0521772079 cambridge university press coins and power in late iron age britain jul 2000

This page intentionally left blank NE W S T U D IE S I N A R CHA E OL O G Y Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain Cunobelin, Shakespeare’s Cymbeline, ruled much of south-east Britain in the years before Claudius’ legions arrived, creating the Roman province of Britannia But what we know of him and his rule, and that of competing dynasties in, south-east Britian? Dealing with Britain in this period when a series of dynasties emerged to take control of much of southern Britain, John Creighton draws on historical, archaeological and numismatic evidence to examine the background to these Wrst individuals in British history, and explores the way in which rulers bolstered their power through the use of imagery on coins, myths, language and material culture After the visits of Caesar in 55 and 54 BC, the shadow of Rome played a fundamental role in this process The result is a vivid picture of how people in Late Iron Age Britain reacted to the changing world around them jo hn c r ei g hto n is a Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Reading NE W S T U D IE S I N A R CHA E OL O G Y Series Editors Wendy Ashmore, University of Pennsylvania Clive Gamble, University of Southampton John O’Shea, University of Michigan Colin Renfrew, University of Cambridge Archaeology has made enormous advances recently, both in the volume of discoveries and in its character as an intellectual discipline: new techniques have helped to further the range and rigour of inquiry, and encouraged inter-disciplinary communication The aim of this series is to make available to a wider audience the results of these developments The coverage is worldwide and extends from the earliest hunting and gathering societies to historical archaeology For a list of titles in the series please see the end of the book JO HN CR EI GH TO N Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521772075 © John Creighton 2000 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2000 - - ---- eBook (EBL) --- eBook (EBL) - - ---- hardback --- hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To the memory of my mother, Molly Creighton CONTENTS List of Wgures List of tables Preface Acknowledgements List of abbreviations Note on translations used page viii x xi xii xiii xiv Introduction 1 The Middle to Late Iron Age transition Coin and the representation of individual authority 22 The Southern and Eastern kingdoms 55 Classical imagery and ideology in Britain 80 The location of Britain in the Roman world 126 Legends and language 146 Dynasties and identities 174 Conclusion and epilogue: from Britain to Britannia 216 Appendix: A brief introduction to Iron Age coinage in Britain 222 References Index of coin types General index 228 238 241 vii FIGURES Fig 2.1 Fig 2.2 Fig 2.3 Fig 2.4 Fig 2.5 Fig 2.6 Fig 2.7 Fig 2.8 Fig 3.1 Fig 3.2 Fig 3.3 Fig 3.4 Fig 3.5 Fig 3.6 Fig 3.7 Fig 3.8 Fig 4.1 Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3 Fig 4.4 The development of coinage in northern Europe from the Phillipus to its regional successors page 27 Distribution map of Gallo-Belgic A and C, and the communities of NE Gaul 29 The development of gold coin in Britain, from Gallo-Belgic A to its British regional derivatives 32 The succession of coins leading to the SW ‘Durotrigan’ and NE ‘Corieltauvian’ coin series 34 The alloy content of early ‘gold’ coinage and other objects in Britain 39 Various coins mentioned in the text 46 The various stages of trance imagery 48 Basketry compass work on the Latchmere Heath Mirror 50 The development of the gold coinage of the Southern and Eastern kingdoms 65 The development of the gold and silver coinage of the West (the ‘Dobunni’) 66 Coin hoards containing coin from Southern and Eastern Britain 67 The alloy content of the ‘gold’ coinage of the Southern and Eastern kingdoms 69 An outline of the development of imagery on Gallo-Belgic gold 71 Distribution maps of Gallo-Belgic E, the families of imagery in NE Gaul and Britain, and the distribution of the coins of GARMANOS COMMIOS and ANDOBRV GARMANOS 72 The dynasties of south-east Britain 76 The distribution of the coinage of the fathers and ‘sons’ of the principal dynasties of south-east Britain 77 The most common images on Roman silver coin north of the Alps 83 The most common images on Roman bronze coin north of the Alps 84 The adoption of Octavian/Augustus’ imagery by the British dynasts 86 The date of alleged Roman coin prototypes of British coins 101 viii References 237 Wainwright, G J 1979, Gussage All Saints: An Iron Age Settlement in Dorset, London: H.M.S.O Waurick, G 1979, ‘Die SchutzwaVen im Numidischen Grab von Es Soumaa, in Horn and Ruăger (eds.), pp 30532 Webster, G 1950, A Short Guide to the Roman Inscriptions and Sculptured Stones in the Grosvenor Museum, Chester, Chester: Grosvenor Museum Webster, N 1789, Dissertations on the English Language, Boston: Thomas Werner, J 1978, Zur Bronzekanne von Kelheim, Ruăckblick und Ausblick, Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblaătter 43: 118 Whatmough, J 1970, The Dialects of Ancient Gaul: Prolegomena and Records of the Dialects, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Universtiy Press Wigg, A 1990, Die Steindenkmalreste des Roămerzeitlichen grabhuăgels bei Siesbach im Hunsruăck, Archaăologisches Korrespondenblatt 20: 45361 Wood, J 1992, ‘Celtic goddesses: myths and mythology’, in C Larrington, The Feminist Companion to Mythology, London: Pandora, pp 118–36 Woolf, G 1995, ‘The formation of Roman provincial cultures’, in Metzler et al (eds.), pp 9–18 1997, ‘Beyond Romans and natives’, World Archaeology 28.3: 339–50 Zanker, P 1988, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press INDEX OF COIN TYPES Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations Note: coins have not been illustrated to scale References to Allen (1960) Gallo-Belgic A, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 55, 67, 68, 195, 224 Gallo-Belgic B, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 67, 68, 195, 224 Gallo-Belgic C, 28, 30–1, 32, 33, 38, 39, 67, 68, 71, 73, 195, 224 Gallo-Belgic D, 30–1, 32, 33, 38, 39, 67, 68, 146, 224 Gallo-Belgic E, 32, 33, 38, 39,67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 224 Gallo-Belgic F, 32, 33, 55, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, British A, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 67, 224 British B, 30, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 224 British C, 30, 32, 33, 38, 39, 224 British D, 30, 32, 33, 224 British E, 32, 33 British F, 32, 33, 38, 39, 67 British G, 32, 33, 38, 39, 67 British H, 32, 33, 34, 39, 224 British I, 32, 33, 34, 39, 224 British J, 28, 33, 224 British K, 32, 33, 34, 224, British L, 32, 33, 55, 64–70, 65, 67, 69, 71, 72, 80, 224 British M, 32, 33, 48, 49, 65, 67, 224 British N, 32, 33, 224 British O, 32, 33 British P, 32, 33, 224 British Q, 32, 33, 55, 64–70, 65, 67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 80, 195, 224 British R, 32, 33, 224 References to Van Arsdell (1989a) VA10–20:SE1–3, see Gallo-Belgic A VA30–37:S1, see Gallo-Belgic B VA42–48:SE4, see Gallo-Belgic C VA50–56:SE5, see Gallo-Belgic E VA65–69:SE4–5, see Gallo-Belgic D VA85:S5, see Gallo-Belgic F VA143:SE4, see British O VA150:SE6, 45, 46 VA154–7:SE5, see British P VA165:SE7, 45, 46, 130 VA166:SE7, 107 VA176:SE7, 212, 213 VA178:SE7, 205, 205 VA180:SE7, 107 VA181:SE7, 105 VA186:SE7, 114 VA192:E8, 115, 116, 130 VA194:E8, 110, 111 VA195:E8, 110 VA200:E4, see British A VA210–46:S5–6, see British Q VA212:S6, 65 VA350:S6, 65, 146 VA352:S6, 146 VA362:S7, 101 VA363:S7, 101 VA365:S7, 101, 212, 213 VA370:S7, 88 VA371:S7, 88, 105, 119, 122 VA375:S7, 84, 88, 101, 102, 103, 105, 118, 119, 146 VA376:S7, 101, 103, 105 VA378:S7, 88, 129, 130 VA384:S7, 130 VA385:S7, 105 VA396:S7, 178 VA397:S7, 119, 121, 178, 179 VA415:SE8, 88, 119 VA422:SE8, 114 VA430:SE8, 102, 105 VA431:SE8, 105, 109, 109–10 VA435:SE8, 130 VA441:SE8, 178 VA442:SE8, 109, 110, 178 VA443:SE8, 88, 108, 110, 111, 178 VA451:SE8, 114 VA452:SE8, 109, 109, 110, 178 VA460:S8, 105 VA461:S8, 105 VA470:S8, 88 VA486:S8, 110, 111, 116 VA487:S8, 110, 111 VA500:S8, 105 VA505:S8, 119 VA506:S8, 114, 192–3, 193, 195 VA511:S8, 130 VA512:S8, 114 VA520:S8, 102, 105, 115, 116 VA525:S8, 105, 116 VA526:S8, 105 238 Index of coin types VA527:S8, 105, 178 VA531:S8, 88, 116 VA532:S8, 82, 88 VA533:S8, 114, 178, 192–3, 193, 195, 212, 213 VA534:S8, 178 VA550:S8, 116 VA551:S8, 46, 178, 179 VA552:S8, 84, 88, 104, 114, 192–3, 193 VA553:S8, 104, 114, 192–3, 193 VA554:S8, 116 VA555:S8, 116 VA556:S8, 110, 111, 116 VA557:S8, 107, 108 VA560:S8, 130 VA563:S8, 88 VA575:S9, 102, 105, 116 VA580:S9, 88, 179, 182, 183 VA581:S9, 109, 110–1 VA593:S9, 179, 182, 183 VA595:S9, 129, 130 VA610:EA5–6, see British J VA620:EA6, see British N VA624–8:EA7, see British N VA665:EA7, 223–4 VA711:EA8, 45, 46 VA790:EA7, 88 VA800:NE5, see British H VA804–7:NE5–6, see British I VA809–29:NE6–7, see British K VA811:NE7, 27, 34 VA920:NE8, 34 VA972:NE9, 34 VA1005:W6, 66, and see British R VA1010:S5, see British R VA1015:S6, see British Q VA1020:W6, 66 VA1035:W9, 66 VA1042:W6, 66 VA1052:W9, 66 VA1057:W9, 66 VA1066:W8, 66 VA1082:W9, 66 VA1135:W9, 66 VA1205:SW4, see British B VA1215:S4, see British D VA1220:S4, see British C VA1225–9:SE4, see British O VA1246:SW5–7, 27, 34 VA1255:SW5–7, 34 VA1322:SW9, 34 VA1328:SW9, 34 VA1369:SW9, 34 VA1455:E4, see British G VA1458:E4, see British F VA1460:SE4, see British G VA1462:E4, see British E VA1470:E5, 65 VA1470–6:E5, see British L VA1485–93:E6, see British L VA1500–5:E6, see British L VA1520–6:E6, see British M VA1629:SE6, 65, 129–30 VA1680:E7, 65, 212, 213 239 VA1682:E7, 213 VA1705:E7, 88, 113, 114 VA1707:E7, 110 VA1709:E7, 110 VA1711:E7 , 130 VA1715:E7, 114 VA1730:E7, 105 VA1732:E7, 102, 105 VA1734:E7, 105 VA1736:E7, 105 VA1780:E7, 105 VA1786:E7, 88, 130 VA1790:E7, 88, 113, 114, 130 VA1792:E7, 113, 114 VA1794:E7, 88, 114, 174, 178 VA1798:E7, 130 VA1808:E7, 114 VA1814–20:E7, 178, 179, VA1816:E7, 205, 205 VA1818:E7, 88, 130 VA1824:E7, 107, 108 VA1845:E7, 105 VA1855:E7, 88, 107 VA1860:E7, 65, 212, 213 VA1868:E7, 130 VA1871:E7, 178, 179 VA1873:E7, 178 VA1882:E7, 88 VA1890:E7, 88 VA1895:E7, 113, 114 VA1918:E8, 88 VA1971:E8, 109, 110–1, 184, 185, 186 VA1973:E8, 110, 130 VA1977:E8, 107, 108 VA1979:E8, 109, 110–1, 130 VA1981:E8, 110 VA1983:E8, 178 VA1985:E8, 88, 114 VA2029:E8, 115 VA2045:E8, 88, 109, 110, 178, 185, 186 VA2047:E8, 116 VA2049:E8, 116 VA2051:E8, 114 VA2053:E8, 129, 130 VA2055:E8, 178 VA2057:E8, 107, 108 VA2059:E8, 88 VA2061:E8, 88, 179, 182, 183 VA2063:E8, 88 VA2065:E8, 110, 111, 113, 114, 204–5, 205 VA2067:E8, 179, 183 VA2071:E8, 88, 130 VA2073:E8, 88, 110, 111 VA2081:E8, 113, 114 VA2083:E8, 88, 113, 114, 178 VA2087:E8, 88, 178 VA2089:E8, 171, 178, 179 VA2091:E8, 116, 171, 178, 179 VA2093:E8, 116, 117, 117, 171 VA2095:E8, 114, 171, 178, 179 VA2097:E8, 178, 179, 205, 205 VA2099:E8, 88, 113, 114, 130 VA2103:E8, 88, 183 Index of coin types VA2105:E8, 116, 123 VA2107:E8, 88, 123, 182, 183 VA2109:E8, 107, 108, 129, 130 References to Hobbs (1996) BM1883:E8, 88, 109, 110 BM756:S7, 65, 146 References to the Index of Celtic coin ICC94.0995: E8, 184–6, 185 ICC95.3428:S8, 110, 111, 115, 116 References to Scheers (1977) Sch AV, 106 Sch AV classe i, 45, 46 Sch AV, see Gallo-Belgic A Sch 9/4 AV, see Gallo-Belgic C Sch 10 AV, see Gallo-Belgic B Sch 13 AV, see Gallo-Belgic D Sch 16 AV, 27 Sch 24/1 AV, see Gallo-Belgic E Sch 25 AV, 70, 71 Sch 26/3 AV, see Gallo-Belgic F Sch 26/5 AV, 71 Sch 27 AE, 185, 186 Sch 27 AV, 71 240 Sch 28 AV, 71 Sch 28 AR, 185, 186 Sch 29/1 AV, 71 Sch 29/4 AV, 71 Sch 30/1 AV, 70, 71 Sch 30/3 AV, 71 Sch 30/4–6 AV, 27, 70, 71 Sch 30a AE classe ii, 119, 120 Sch 30a/2 AR, 118, 119 Sch 31 AV, 70, 71 Sch 45 AR, 72, 73, 185, 186 Sch 46 AE classe i, 72, 73, 119, 120 Sch 46 AE classe ii, 72, 73, 185, 186 Sch 47 AR, 73 Sch 56 AR var b, 46, 47 Sch 154 AE classe i–ii, 123 Sch 162 AE, 82, 121 References to de la Tour (1892) BN3432, 27 BN4543, 27 BN6541, 27, 45 BN6804, 112 BN6879, 27, 45 BN7050, 46, 51 GENERAL INDEX Abingdon, 208 Actium, 89, 95–7, 103, 105–12, 184 Acy-Romance, 212 Adam, 134 Adbucillus, 58 Addedomarus, 65, 68, 69, 74–5, 106, 129, 224 Adiatuanus, 14–15 Adminius, 91, 219–21, see also Amminus Aduatuci, 12–13, 29 Aedui, 11, 89 Aeneas, 99, 100, 115–16, 126, 134, 137–41, 138, 143 Aenus, 187 Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, 131 Africa, Cameroon, 197 Natal, 55 Southern African Bushmen, 43–4 the Edo, 37–8 the Kongo, 37–8 agrimensores, 210 Agrippa I, 218 Agrippa, 83, 84, 175 Alba Longa, 137, 140, 143 Alban kings, 94, 99, 137, 139, 143 Albion, 139 albogalerus, 202, 203 Alesia, 60, 136 Aletrium, 144 Alexander III, king of Scotland, 134 Alexander the Great, 26, 103, 127, 177–80, 182 Alexander, son of Herod, 117 Alexandria, 89, 175 Allobroges, 58 Allonnes, 192 Alpine Passes, 93 altars, 101, 104, 110, 114, 192, 201 altered states of consciousness, 41–54 Amazon basin, 213 Amazonians, 131–2 Ambiani, 12, 29, 45, 71, 73 Ambiorix, 12, 14 Amminus, 74, 76, 78, 101, 110, 111, 115–16, 115, 216, 218 Anagnia, 144 Ancalites, 57 ancestral busts, 192–3 Anchises, 99 Andean America, 42–3 Andecombogius, 12 Andobru, 73–4, 118, 119, 120, 185 Andoco, 65, 68, 74, 78, 114, 130, 178, 179, 211 Anglesey, 162 Anglican clergy, 154 Anglo-Saxon kings, 134 Antioch, 123 Antiochus IV, Epiphanes, 92 anti-Olympians, 127 Antipater, son of Herod, 118 Anton, son of Hercules, 96, 137, 141 Antony, Mark, 61–4, 82–3, 89, 92–7, 106, 123, 137, 141, 175–6, 181 Apollo, 26–7, 30, 33, 96, 98, 100, 101, 110–14, 120–1, 137, 146, 199 Apollonia, 96, 130 apotheosis, 95, 100 Appian, 112 Aquitania, 14, 22, 58, 140, 151 Archelaus I, 118, 144, 209 Archelaus, son of Herod, 118 Arda, 71, 118, 119, 120, 196 Aristobulus, son of Herod, 117 Armani, 80 Arminius, 13, 220 Armorica, 8, 19, 26, 27, 30, 45, 58, 112 Arsinoeă, 94 Arundel, 19 Ascalon, 123 Ascanius, 99–100, 114, 137, 138, 140–1, 143 Asciburgium, 136 aspergillum, 202–4, 203 Aspurgus, 218 assassination, 60–3, 99 Asvamedha, 23–4 Athena, 131, 133, see also Minerva Athenaeus, 13 Athens, 89, 123 Atlantis, 131–2 Atrebates, civitas in Britannia, 19 Atrebates, in Gaul, 12, 29, 59, 62, 63, 73, 106 Attalus, 218 Auguraculum, 210 Augures, 209 Augustus, 1, 22, 89–91, 93, 97–8, 100–1, 102, 107–9, 112–13, 115–20, 122, 127–30, 139, 155, 169–71, 174–8, 184, 187–8, 197, 208, 214, 216–17 Res Gestae, 91, 175, 219 Avernii, 155 axial street alignments, 208, 210, 213 Aylesford pans, 200, 201, 202 241 General index Aylesford type burials, 82 Aylesford, 190, 200, 201 Aylesford-Swarling burial rite, 18 Balabea, 123 Baldock, burial, 180, 187, 199 barbarians, 81 Bardoi, 53, 80, 154 basketry cross-hatching, 49 Batavi, 12 Bath, 126, 133–4, 163 Bato, 220 Bawsey, 31 bear-skins, 180 Belgae, civitas in Britannia, 19 Belgic tribes, 59 Bellovaci, 11–2, 29, 61, 70, 71 Berikos, 78, 91, 219, see also Verica Beringen, 31 Berytus, 123 Bibroci, 57 Bignor villa, 133 bilingualism, 147, 161, 173 Bindon Hill, birdman, 47 boar, 88, see also pig Bocchus, 119 bodily hexis, 154 Boduognatus, 12 Bodvoc, 32 Boscoreal cups, 115 Bosphorous, 144, 209 Boudica, 162 boy on a dolphin, 88 Brading, villa, 133 brass, 42 Braughing/Skeleton Green, 158, 198, 205, 214 British A–R, 222 Britto, see Brutus brooches, 19, 188, 192, 195, 211 Brutus, 138, 140–3, 204 bull, 114, 199 charging/butting, 88, 98, 106, 113, 115, 178 sacriWce of, 94, 98, 100, 101, 114, 202, 203, 204 skulls, 98, 100, 113, 212 burial, 2, 4, 17, 174 Bury Hill, 15–16 Bury Wood Camp, butchery, 24, 214 Byblus, 123 Caerleon, 133 Caesar, 1, 85, 89–90, 93–4, 99, 113, 121, 127, 158, 170–1, 175, 186, 197, 209 conquest of south-east Britain, 2, 55–64, 74, 90, 124, 156, 204, 216–17 crossing the Rubicon, 61–2, 93 divine Julius, 99, 102, 104, 137, 139–40, 210, 218 Gallic Wars, 2, 8, 11, 70, 121 triumph 46 BC, 93–4 BG Book 1, 14, 70, 151 BG Book 2, 11–12, 18, 73, 89 242 BG Book 3, 14 BG Book 4, 12–13, 56, 59, 60, 73 BG Book 5, 12–13, 17–18, 56–8, 60, 89 BG Book 6, 12, 14, 51, 59–60, 89, 154–5, 186, 189 BG Book 7, 60, 89 Bell Afric., 180 Civil Wars, 62 Caesarea, 122, 144, 208 Caesaromagus, 144 Caledonians, 152 Caleti, 29 Calleva, mintmark, 168 Calleva, see Silchester, Camp d’Atitila, 201 Camulodunum, 11, 158, 168, 172, 176, 198, 220 Child’s grave, 180, 186 Lexden Tumulus, 113, 183–4, 186–7, 191, 197 Stanway burials, 188, 197 Cannabis, 52 Canterbury, 211 Cappadocia, 144, 209 Capricorn, 88, 96–7, 100, 101, 108, 110, 111, 112, 178 Caracalla, 202 Caratacus, 74, 75, 92, 129, 130, 142, 170, 177, 179–80, 182, 183, 204, 213, 216, 220–1 Cariscoios, 73–4 carnyx, 104–5 Carthage, 136, 176 Carthago Nova, 124 Cassi, 57 Cassius Dio, 57 Cassivallaunus, 1, 56–8, 60, 64, 74 cast bronze, 33, see also potin cattle, 6, 13, 15–16, 24 Catualda, 59, 221 Catuvellauni, 78 Catuvolcus, 12 Caxton, 148 ‘celtic’, art, 49, 131, 134 life, 81 warrior society, 6, 11 social structure, see also languages ‘celts’, in northern Italy, 11 in the eastern Alps, 11 Cenimagni, 57 centaur, 88, 178 central places, 4, Cerne Abbas Giant, 180 Cernunnus, 51, 181 chain mail, 104, 187, 192, 196 Chalon-sur-Saoˆne, 199 Chamalieres, magical texts, 151, 155 chariot, Wghting, 94, 139 chariot, image on coin, 26, 82–3, 83 charioteers, 17 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 157 Chaucer, 161 Chelmsford, 144, Chester, 133 Chichester, 19 General index Entrenchments, 190, 194 Fishbourne palace, 106, 133 Oldplace Farm, 194, 197 Westhampnett, 19, 31, 190, 194, 196 Chios, 123 Christianity, 134 Cicero, Quintus, 158 Cilicia, 123 Cimbri, 19 Cingetorix, 12 Cisalpine Gaul, 62 classical imagery, 33 classical mythology, 127, 176 Claudiopolis, 144 Claudius, 122, 169, 177, 195 annexation of south-east Britain, 4, 10, 11, 21, 90–1, 124, 134, 163, 176, 184, 188, 191, 213, 217, 220 coinage, 85, 86 Clemency, 188 Cleopatra Selene, 118 Cleopatra, 94, 96, 118, 123 clientship, 6, 14, 18, 93 Cogidubnus, Tiberius Claudius, 134, 142–3, 196, 220 coin hoards, Roman, 85–7 Coligny, calendar, 150 Colm Colma´n, Life of, 23 colonies, 209 colour, of coin, 37–40 Columbo, Police Lieutenant, 35–6, 80 Comitatus, 11, 14–21, 22, 57 Commian dynasty, 32, 55, 63–4, 69, 118, 120–2, 189, 191–6, 219 Commius, 12, 14, 56–7, 59–64, 65,68, 69, 70, 73–4, 80, 90, 92–3, 101–4, 106, 146, 164, 167, 170, 191–6, 193, 211, 216 Condrusi, 13 Connacht, king of, 23 Constantine, House of, 142 core-periphery model, 7, 9, 11 Corieltauvi, NE coin series, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 40, 47 cornucopia, 88, 101, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116 Correus, 61 Cos, 123 cosmology, 126, 197–8, 208–9, 213 Cotys VIII of Thrace, 218 Crassus, 14 cremation, 183–4, 190 Crepusius, P., 101, 107 Creusa, 137, 138 Criciru, 71, 185, 186, crocodiles, 83–4, 84, 132 Cuanu of Kilcoona, 141–3 cult statues, 192–3 CunliVe, view of MIA, 4–8 Cunobelin, 1, 10–11, 68, 69, 74–8, 76, 77, 101, 104, 107–11, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 116, 115, 117, 123–5, 129, 130, 142, 160–1, 167, 168, 170–3, 172, 177–8, 179, 180–1, 182, 183–4, 185, 186–7, 205, 205, 216, 218–20 cupid, 111, 186 243 curse tablets, 134, 163 curule chair, 183, Cymbeline, 161 Dalmatia, 89 Damascus, 123 damnatio memoriae, 176 Danebury, 4–6, 8–9, 15–16, 24–5, 190, 198 Danube, 128 Dardanelles, 127 debasement, 33 defaced dies, 30 defences, 5, 9, 10, 15 destruction, 6, 15 diadems, 176 dialect variation, 147–50, 153–5, 163 Dias, 74–5, 78 Dido, 176 diet, 214 Dio Cassius, Roman History, 11, 91–3, 122, 138, 218–19 Diocletian, 143 Diodorus Siculus, 14, 79, 131–2, 136, 139, 189, 216 Dionysius of Hallicarnassus, 137, 138 Dionysius, god, 96, 137, 139 Diviciacus of the Aedui, 12 Diviciacus of the Suessiones, 12, 18, 154, 225–6 Dobunni, W coin series, 11, 64, 66, 195, 216 doctors, 188 dogs, 25, 128, 214 dolphin, 88, 97, 100, 105, 110, 111, 112, 114, 122 donatives, 167 Droitwich, drowning, 44–5 Drucilla, daughter of Juba II, 118 Druides/druids, 43, 53, 80, 153, 153–6, 159, 161–3, 165, 189, 204, 211, 217 Drusus, 100, 128 Dubnovellaunus, 68, 69, 74–5, 91, 105–7, 130, 205, 205, 211, 216, 224 Dumnorix, 1415, 21, 154 Dun Ailinne, Duănsberg, 201 Durotriges, SW coin series, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 195 Dyke Hills, 18 eagle, 88, 106, 116, 121–2, 178, 183 Eastern dynasty, see Tasciovanian dynasty Eburones, 12–13, 29, 70, 71 education, 154, 165 Egus, 58 Egypt, 97 eland, 43–4 elephants, 82–3, 83, 94, 132 embassies, 14, 60, 157, 218 Emporion, 45 Enigma Variations, 80 entoptics, 47–9, 48, Epaticcus, 74–8, 76, 77, 101, 102, 104–5, 108, 109, 110–11, 116, 119, 121–2, 168, 170, 177, 179–80, 182, 183, 204, 213, 216, 218, 224 General index Epomeduos, 24 Epona, 51 Eppillus, 68, 69, 74, 76, 78, 101, 102, 104–5, 108, 108–12, 109, 111, 114, 119, 121, 130, 168, 170, 178, 180, 216, 224 equestrian statues, 95, 100–5, 102 equites, 153 ergot infection, 52 Es Soumaˆa, burial, 187 Ethiopians, 112 Etruscan kings, 94 Eumenes II, 218 Euphorbus, 188 Euripides, Ion, 133–4 Euryale, 131 excarnation, 189 fantastic creatures, 129, 132 fasting, 52 Father Christmas, 44 faunal remains, 24 feasting, 13, 20, 94 Ferentium, 144 Fiana, 20–1 Wgs, 166 Wlius, 168, 169–72, 189 Xan size, 36 Xoral images, 98, 100, 101, 110, 115, 116 Florus, Epit, 128 Xying, 44–5 fortiWcation pattern, 49 Forum Julii, 59, 221 fosterage, 154 foundation myths, 126, 134–45 Anglo-Saxon, 134 Britain, 137–45 Gaul, 135–6 Germani, 135–7 Irish, 135 Rome, 134–9 Scottish, 134 Frisia, 12, 29 Frontinus, 59, 62–3, 161 fundmunzen, 87 Gaius and Lucius Caesar, 82–3, 83, 100, 139, 177 Gaius/Caligula, 176–7, 218 coinage, 85, 86, 87, 91, 169 Galates, 136 Galatians, 11 Galba of the Suessiones, 12 Galerius, 143 galley, Roman, 82–3, 83 Gallia Narbonensis., 152 Gallic revolt, 60, 63, 89, 93, 136 Gallic wars, 2, 33, 195, 204 ‘Gallo-Belgicisation’, 82, 214 Gambrivii, 135 Garmanos, 73–4, 118–20, 119, 185 genealogies, 96, 134–5, 188 GeoVrey of Monmouth, 138, 140 Germanicopolis, 144 Germans, 61, 152 244 giants, 127, 133, 140 Gibraltar, straits of, 127 gifts to kings, 118, 181, 201 giraVe, 43 Giraldus Cambrensis, 23 Glaphyra, wife of Juba II, 118, 123 Glastonbury, goat, 101, 114, 115 gold, 4, 10, 14, 18, 20–1, 26–34, 55, 113 colour, 37–40, 39, 55, 68 crowns, 181 in Africa, 37–8 patera, 181 reWned, 68–70, 216 ternary alloys, 37–40, 39 textile, 31, 183 wreath, 94 Gorgippa, 218 gorgons, 80, 99, 129–34 Graeco-Roman mythology, 126, 129 Graiae, the three weird sisters, 129, 134 granaries, 4–6 post structures, 6, 198 Grauballe Man, 52 griYns, 88, 98–9, 101, 112–14, 113, 129–30 Gundestrup cauldron, 47, 51, 106, 211 Gussage All Saints, 7, 17, 24–5 Hallstatt burials, 52 hallucinations, 41–54 Harleian MS 3859, 142–3 Haselgrove’s periodization, 84–5, 224, 225 hats, broad brims, 184 hauruspices, 210 Hayling Island, Temple, 187, 191–7, 194 heads, severed, 45 Heidetraănk, 201 Hellenistic, coins, 87 kingship, 117, 118, 123–4, 179–81, 192, 209, 217 portraiture, 177, 180 Helvetii, 13 henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), 52 Hengistbury Head, 7, 19 Hera, 106 Heracles/Hercules, 88, 96, 121, 124, 126–7, 131–2, 136, 139, 141, 177, 179–80, 182, 183, 204 Herminones, 135 Hermunduri, 59 Hernici, 144 Herod the Great, 63–4, 90, 117, 123, 124, 144, 169, 188, 208 Hesiod, 127, 131 Hesperides, 131 Hessitio, 141 Heybridge, 208 Highdown Camp, hillforts, 4–10, 15–16, 19, 21, 198–9 hilltop enclosures, hippocamp, 45, 97, 100, 101, 110, 111, 112, 116 Hippocrene, 134 Hirtius, 121 BG Book 8, 14, 59–62, 64, 70, 74, 93 Hod Hill, 17 General index Homer, 162 Horace, 96, 98, 128 horse, 16, 18, 20, 22–7, 116, 178 bones, 15–17, 21, 24–5 burial, 25 Xying, 45, 129, 132, 80, see also Pegasus trappings, 15–7, 19, 21, 24, 187, 192 with human head, 26, 27, 30, 45, 48 horseman, 14, 22, 61, 88, 104 images of, 101, 101–6, 110, 114, 120, 178, 183, 191 houses, circular vs rectangular, 1, 197, 208 Hurstbourne Tarrant, 9, 187 Iberia, 128 Iccius, 12 Iceni, EA coin series, 28, 55, 57, 218, 224, 224 Illyricum, 97 imperial busts, 176 Indo-European, 23–4 Indutiomarus, 12–13 Ingaevones, 135 innovation, 32 Io, 131 Iol, 122, 144, 208 Ipswich, 31 Ireland, Protestant hegemony, 162 Irish literature, 22, 26, 52 Cu´ Chulainn, 20–3, 132, 154–5 Mı´l, sons of, 132 Samain, new year, 132 the Hero, 96, 154–5 Tuatha De´ Danann, 132 Istaevones, 135 Iulius Civilis, 12 Iulius Classicus, 12 ivory, 181, 184, 214 Janus, 117, 123, 209 Johnson, Samuel, 148 Josephus, 64, 90, 116 Juba I of Numidia, 93–4, 119, 120, 180–1, 182 Juba II of Mauretania, 93–4, 106, 118, 119, 120–4, 144, 174–5, 177–9, 183, 188, 208, 216–17 Judea, 117–18, 209, 218 Juliopolis, 144, Juno, 88 Jupiter Ammon, 88, 123, 177, 180–3, 182 Jupiter, 82–3, 94, 121, 127, 132 Kelheim jugs, 201 Kelvedon, 211, 212 Kempston, 190 kings, friendly, 116–24, 169–70, 208, 217 Kirkham, 187 La Cheppe, 201 Labienus, 60–2 Laertes, 136 language, 8, 94–5 arrival of new, 146 lingua franca, 148, 156 linguistic capital, 146, 153, 153–5, 160–1 245 loyalty, 159 maps, 149–50, 150, 153–6, 158–64 nation-states, 147, 154, 159 standardisation, 147–8 subversion, 146 switching, 156–7, 157 languages, Bearnais, 159 Breton, 150, 157 *Brithonic, 150–4, 153, 156–65 Celtic, 144, 146, 150–2, 160, 162 Cornish, 150, 157 English, 147–8, 156–8, 162–3 federal English, 148 French, 134, 157–8 Gallic, 134, 150–3, 156, 159, 163, 171 Gallo-Latin, 164 German, 147, 157 Germanic, 151 *Goidelic, 150–1, 153 Greek, 89, 95, 146, 152, 156, 158, 162 Iberian, 151 Irish Gaelic, 147, 150, 162 Italian, 157 Latin, 89, 95, 144, 146, 149, 152–3, 153, 156–61, 163–4, 171, 173 Ligurian, 152 Manx, 150 Romance, 149 Scotts Gaelic, 150, 162–3 Spanish, 157 vulgar Latin, 147, 158 Welsh, 150, 157, 164 Laodiceia-on-Sea, 123 Lar Porsenna, Etruscan king, 181 Larzac, magical texts, 151,155 Latchmere Heath, 50 laurel wreaths, 176 Lavinia, 137, 138, 140 Lavinium, 137, 138, 143 Le Caˆtillon, 31 legends, on coins, 101, 125, 146, 164–5, 165 legitimation titles, 103, 164–5 Lentulus, L., 130 Lenus Mars, 49, 196 Lepidus, 94 libations, 202 Lidbury, liminal space, 127, 131–2 Limousin, 43 lion, 88, 113, 121, 129, 177–80, 183 lituus, 114, 178, 192–3, 202, 203, 204, 210–13, 212 Livy, 136–7, 138, 142–3, 210 lorica hamata, 187 Lucan, 189, 191 Lucottios, 71 Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, 95 Lugdunum, Altar at, 83–4, 84, 113 Lugdunum, Roman mint, 84, 113, 176–7 lunacy, 92 Luxembourg, 87 Lysimachus, 180, 182 Machiavelli, 94 General index magic, 155–6 Magnus Maximus, 141–2 Maiden Castle, 16–7, 30, 190 Mainz, 219 Malorix, 12 man/horse image, 26–8 mandrake (M oYcinarum), 52 Mandubracius, 57–8, 64, 70, 74 Mannheim helmets, 187 Mannus, 135 manufacturing, Maponos, god, 155 maps, 175 Marcellus, C., 130 March ab Mananna´n, 45 Marius, 1, 99 Maroboduus, 59, 220 marriage, 22–4, 111, 122, 124 Mars Mullo, 192 Mars Ultor, 116–17, 117 Marsi, 135 Martberg, 196 Massalia, 85, 89, 93, 113, 121, 159 Massinissa, king of Numidia, 181 matrilineal decent, 172 Mauretania, 93, 118, 119, 120, 144, 174, 180–1, 182, 188, 216, 220 Medieval Ireland, 8, 53, see also Irish Literature medical instruments, 188 Mediomatrici, 29 mediterranean imports, 2, 4, 7, 11, 18, 20 Medusa, 15, 88, 106–7, 126, 129, 129–34 melons, 166 Melqart of Tyre, 179 Menapii, 12, 29, 60 mercenary payments, 14 Mercury, 51, 185, 186–7 metalworking, 17, 40, 155, 204 Mexico, Aztecs, 41–2 migration, 13, 18–19, 21 Mill Hill near Deal, 26, 214 Milton, 161 Minerva, 124, 126, 133 mirrors, 49, 50, 193 Mitchelldever Wood, mono-lingualism, 156 monsters, 128 moon, 41, 43, 121 Morini, 12, 29, 56, 60, 63–4, 70 Moscow, 167 multi-lingualism, 156 Munda, battle of, 62 mundus, 210 municipium, 213 Musa, 188 Mutina, battle of, 63 mythical beasts, 80, 112 narcotics, 51 nature, 25, 100, 104, 115 Navan, Nemausus, mint, 84 Nemesianus, Cyn., 128 246 Nennius, Historia Brittonum, 138, 140–2 Neptune, 88, 96, 100, 101, 110, 111, 112 Nero, 12 coinage, 86 Neronias, 144, Nervii, 12, 29, 71 Netherund, 31 Nicomedes, 218 Nicopolis, 123 Nijmegen, 183, 211 Noah, 134 Noricum, 120–1 Normandy, 19 North Creake, 31 North Foreland, 148 Nova Scotia, 163 Noviodunum, 89 Numa Pompilius, 141, 210 Numantia, 187 Numidian kings, 120, 175, 180, 182 obsides or ‘hostages’, 60, 85, 87, 89–90, 92–4, 107, 112, 117, 126, 128, 137, 139, 145, 159, 175, 187, 202, 208, 215, 220–1 Ocean/Oceanus, 126–32 Octavian, 22, 63–4, 92, 94–6, 100–1, 102, 103–4, 106–8, 112–13, 120, 137, 175, 180, 181, 182, 184, 188, 191, 199, 216, see also Augustus Octavianus, 94, see also Octavian omens, 209 opium poppy (papaver somniferum) 52 oppida, 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 17, 57, 93, 163, 174, 197–9, 205, 208–214 Orgetorix, 13 Ornovasso jugs, 200–1 Osca, 89 Osismi, 27 Oswelbury, ‘otherworld’ perception of Britain, 56 out-of-body experience, 44 Ovid, 138 oysters, 214 Palaemon, 105 palaeolithic handaxe, 212 palm trees, 84 Pannonia, 220 Paraguay, 157, 157 paramount kingdom, 10 Parisi, 29 Parthia, 90, 98, 118 patera, 180, 202, 203, 211 patronyms, 171 Paulinus, Suetonius, 162 Pegasus, 45, 80, 88, 110, 114, 116, 126, 129, 129–30, 132–4 Pergamum, 123 Perseus, 107, 126, 129, 129–30, 132 PetersWeld, coin from, 47, 51 Phaselis, 123 Pherekydes, 131 Philip II of Macedon, 26, 27, 44–5, 106, 183 Philip the Tetrarch, 118, 144, 209 General index Phlegrai, 131 phosphenes, 47 Phraates IV, 118 Picts, 172 pidgin languages, 157 piety, 97–8 pig, 15–16, 25, 101, 115, 116, 178, 196, 214 Pillars of Heracles, 127, 132 Pindar, 127 place-names/mintmarks, 164–5, 172–3, 168, 172 Plautius, Aaulus, 91 Pliny, 96 Plutarch, 57, 96 Po Valley, 93 Polemo I, 144, 209 Pollio, Gaius Asinius, 58 Polybius, 14, 187 Pompey the Great, 1, 59, 62, 93–4, 96, 99, 130 Pompey, Sextus, 96, 112 Pomponius Mela, 189, 191 Pontifex Maximus, 204 Poole Harbour, 15–16, 19 poppies, 115, 115 population increase, portraits, Imperial, 167 Posidonius, 53, 189 post-colonial writers, 158 potin, 28–9, 38, 113, 226–7 pottery, amphorae, 9–10, 16, 164, 184, 186, 190, 199, 201 arretine wear, 98, 113, 214 saucepan pots, 19 terra nigra, 211 terra rubra, 214 terra sigillata, 214 wheel-made, 16 Pottina, 71 prestige goods, 7, 22, 156, 158–9 primogeniture, 172 Principate, 3, 92, 100–1, 107–8, 115, 122, 124, 169, 172, 174, 176–7, 181, 197 Propertius, 135 propitiatory deposits, see votive deposits Prusias II, 218 pseudo-history, 74–9, 109, 170 Ptolemais, 123 Ptolemy, 119, 121–4, 174, 177, 181, 183, 217, 220 public school, 154 pythagoreans, 189 Quadi, 59 Quintillian, 149 ram, 88, 101, 113, 114, 199, 204 Ravenna, 59, 220–1 Regni, 78 Regnum Apollinis, 96 Remi, 9, 70, 71, 73 Remus, 137, 209 rex, 163, 169–72, 189, 192–3 Rhea Silvia, 141 Rhine, 135, 151 Rhodes, 123 247 rings, 13 ritual and production, 40–54 Roman, army, 92–3 citizenship, 93 coin, copying of, 81, 84–5 gemstones, copying of, 81 mores, 89–90, 92 provincial coinage, 176–7 town foundation rites, 209–10 Romanisation, 82, 145, 214, 217 Romano-celtic temples, 191–2, 196, 199 Rome, city of, 92–3, 174–5 Apollo, temple of, 96, 113 Ara Pacis, 98, 115, 139 Augustus’ Mausoleum, 113, 175, 187, 197 Campus Martius, 175, 220 Capitolium, 91, 94, 99, 124, 169 Circus Maximus, 175 Curia, 97, 107, 111, 184 Forum of Augustus, 99, 116, 139, 169 Pompey’s theatre, 174 Porta Argentariorum, 202, 203 Temple of Apollo, 175 Temple of Divine Julius, 97, 196 Temple of Mars Ultor, 99, 116, 139, 169, 219 Temple of Saturn, 97 temples, 104, 115, 133, 179, 191–6 education at, 85, 90, 92–3, 139, 159 Romm, 127 Romulus, 99, 134, 137, 209 Rosmerta, 51 Roucillus, 58 roundhouses, 9, 17, 53, 198, 208 Roveca, 71, 185, 186 Rues/Ruiis, 74–5, 78, 113, 114 ruler cult, 193 sacral kingship, 22, 26, 54, 134 sacred descent, 135, 137 sacriWce, 93–4, 97–8, 100, 106, 112–13, 113, 174–5, 197–9, 201–4, 214 saeculum aureum, 98, 115, 155 Sagumbri, 29 Saguntum, 135–6 Saint Ambrose, 166 Saint Augustine, 166 Saint Catherine’s Hill, 18 Salem witchcraft trials, 52 Samnites, 143 Sarpedon, 131 sceptre, 88, 181, 183–4 Scipio Africanus, 181 Scota, daughter of Pharaoh, 134 sea and tides, 56 sea creatures, 97, 107, 112 Sedgeford, 31 Sego, 75, 78, 105, 107 Segontiaci, 57 senatus consultum, 83–4, 103, 210 Septimuis Severus, 202 serial imagery, 33, 35–7, 80, 101, 120, 124, 166 serpents/snakes, 83, 83, 121–2, 129, 133, 178, 183 General index 248 Sertorius, 89 Shakespeare, 161 shamanism, 40–54, 213 sheep, 6, 15–16, 25, 196 shield, 104 ship’s prows, 97, 100, 101, 110, 111, 115, 116 Sicily, 96, 130 Sidon, 123 Sidus Iulium, 95, 100, 102, 103–4 Siesbach, 122 Silchester, 18, 158, 196, 205, 207, 208, 211, 213 Silures, 152 Silvius, 138, 140, 143 simpulum (ladle), 179, 202–4, 203 Skeleton Green, see Braughing slavery, West Africa, 20 slaves, 7, 11, 14, 20–1, 90 slingstones, 6, 15 Snettisham, 31 sociolinguistics, 146 Socrates, 162 soil fertility, soldurii, 14, 21 Sotiates, 14, 22 sound, bells, 42 sovereignty, concept of, 22–3, 104 Sparta, 123 sphinx, 80, 96, 100, 101, 107, 108, 130 spirit animals, 43 spoons, 42, 53 standards, 82–3, 83 Stanstead, 190 star, 103–5 state-formation, 11 Sthenno, 131 storage pits, Strabo, Geography, 14, 89, 90, 91, 124, 151 structured deposition, 25, 53 subsidies to friendly kings, 70, 91 Suddern Farm, 7, 16 Suebi, 59, 135 Suessiones, 9, 61, 71, 73, 226 Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 58, 94, 175 Augustus, 90, 96, 144 Caligula, 1, 91, 219 Claudius, 98, 220 Sulis Minerva, 49, 133–4, 163, 196 Sulla, 1, 95, 99, 102, 103 summi viri, 99 sun, 41 swords, 42–3, 53, 104 Syracuse, 130 Syria, 112 Tasciovanus, 65, 68, 69, 74–8, 76, 77, 101, 102, 104–5, 107, 108, 108, 110, 113, 114, 121–2, 124, 130, 142–5, 167, 168, 170–4, 172, 176, 178, 179, 205, 205, 211, 216–17, 224 Tayac, 31 temples, 2, 98, 101, 174–5 templum, 210, 212 Tenctheri, 12, 29 Teutones, 19 Thapsus, battle of, 180 therianthropes, 44–5 Thracian kings, 123 Tiberias, 144 Tiberius, 59, 100, 118, 128, 176–8, 216, 218–20 coinage of, 82–3, 85, 86 Tigris, 128 Tincomarus, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 91–6, 101, 101–6, 118–22, 119, 125–6, 129, 130, 146, 168, 174, 176, 178, 179, 191–2, 195–6, 208, 211, 217, 224 Tir Conaill, 23 Tiridates, 90 Titans, 127, 131 Titelberg, 201 toga picta (triumphal robe), 181, 183 Togodumnus, 219 Tollund Man, 52 Tolosa, 199 torcs, 2, 10, 13, 18, 21, 31, 39, 40, 41, 109, 111, 178, 184, 186 trance imagery, 41–54, 48 treaty relationships, 85 Treveri, 12–13, 29, 27, 60, 70, 71, 73, 115, 118–23, 119, 196 trident, 88, 100, 101, 110, 111, 112, 116 Trier-Olewig, 187 Trinovantes, 57, 64 tripods, 98, 100, 101, 112, 114, 201–2, 204–5 Tripolis, 123 triskeles, 130–1 tritons, 97 Triumvirate, the Second, 94, 107 Troy, 115, 126, 137, 139–41 Tuisto, 135 tunica palmata, 181 Tyre, 123 Tacitus, Agricola, 152, Annals, 12, 59, 143, 162, 183 Germania, 14, 70, 127, 135–7 Histories, 12, 70 Tara, king of, 9, 23 Tarrentum, 106–7, 184 Tasciovanian dynasty, 32, 55, 64, 69, 121, 123, 181, 189, 196, 219 value, 37 Vandilii, 135 Vannius, 59 Varro, 187, 210 vates, 53 vedic literature, 23–4, 154 Veliocasses, 12, 29 Veneti, 26, 45 Ubii, 12, 29 Ulceby, 31 Uley, 163 Ulysses, 136, 139 uniface issues, 73 urceus, 202, 203 Usipetes, 12, 29 General index Venus, 95, 99, 174–5 Vercingetorix, 13, 60, 63, 93 Vergobretos, 11 Verica, 68, 69, 70, 82–3, 101, 102, 104–5, 107, 108, 110, 111, 114–16, 115, 119, 121–2, 124–5, 130, 167, 168, 170, 178, 179, 180, 191–6, 193, 211, 218–21, 224 Verritus, 12 Vertiscus, 12 Verulae, 143–4, 205 Verulamium, 143–5, 168, 198, 205, 206, 208, 211, 213 Devil’s and New Dykes, 18, 206 Folly Lane Burial, 183–4, 187, 191, 196–7, 206, 219 Gorhambury, 184, 205, 206 King Harry Lane, 190, 197, 205, 206 Prae Wood, 205, 206 Vibilius, 59 Victory, 82–3, 83, 97, 100, 101, 107–12, 109, 130, 133, 178, 184, 185, 186–7 Victory, gender of, 111, 186 Villeneuve Saint Germain, 199, 201, 208 vine leaves, 98–100, 101, 115, 116 violence, 94 Virgil, Aeneid, 99, 137–9, 138, 141–3, 148, 176 Eclogue, 127 Viridomarus, 135 Viromandui, 12, 29 249 Viros, 71 Volubilis, 124 Volusenus, 56, 59–62 Vonones, 90, 118 Vosenos/Vodenios, 74, 78, 114 votive deposits, 5–6, 15, 196 Wallingford, 52 Waltham St Lawrence, 45, 179 Wanborough, 179 warfare, 8, 111, 122, 124, 216 warrior elite, 4, 8, 163 warthog, 43 Wayland the Smith, 40 Wederath, 122 weightlessness, 44 Welwyn Garden City, burial, 180 Welwyn type burials, 190–1 Welwyn, burial, 191, 199, 201, 202 wheat/corn, 101, 115, 115, 116, 122 Winchester, Oram’s Arbour, 18 wine drinking, 199 wine, 7, see also amphorae Woden, 134 women, lower middle class, 149 Zacynthus, Greek island, 136 Zanker, 95–100 Zeus Ammon, see Jupiter Ammon Zeus, see Jupiter NEW STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY Other books published in the series Ian Hodder and Clive Orton: Spatial analysis in archaeology Keith Muckelroy: Maritime archaeology R Gould: Living archaeology Stephen Plog: Stylistic variation in prehistoric ceramics Patrick Vinton Kirch: Evolution of the Polynesian chiefdoms Dean Arnold: Ceramic theory and cultural process GeoVrey W Conrad and Arthur A Demarest: Religion and empire: the dynamics of Aztec and Inca expansionism Graeme Barker: Prehistoric farming in Europe Daniel Miller: Artefacts as 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N Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,... contain the evidence is one which sees land holding/corn production as the medium for the Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain manipulation of power, in contrast to the farmstead wherein lay individual