 316, 318 Paulescu, Nicolae C., 68, 90, 154 peasant revolt (in Romania), 243 Pereire, Emile, 191, 251 Pereire, Isaac, 191, 251 Pius IX (Pope), 62, 65, 73 Ploetz, Alfred, 101, 134–35 Pluyette, Jean, 125–26 Polish Communist Party, 272 political culture theory, 39–43; causal role of, in spatial and temporal variations, 43; deficiencies in, 42 political left, 282, 285, 339–42; antiSemitism, effect on changes in, 47; in France, 197; in Germany, 214; in Great Britain, 224–26; see also leftist movement; revolutionary left Ponte Teresa incident, 325 Pontius Pilate, 52 Popular Front, 287 Powell, Baden, 88, 89 Preuss, Hugo, 292 Preziosi, Giovanni, 322–23 Problems of Poverty (Hobson), 147 Promissory Oaths Act, 65 Protestant Reformation, 63 “Protocols of the Elders of Zion,” 124, 150, 169, 266, 273–78, 282, 284, 292, 310; Italian translation of, 323, 325; Romanian version of, 313 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, 117, 191 Preussische Jahrbăucher, 86 Puttkamer, Robert von, 291 race science, 94, 102, 336; early rejection of, in Italy, 167; as explanation of differences between northern and southern Italians, 163–64; see also eugenics Races of Men (Knox), 144–45 “racial hygiene,” 134–35 racial mixing, 101; Berrillon on, 125; in Germany, 142; see also interracial marriage Racoveanu, C., 69 Rakovsky, Christian, 312 P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 July 9, 1904 15:14 INDEX Rathenau, Walther, 292 “red menace,” 268, 323 “Red Revolution,” 313 Reichstag, see German Reichstag Renan, Ernst, 85, 118, 130 revolutionary movements, 47, 266–72, 289, 329, 334, 353; in France, 285, 329; in Great Britain, 237, 299, 304–6, 329; Jewish presence in, in Germany, 293, 329; in Romania, 311–13, 317, 329, 342; see also “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”; socialism Risorgimento, 92 ritual murder, 53, 57, 59, 61, 62; Talmud, as supposedly commanded by, 64, 84 Romanian anti-Semitism, 66–67, 341; economic, 238–48; Enlightenment critique of, 90–91; foreign influence, role in, 244; and Jewish immigration, 102; linked to anti-Communism, 315; political, 310–19, 329; and political left, 91; racial, 153–62 Romanian Chamber of Deputies, 68 Romanian Communist Party, 315–17, 329, 342 Romanian Socialist Democratic Party, 312–13 Rosenberg, Alfred, 142, 277 Roth, Cecil, 254–55 Rothschild financial house, 181, 189–95, 215, 226, 251 Rothschild, James, 189–91, 278 Rothschild, Meyer Amschel, 181–84 Rothschild, Nathan, 182, 216, 226 Rothstein, Theodore, 305 Rubenstein, Richard, 49, 79, 305 Ruppin, Arthur, 102–4, 208, 209 Russian anti-Semitism, 103 Russian Revolution, 269–72, 274, 306 Saint James Gazette, 89 Samuel, Herbert, 298 scapegoat theory, 38, 300, 348 Scheubner-Richter, Max Erwin von, 277 Scheunenviertel pogrom, 139 Schlegel, Freidrich von, 130 Schwartzfeld, Moses, 67 scientific racism, 95–102 Section Francaise de l’Internationale Ouvri`ere, 285 S´ee, Camille, 62, 280 Segre, Roberto, 320 Semites, compared to Aryans, by Drumont, 118–19 Sephardic Jews, 102, 109–11; in Bulgaria, 338 383 Shylock, 6, 56 Sibilla Odaleta, 76 Smith, Goldwin, 89, 145–46 socialism (socialist), 266, 329, 339; alleged Jewish connection to, 268; in France, 124; in Great Britain, 301–303, 329; in Italy, 319, 322–24, 325–26; revolutionary, 276–70, 329; see also revolutionary movements Sombart, Werner, 209, 215 Sorel, Georges, 62 Soury, Jules, 122 Soziale Reichspartei, 136 “stab in the back” theory, 56 statut des juifs, 129 Stavisky Affair, 130, 202, 204 Stavisky, Serge, 202 Stere, Constantin, 90 Sternhell, Zeev, 37 Stoecker, Adolf, 136, 143, 211 Strauss, David Friedrich, 86 Strousberg, Bethel Henry, 205, 206 Săuss-Oppenheimer, Joseph, 179 Taine, Rene, 101 Talmud, 59, 61, 63, 70; attacks on, 73; burning of, in France, 55; church authorization of burning, 70; Cuza on, 69; Des Mousseaux on, 62; Eisenmenger on, 63; and Enlightenment, 79; Jewish acts, perceived influence on, 86 Tatar Bunar uprising, 316 Taylor, Myron C., Terracini, Umberto, 326 Th´eorie du Judaisme (Chiarini), 59 Third Reich Jews, Thomas of Monmouth, 53 Times, The, 152, 276, 282, 306, 307–8 Toeplitz, Joseph, 255–56 Togliatti, Palmiro, 326 Treitschke, Heinrich von, 86, 215–16, 288 Treves, Claudio, 326 Trotsky, Leon, 271, 285, 307, 309, 323 twenty-five points program, 140 ă Uber die Buergerliche Verbesserung der Juden (von Dohm), 78 Union G´en´erale Bank, collapse of, 185, 192–94, 196, 280 Universul, 18, 25, 260 usury, 65, 163, 247 Vallat, Xavier, 129, 287 Valois, Georges, 200 Varese, Carlo, 76 Victor Emannuel II (king of Italy), 70 P1: FpQ 0521773083ind 52177308 July 9, 1904 384 violence against Jews, 3; “Battle of Cable Street,” 152, 306; in Germany, 41–2, 139, 294; 152; in Great Britain, 298; by Iron Guard, 158; western immigration as cause of, 103; see also anti-Semitism, acts of Vita e Pensiero, 74 Volovici, Leon, 155, 315 Voltaire, 90; thoughts on Jewish traits, 80–81 Von Buelow, Bernhard, 291 15:14 INDEX Wells, H G., 90 Wertheimer, Jack, 107, 216 White, Arnold, 148 White Forces, 301 Williamson, Jeffrey, 181 Wistrich, Robert S., 42 Witte, Serge Julievich, 269 Worker-Peasant Bloc, 317 Xenopol, Alexandru D., 245, 246, 247 “Young Hegelians,” 87 Wagner-Rogers Child Refugee Bill, “wandering Jew,” see Ahasuerus War in South Africa, The (Hobson), 229 Webb, Beatrice Potter, 90, 147, 228–29 Weber, Eugen, 241 Weimar Republic, 143, 220, 292, 293–94 Weiss, John, 178 Zionism (Zionist movement), 144, 268, 275, 309, 321, “Zionist Jew,” 310 Zofka, Z., 221 Zola, Emile, 84, 122, 193 Zur Judenfrage (Marx), 87 ... State University, Stanford University, the University of Helsinki, the University of Minnesota, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Toronto, the University of Trento, the University of. .. Department of Sociology of the University of Minnesota, both the College of Liberal Arts and the Graduate School of the University of Minnesota, the University Center for International Studies at the University. .. receding as time passed, anti- Semitism, according to the historical record, increased during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century On the eve of the Holocaust,