0521641446 cambridge university press romantic poets and the culture of posterity dec 1999

This page intentionally left blank This original book examines the way in which the Romantic period’s culture of posterity inaugurates a tradition of writing which demands that the poet should write for an audience of the future: the true poet, a figure of neglected genius, can only be properly appreciated after death Andrew Bennett argues that this involves a radical shift in the conceptualisation of the poet and poetic reception, with wide-ranging implications for the poetry and poetics of the Romantic period He surveys the contexts for this transformation of the relationship between poet and audience, engaging with issues such as the commercialisation of poetry, the gendering of the canon, and the construction of poetic identity Bennett goes on to discuss the strangely compelling effects which this new reception theory produces in the work of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley and Byron, who have come to embody, for posterity, the figure of the Romantic poet Andrew Bennett is Reader in English Literature at the University of Bristol His previous books include Keats, Narrative and Audience: The Posthumous Life of Writing (), and with Nicholas Royle Elizabeth Bowen and the Dissolution of the Novel: Still Lives () and An Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory: Key Critical Concepts (; second edition )            RO MANT IC PO ET S AND T HE CULTU RE O F PO ST ERIT Y        General editors Professor Marilyn Butler Professor James Chandler University of Oxford University of Chicago Editorial board John Barrell, University of York Paul Hamilton, University of London Mary Jacobus, Cornell University Kenneth Johnston, Indiana University Alan Liu, University of California, Santa Barbara Jerome McGann, University of Virginia David Simpson, University of California, Davis This series aims to foster the best new work in one of the most challenging fields within English literary studies From the early s to the early s a formidable array of talented men and women took to literary composition, not just in poetry, which some of them famously transformed, but in many modes of writing The expansion of publishing created new opportunities for writers, and the political stakes of what they wrote were raised again by what Wordsworth called those ‘great national events’ that were ‘almost daily taking place’: the French Revolution, the Napoleonic and American wars, urbanisation, industrialisation, religious revival, an expanded empire abroad and the reform movement at home This was an enormous ambition, even when it pretended otherwise The relations between science, philosophy, religion and literature were reworked in texts such as Frankenstein and Biographia Literaria; gender relations in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and Don Juan; journalism by Cobbett and Hazlitt; poetic form, content and style by the Lake School and the Cockney School Outside Shakespeare studies, probably no body of writing has produced such a wealth of response or done so much to shape the responses of modern criticism This indeed is the period that saw the emergence of those notions of ‘literature’ and of literary history, especially national literary history, on which modern scholarship in English has been founded The categories produced by Romanticism have also been challenged by recent historicist arguments The task of the series is to engage both with a challenging corpus of Romantic writings and with the changing field of criticism they have helped to shape As with other literary series published by Cambridge, this one will represent the work of both younger and more established scholars, on either side of the Atlantic and elsewhere For a complete list of titles published see end of book ROMANTIC POETS AND THE CULTURE OF POSTERITY ANDREW BENNETT           The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom    The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Andrew Bennett 2004 First published in printed format 1999 ISBN 0-511-03635-3 eBook (Adobe Reader) ISBN 0-521-64144-6 hardback For Anna          Notes to pages ‒ and see Everest, ‘Shelley’s Doubles’, pp –, on the ghost-effect of the doppelgänger and the uncanny: in Freud’s reading of the uncanny, the doppelgänger is a figure for personal immortality – as well as, therefore, a ‘harbinger of death’ (PFL .–) See James Chandler, England in : The Politics of Literary Culture and the Case of Romantic Historicism (University of Chicago Press, ), pp –, on the way that this phrase echoes one about a ‘glorious Phantom’ in Shelley’s  pamphlet, An Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte See my Keats, Narrative and Audience: The Posthumous Life of Writing (Cambridge University Press, ), pp – This vocabulary of ‘crypts’ and ‘haunting’ is taken from the psychoanalysis of Nicolas Abraham and Maria Torok: see The Wolf Man’s Magic Word: A Cryptonymy, trans Nicholas Rand (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, ) See also Esther Rashkin, Family Secrets and the Psychoanalysis of Narrative (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ) Compare ‘Epipsychidion’, line  on love as ‘a soul within the soul’ See Roland Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text, trans Richard Miller (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, ), and Leo Bersani, The Freudian Body: Psychoanalysis and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, ) See also the preface to ‘Julian and Maddalo’ on Maddalo’s talk: ‘His more serious conversation is a sort of intoxication; men are held by it as by a spell’ (SPP ); and compare my discussion of the effects of Coleridge’s talk in chapter  Karen Mills-Courts, Poetry as Epitaph: Representation and Poetic Language (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, ), p ; see pp –, –, , , on Shelley’s conception of poetic language as ‘haunting’ (see also p  on Wordsworth’s sense of the imagination as a ‘ghostlike power’): while Mills-Court focuses on the haunting nature of language for Shelley, I would want to emphasise the way in which Shelley’s poetry haunts and is haunted by its future audience Paul de Man, The Rhetoric of Romanticism (New York: Columbia University Press, ), p  We might remember Hazlitt’s comment on the ‘poet’s cemetery’ as ‘the human mind, in which he sows the seeds of never-ending thought’ (Works .) See White’s comment on the poem as Shelley’s ‘personal prayer that as a poet he might have his share in producing one of the great human revolutions it was the function of poetry to produce’ and his ‘deep dejection as he became convinced that his voice was failing to find an audience’ (White .–)  ’   Leslie A Marchand, Byron: A Biography  vols (London: John Murray, ), .  Marchand, Byron .; I am indebted to Richard Lansdown, Byron’s Historical Dramas (Oxford: Clarendon, ), p , for this reference as well Notes to pages ‒            as for his reading of ‘Churchill’s Grave’ which alerted me to the interest and significance of this poem Dorothy Wordsworth, The Grasmere Journals, ed Pamela Woof (Oxford: Clarendon, ), p  An intriguing comment in his journal for November  suggests the problematic nature of Byron’s notion of poetic ‘facts’: ‘I began a comedy and burnt it because the scene ran into reality; – a novel, for the same reason In rhyme, I can keep more away from the facts’ (BLJ .) See also Byron’s various comments in Don Juan on the fiction that his poem ‘records only facts’ (for example: ., .–, .–, .–) Compare Zachary Leader’s comments on Byron’s ‘fetish for literal accuracy’, in Revision and Romantic Authorship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), p  See Churchill’s The Candidate, lines –, where the poet asks that ‘one poor sprig of Bay’ might be ‘planted on my grave’ (quoted in CW .) See CW . My reading of the gift in this section is indebted, not least, to Jacques Derrida, Given Time:  Counterfeit Money, trans Peggy Kamuf (University of Chicago Press, ); on Byron and the gift, see Jerome Christensen, Lord Byron’s Strength: Romantic Writing and Commercial Society (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, ), pp – Indeed, there is an important identification, here paronomastically marked, of the speaker with the sexton, of the ‘homely phrase’ with the ‘natural homily’ A number of Byron’s miscellaneous comments on audience and posterity are usefully collected in Bruce Wallis (ed.), Byron: The Critical Voice,  vols (Salzburg: Institut für Englische Sprache und Literatur, ), pp –,  For Byron’s appeals to posterity, see for example, BLJ .; ., , , – Byron’s repeated use of ‘scribbler(s)’ and ‘scribbling’ is itself indicative of a sense of the importance of maintaining an amateur, even dilettante relationship to writing Marlon B Ross has commented on the use of the word ‘scribblers’ by early eighteenth-century writers, who use the word to ‘indicate the intrinsically wayward nature of producing script’: see his ‘Authority and Authenticity: Scribbling Authors and the Genius of Print in Eighteenth-Century England’, in Martha Woodmansee and Peter Jaszi (eds.), The Construction of Authorship: Textual Appropriation in Law and Literature (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, ), pp – See, for example, the first paragraph of the Preface to Childe Harold cantos  and ; Don Juan .– Quoted in Ian Jack, The Poet and His Audience (Cambridge University Press, ), p  Quoted in ibid., p  Jerome Christensen’s summary of Byron’s relationship with his publisher John Murray in four periods is useful here: ‘first, the highly mediated period of aristocratic amusement in  and  when Byron’s dealings with Murray were left with conspicuous negligence to the         Notes to pages ‒ management of Charles Dallas ; second, a period in – of direct if desultory correspondence between Byron and Murray a period during which Byron vacillated in his response to Murray’s offers of substantial sums of money ; third, the earnest and businesslike negotiations with Murry over payment for Byron’s poetry ; fourth, the break with Murray and the formation in  of an alternative publishing connection with John Hunt’ (‘Byron’s Career: The Speculative Stage’, ELH  (), –) On Byron writing for money, see Peter J Manning, ‘Childe Harold in the Marketplace: From Romaunt to Handbook’, MLQ  (), – As Manning comments, ‘The wavering between the protocols of gift exchange and the business of buying and selling copyrights in this dialogue between Murray and Byron, the businessman and aristocrat, manifests the as yet not fully articulated arrangements of the conditions of publication’ (p ) For an account of Byron’s relationship to his own fame, see Sonia Hofkosh, ‘The Writer’s Ravishment: Women and the Romantic Author – The Example of Byron’, in Anne K Mellor (ed.), Romanticism and Feminism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, ), pp –; on Byron and his public generally, see Philip W Martin, Byron: A Poet Before His Public (Cambridge University Press, ) Marchand, Byron, . Marchand, Byron, . But see ., on Byron refusing  guineas from Murray in ; see also . See Byron’s allusion to Samuel Johnson’s dictum that ‘No man but a blockhead ever wrote, except for money’ (James Boswell, Life of Johnson (London: Oxford University Press, ), p ): ‘I know only one motive for publishing any thing with a sensible man – and I think Johnson has already quoted that’ (BLJ .) But compare Byron’s scathing comments on the notion of writing as a profession (quoted in Jerome J McGann, Don Juan in Context (London: John Murray, ), p ) Marchand, Byron .– See, for example, BLJ . Compare Andrew Nicholson (ed.), Lord Byron: The Complete Miscellaneous Prose (Oxford: Clarendon, ), p  Kim Ian Michasiw, ‘The Social Other: Don Juan and the Genesis of the Self ’, Mosaic : (), – On the question of the relationship between the authorial, narratorial and biographical ‘self ’ in Byron, see Peter J Manning, ‘Don Juan and the Revisionary Self ’, in Robert Brinkley and Keith Hanley (eds.), Romantic Revisions (Cambridge University Press, ), pp –; Jean Hall, ‘The Evolution of the Surface Self: Byron’s Poetic Career’, KSJ  (), –; Frederick Garber, Self, Text, and Romantic Irony: The Example of Byron (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ); and Christensen, Lord Byron’s Strength While all these critics tend to assume that the Byronic self may be said to be a social product, a construct of social forces, I want to suggest that the Byronic ‘self ’, in all its multiplicity and undecidability, is, in addition, a function of writing – and therefore, Notes to pages ‒        of course, of reading, a function of the future See also Leader’s argument for the fluidity and multiplicity of the ‘constructed’ Byron as itself an expression of a coherent and consistent identity (Revision, ch.); and see Andrew Elfenbein, Byron and the Victorians (Cambridge University Press, ), ch., on the importance of Byron’s subjectivity for his nineteenthcentury reception Leo Braudy, The Frenzy of Renown: Fame and its History (New York: Oxford University Press, ), p  McGann, Don Juan in Context, pp ,  The principle point of such a manifesto, according to McGann, was to challenge the orthodoxy of the value of contemporary obscurity (in the sense of hermeneutic difficulty): ‘According to Byron’s quite trenchant analysis, this obscurity has developed from the increasing emphasis upon privacy and individual talent in Romantic verse Wordsworth’s “imagination”, Byron says, involves him in his private “reveries”, which ultimately prevent an engagement with the audience’ (p ; on Byron’s critique of contemporary poetics, see also pp –) See also McGann’s comment in ‘Byron and “The Truth in Masquerade” ’, in Brinkley and Hanley (eds.), Romantic Revisions, p , on the ‘frequent charge’ in criticism of Byron, that ‘his work lacks authenticity because he was too preoccupied with his audiences and their reactions His poetry aims, it is judged, for cheap and factitious effects by pandering to the (presumably debased) expectations of his reading publics’ (see also Manning, ‘Don Juan and the Revisionary Self ’, –) In particular, I suggest, Byron’s poem is concerned to challenge the increasingly prevalent view that poetry can only be understood in the future Byron’s is, to use McGann’s word, a ‘functional’ poetics (Don Juan in Context, p ), one in which poetry has specific effects on readers, in which there is a connection between work and audience And unlike some of the other poems studied in the present book, Don Juan is exemplary in its explicit attention to audience, to the extent of being self-professedly directed by its audiences: as Manning comments, ‘Byron never forgets or lets us forget, that Don Juan is a text shaped by the literary market making visible the conditions which shaped the particular form of his writing and the self represented in it’ (p ) Byron, Don Juan, ed T.G Steffan, E Steffan and W.W Pratt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, ), pp – McGann, Byron in Context, p  Byron’s ‘bright reversion’ may contain an echo of Wordsworth’s ‘bright reversion’ in his poem addressed to Haydon, ‘High is our calling, Friend’, first published in The Champion in  For a detailed reading of Don Juan , stanzas –, see Paul Elledge, ‘Parting Shots: Byron Ending Don Juan ’, SiR  (), – In September , Byron records a similar scepticism towards the notion of immortality more generally in a letter to Francis Hodgson: ‘I will have nothing to with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life,      Notes to pages ‒ without the absurdity of speculating upon another If men are to live, why die at all? and if they die, why disturb the sweet and sound sleep that “knows no waking”? “Post mortem nihil est, ipsaque Mors nihil quaeris quo jaceas post obitum loco? Quo non Nata jacent” ’ (BLJ .–) See also Byron’s journal for  January : ‘It has been said that the immortality of the soul is a “grand peut-être” – but still it is a grand one Every body clings to it – the stupidest, and dullest, and wickedest of human bipeds is still persuaded that he is immortal’ (BLJ .) McGann, Don Juan in Context, p ; Southey’s lines, in fact, are themselves a recirculation of the opening to Edward Spenser’s ‘To His Booke’ which prefaces The Shepheardes Calender, an opening which in turn reproduces Chaucer’s ‘Go, litel bok’ of Troilus and Criseyde . See, for example, Jacques Derrida, Limited Inc, ed Gerald Graff (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, ), pp – The name, in fact, and its correspondence with fame, posterity and aristocracy is central to Byron’s writing And Byron’s name – somewhat unusually for a man – is unstable, changing twice within his lifetime – born George Gordon Byron, he became Lord Byron when only  years old, and in , after the death of his wife’s parents, he became Noel Byron: see Marchand, Byron .– But see canto , stanza , where fame really is a lottery: ‘Renown’s all hit or miss; / There’s Fortune even in fame, we must allow’ For Byron’s scepticism concerning the judgement of posterity, see also canto , stanzas –; on fame, see canto , stanza  and canto , stanza    For a discussion of the way that some of these difficulties are addressed in the work of, especially, Blanchot and Derrida, see my essay ‘On Posterity’ in the Yale Journal of Criticism : ()  Leo Braudy, The Frenzy of Renown: Fame and Its History (New York: Oxford University Press, ), p   See, for example, Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans Alan Bass (Brighton: Harvester, ), – Index Addison, Joseph,  aesthetic, the, – Allsop, Thomas,  amnesia, ,  Anderson, Robert,  Anon ‘Death – Posthumous Memorials – Children’, –, –,  ‘Deaths of Little Children’,  ‘On the Neglect of Genius’,  anxiety: of audience, ; of influence,  Appelbaum, David, ,  Arch, J and A.,  Ariadne, – Ariosto, Ludovico,  Armour, Richard W.,  Armstrong, Isabel,  art, –,  audience, –, , , , –, , , , –, –, , , , , , , ,  author, , –, , –, , , –, , , –, ; commodification of, – autobiography, , , , ; see also autoscription autonomy, of artwork, , , , ,  autoscription, , ; see also autobiography avant-garde, , ,  Bacon, Francis, , ,  Bagehot, Walter,  Bailey, Benjamin,  Bailey, John,  Baillie, Joanna, ,  ballad, the, – Baratynsky, Evgeny Abramovich,  Barbauld, Anna Laetitia, –,  Baron, Michael, ,  Barrett, Elizabeth,  Barthes, Roland, ,  Bate, Walter Jackson, ,  Bauman, Zygmunt, –, , , ,  Beaumont, Lady, ,  Beaumont, Sir George,  Becker, Ernest,  Beckett, Samuel,  Beddoes, Thomas Lovell,  Behrendt, Stephen,  Benjamin, Park,  Bentham, Jeremy, ,  Bersani, Leo, , , , ,  Betham, Matilda, –,  Bible, the,  Blake, William,  Blanchot, Maurice,  Bloom, Harold, , , , , , ,  body, the, , , , , , –, , –, , ,  Bolingbroke, Henry St John,  Braudy, Leo, , , , , ,  Brawne, Fanny,  Breen, Jennifer,  Bromwich, David,  Bronfen, Elizabeth,  Bronson, Bertrand,  Brown, Charles,  Browne, Sir Thomas, ,  Brownson, Orestes, ,  Brydges, Sir Egerton,  Buchan, A.N.,  Burney, Frances,  Burns, Robert, , , , , –,  Butler, Samuel,  Byron, George Gordon, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , –, ; and Byronism, ; sales figures for, ,      Childe Harold, , , ,  ‘Churchill’s Grave’, , –, – Don Juan, , , , , , , , , –, ,    Index Byron, George Gordon, (cont.) English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,  Hours of Idleness,  journals, ,  Lara,  letters, – Sardanapalus,  The Corsair,  ‘The Prophecy of Dante’,  The Two Foscari,  Cafarelli, Annette Wheeler,  Campbell, Colin,  Campbell, Thomas, –,  canon, the, , –, , , , , –, , –, , , – Carlyle, Thomas, , , ,  Chalmers, Alexander,  Chandler, James,  Chartier, Roger,  Chatterton, Thomas, , , , , , , , –, , ,  Chilcott, Tim,  Christensen, Jerome, , – Christianity, , ,  Churchill, Charles, –,  Cicero, , , , ,  Clare, John,  Clark, Timothy, , ,  Clarke, Charles Cowden,  Clarke, Norma, , ,  Clarkson, Catherine, ,  Coburn, Kathleen,  Coleridge, H.N., ,  Coleridge, John Taylor,  Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, , , , , , , , , , , , –, , –, , , , , , , , , , ,      ‘The Ancient Mariner’, , , –, –, –, , , ,  Biographia Literaria, , , , , –, , , , ,  ‘Christabel’, –,  conversation poems, ,  ‘Dejection: An Ode’,  The Friend, , ,  ‘Frost at Midnight’, , –,  ‘Kubla Khan’, , , , ,  lectures, – letters, –, , ,  ‘Monody on the Death of Chatterton’, – notebooks, –, , ,  Sibylline Leaves,  Table Talk, ,  ‘The Desire of Posthumous Fame’,  ‘The Eolian Harp’, –, ,  The Stateman’s Manual,  ‘This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison,  Coleridge, Sara, , ,  Collier, John Payne, ,  Collins, William,  Colvin, Sidney,  Compagnon, Antoine, ,  Conder, Josiah,  consumerism, ,  Cooper, James Fennimore,  Coote, Stephen,  copyright law, , , –,  Cornwall, Barry, –, ; see also Bryan Waller Procter Correggio,  Cottle, Joseph, ,  Cowley, Abraham, ,  Cowley, Hannah,  Croker, John,  Cross, Nigel,  crypts,  culture, –,  Curran, Stuart, ,  Dallas, Robert,  Daniel, Samuel, –,  Dante,  Davenant, William, – Davies, Scrope,  de Almeida, Hermione,  death, , –, –, , , , ,  deconstruction,  deixis,  Della Cruscans,  de Man, Paul, , –,  Derrida, Jacques, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  de-Shalit, Avner,  De Quincey, Thomas, , , –, , , , , ,  Dermody, Thomas, ,  de Staël, Mme,  De Vere, Aubrey, , , , ,  Dibdin, Thomas, ,  Dickstein, Morris,  Diderot, Denis, –,  D’Israeli, Isaac, , , , , –, , , , , , ,  Dollimore, Jonathan, ,  Donaldson, Ian,  Index Donne, John, , ,  dreams, –,  Dryden, John, , ,  Dutoit, Ulysse, ,  Dyce, Alexander, – Eagleton, Terry,  Edwards, John,  Eilenberg, Susan, , –,  Eliot, T.S.,  Empson, William,  enlightenment, the, ,  ephemeral, the, , , –, , , , ,  epitaphs, –,  Erickson, Lee, – Erskine-Hill, Howard, – ethics, –, –,  Everest, Kelvin, , ,  Falconet, Étienne-Maurice, ,  fame, –, , , –, –, –, , –, –, , , , , , , , , , ,  Feather, John, , ,  Fenwick, Elizabeth, , ,  Ferguson, Frances, ,  Ferry, Anne,  figurative language, , , –, , – Flew, Anthony,  Ford, George H., , ,  Foucault, Michel,  Fowler, Alastair, , – Fraser, Donald,  Freeman, John,  Frere, John Hookham,  Freud, Sigmund, , , , , , , , ,  Fry, Paul H., ,  Fulford, Timothy, , , ,  future, the, , , , , –, ; writing for, ,  gender, –, , , , –, , ; and audience, –, ; and the canon, –, , –; and domesticity, , –, ; and the ephemeral, –, , ; and fame, , –, –, ; and femininity, , ; and masculinity, , ; and neglect, , , ; and Romanticism, –,  genius, , –, , –, , , , , , , –,  ghosts, , , –, , –, , – gift, the, , , , –, –  Gilbert, Sandra, ,  Gilfillan, George,  Gill, Stephen,  Gilligan, Carol,  Gisborne, John,  Gisborne, Maria,  Gittings, Robert, –, , , – Glendening, John,  Godwin, William, –, , –, ,  Goldsmith, Oliver, ,  Goldstein, Laurence,  Grant, Elizabeth,  Grattan, Thomas Colley, ,  Gray, Thomas, , ,  Gregory, George, – Griffin, Gerald,  Griffiths, Eric, ,  Grigely, Joseph C.,  Gubar, Susan, ,  Guillory, John, ,  Hallam, Arthur Henry, , ,  Hamilton, Ian,  Hammond, James,  Hardison, O.B.,  Hardy, Thomas,  Hartmann, Nicolai, ,  Haydon, B.R.,  Hayley, William,  Hazlitt, William, , –, –, , , –, , , , , , , , , ,      ‘An Essay on the Principles of Human Action’,  ‘On Different Sorts of Fame’,  ‘On Posthumous Fame’, ,  ‘On the Feeling of Immortality in Youth’, , ,  ‘On the Living Poets’, , , , –, – Spirit of the Age, , , –, ,  ‘Whether Genius is Conscious of its Powers?’,  Heffernan, James A.W.,  Hemans, Felicia, , , , , –, , , , ,      ‘A Parting Song’,  ‘Joan of Arc, in Rheims’,  ‘Properzia Rossi’, – ‘The Image in Lava’, – ‘The Last Song of Sappho’, – Heraclitus,  Heraud, John,  Herrick, Robert,   Index Heyd, David, ,  Hill, Alan G.,  Himelick, Raymond, , ,  Hitchener, Elizabeth, –,  Hobhouse, John Cam, , , , ,  Hodgson, John, , , ,  Hofkosh, Sonia, – Hogg, Thomas Jefferson, –,  Holmes, Richard,  Homans, Margaret, ,  Homer,  Hood, Thomas, – Hookham, Thomas,  Horace, , , ,  Horne, Richard Henry,  Howes, Raymond F.,  Hudson, Nicholas,  Hume, David, ,  Hunt, Leigh, , , , , , , ,  Hutchinson, Sara,  identity, –, , , , , , ; authorial, , –, , –, , , –, –, , –; and gender, –,  immortality, , –, , –, , , , ,  influence, anxiety of,  intertextuality,  Ireland, William Henry, , , , – Irving, Edward,  Jacobus, Mary, , – Jeffers, Robinson,  Jenner, Edward,  Jewsbury, Maria Jane, , –, , , – Johnson, Samuel, , –, , , , ,      ‘An Essay on Epitaphs’, ,  ‘Preface to the Plays of William Shakespeare’, –,  Rasselas,  Johnston, Kenneth, – Jonson, Ben, , , ,  Joyce, James,  Keats, Fanny,  Keats, John, , , , , –, , , , , , , –, , , , , , , ; biographies of, –, ; sales figures for,      ‘Bright Star’,  Collected Poems, – Endymion, ,  ‘Hyperion’, , ,  ‘Isabella’, ,  ‘Lamia’,  letters, ,  ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’, –, , , ,  ‘Ode on Indolence’,  ‘Ode on Melancholy’,  odes, ,  ‘Ode to a Nightingale’, , , , , , , ,  ‘Ode to Psyche’, ,  ‘On Seeing the Elgin Marbles’,  ‘On Visiting the Tomb of Burns’,  ‘The Eve of St Agnes’,  ‘The Fall of Hyperion’, ,  ‘This living hand, now warm and capable’, , , ,  ‘This mortal body of a thousand days’, , , –,  ‘This pleasant tale is like a little copse’, ,  ‘To Autumn’, ,  ‘To Chatterton’,  ‘To Haydon’,  ‘To My Brother George’,  ‘When I have fears that I may cease to be’, ,  Kelly, Gary, – Kenner, Hugh,  Kenyon, James,  Kinnaird, Douglas, ,  Kneale, Douglas J.,  Knight, Greg,  Kroeber, Karl,  Lacan, Jacques,  Lamb, Charles, , , , – Landon, Letitia Elizabeth, , , , , –, , , ,      ‘Felicia Hemans’, – ‘Lines of Life’, – ‘Night at Sea’,  ‘On the Character of Mrs Hemans’s Writing’,  ‘On Wordsworth’s Cottage’,  ‘Song’, – ‘Stanzas on the Death of Mrs Hemans’,  ‘The Laurel’, ,  Langerhanns, Anton,  Lansdown, Richard, – last man narratives,  Leavis, F.R.,  Index Leighton, Angela,  Levinson, Marjorie, ,  Lewis, Matthew,  Lickbarrow, Isabella, , ,  Lillo, George,  Linkin, Harriet Kramer,  literacy, ,  literature, , , –, , , –, , , , ,  Locke, John,  Lockhart, John Gibson,  Longmans,  Lonsdale, Roger,  Lord Camden, – Lord Lonsdale,  Lowell, James Russell,  Lyon, John, Lyotard, Jean-Franỗois, McCabe, Richard, McGann, Jerome, , , , ,  MacGillivray, J.R.,  McKendrick, Neil,  Mackenzie, Henry,  Macovski, Michael, ,  Macpherson, James,  Malone, Edward,  Malthus, Thomas,  Mandelstam, Osip,  Manning, Peter J., ,  Marchand, Leslie, – Marin, Louis,  Marquess, William,  Martineau, Harriet, – Marx, Karl,  Mason, William,  Mellor, Anne, –, , ,  Merivale, John Herman, , ,  Methuen, Thomas,  Michasiw, Kim,  Mill, John Stuart,  Miller, J Hillis, ,  Millgate, Michael,  Mills-Courts, Karen, ,  Milnes, Richard Monckton, –, ,  Milton, John, , , , , , , , , , , , ,      Aeropagitica,  ‘Lycidas’,  Paradise Lost, , , ,  Mitchell, J Forbes,  Mitford, Mary Russell,  modernity,  Monkhouse, Elizabeth,   Montgomery, James,  Moore, Thomas, , ,  Moorman, Mary, , –, , ,  More, Hannah, ,  Morritt, John,  Moses,  Motion, Andrew,  mourning, , –, –,  Moxon, Edward,  Murray, John, , , , – Murray, Penelope, – Nancy, Jean-Luc,  narcissism,  neglect, , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , –, , , –, ,  neoclassicism, , , – Newland, Sherwin B.,  Newlyn, Lucy,  Newton, Isaac,  Nichols, Ashton,  Nietzsche, Friedrich,  noise, , , , , , , , –, –, –, – Ollier, Charles, ,  O’Neill, Michael, , , ,  originality, –, , –, , ,  Orme, Edward,  Orpheus,  Otway, Thomas, ,  Ovid,  Owenson, Sydney,  Partridge, Ernest, – Patmore, Coventry, , , ,  patronage, ,  Payne, Richard,  Peacock, Thomas Love, , , ,  Petrarch, ,  phonocentrism,  Plato, , , ,  Platz, Norbert H.,  Plug, Jan,  poet, role of, , , –, , – poetry, market for, –, , –, – Poggioli, Renato,  Polidori, John,  Poole, Thomas,  Pope, Alexander, , –, –, , , ,  popularity, , –, –, , , ,  Porter, Anna Maria,  Porter, Noah,   Index postmodernism,  Prior, Matthew,  Procter, Bryan Waller, , , ; see also Barry Cornwall professionalism, of the writer, , , , –,  Pye, Henry,  Rahamazani, Jahan,  Rajan, Tilottama, , ,  Rand, Richard,  Rank, Otto, –,  Raven, James,  Raymond, James,  Raysor, Thomas M.,  readers, –, –, , –, –, , –, – reading public, the,  reception, –, , , , –, –, ,  redemption, culture of, , –, –, , , , , , , –, – Reed, Arden,  Reed, Henry,  Rembrandt,  Renaissance, the, , , , – representation, , , , –, – reputation, , –, –,  Reynolds, J.H., , , , , ,  Ricks, Christopher, , , ,  Riede, David,  Robinson, Henry Crabb, , , ,  Robinson, Mary, , , ,  Roe, Nicholas,  Rogers, Samuel, –, ,  Rollins, Hyder Edward,  Romanticism, –, , , , –, , , –, , , ; and gender, –, , , ; and poetics, – Rose, Gillian, ,  Rose, Mark, ,  Ross, Marlon, , , –, , –,  Rossetti, W.M.,  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, ,  Rubentein, Jill,  Runge, Laura L.,  Ruskin, John, ,  Saunders, J.W., ,  Savage, Richard,  Savile, Anthony,  Schopenhauer, Arthur, , ,  Schor, Esther,  Schwartz, Lewis M.,  Scott, Grant, ,  Scott, Sir Walter, , , , , , ; sales figures for,  secular, the, ,  Sélincourt, Ernest de, – Seneca,  sensibility, , ,  Severn, Joseph, ,  Shakespeare, William, , , –, –, , , , ,  Sheats, Paul D.,  Shelley, Mary, –, – Shelley, Percy Bysshe, , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , ; sales figures for, , ; and convulsions, –     ‘A Defence of Poetry’, , , , –, , ,  ‘Adonais’, , , , , , , , ,  ‘Alastor’, , , , , ,  ‘A Philosophical View of Reform’, – ‘England in ’,  ‘Epipsychidion’, ,  Hellas, –,  ‘Hymn to Intellectual Beauty’,  ‘Julian and Maddalo’,  Laon and Cythna,  letters, , –, , –, , ,  ‘Letter to Maria Gisborne’, ,  ‘Lines Written Among the Euganean Hills’,  ‘Mont Blanc’,  ‘Ode to the West Wind’, ,  ‘On a Future State’,  ‘On the Devil and Devils’,  ‘On the Punishment of Death’,  Original Poetry,  ‘Ozymandias’, , , , ,  Peter Bell the Third,  Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson,  Prometheus Unbound,  Queen Mab,  ‘Speculations on Metaphysics,  ‘Stanzas Written in Dejection’,  ‘The Cloud’,  ‘The Elysian Fields’,  The Revolt of Islam, ,  The Triumph of Life, , , , ,  ‘To a Skylark’, – ‘To Constantia’,  Smedley, Edward,  Smith, Barbara Herrnstein, ,  Smith, Thomas,  Socrates, , ,  Southey, Robert, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  Index     ‘Enquiry into the Copyright Act’, –,  Life of Byron,  ‘My Days Among the Dead are Past’,  Specimens of the Later English Poets,  The Lay of the Laureate,  The Works of Chatterton,  speech, –, , , – Spenser, Edmund, ,  Staten, Henry,  Stephenson, Glennis,  Sterling, John, , ,  Stevens, Wallace, ‘A Postcard from the Volcano’,  Stewart, Garrett, , ,  Stone, Lawrence,  suicide, –, –, ,  survival, , , , , –, , , , , –, , , , , ; intergenerational, , –, –,  Swift, Jonathan, , , ,  Talfourd, T.N.,  Tate, Nathan,  Taylor and Hessey,  Taylor, Jane,  Taylor, Jeremy,  Taylor, John,  Tennyson, Alfred Lord, , ,  Thomson, James, ,  Tighe, Mary,  time, test of, , , ,  Tobin, James,  Todorov, Tzvetan,  Tonson v Collins,  Tooke, Horne,  Trelawny, Edward, –, –,  Trilling, Lionel,  value: judgement of, , –, , , , –,  economic,  Vernant, Jean-Pierre,  voice, , –, , , , , , ,  Walker, Cheryl,  Waller, Edmund, ,  Wallis, Henry, ,  Walton, Izaak,  Ward, Aileen, , , , , – Warton, Thomas,  Watson, Robert,  Watts, Alaric,   Webb, Timothy, , ,  Wheeler, Michael,  White, Henry Kirke, ,  White, Newman, , –, , ,  Williams, Helen Maria, , – Williams, Raymond, – Wilson, John,  Winspur, Steven,  women writers, , , –; see also gender Wolfson, Susan, , , , , , ,  Wollstonecraft, Mary, – Woodhouse, Richard,  Woodmansee, Martha, , ,  Woodring, Carl,  Wordsworth, Catharine, –, , ,  Wordsworth, Dora, ,  Wordsworth, Dorothy, , , –, , , , , –, –, , , , ,  Wordsworth, Mary, –,  Wordsworth, Thomas, , –, –, ,  Wordsworth, William, , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , ; sales figures for, –, ; career of, –; on copyright law, –; on the death of children, –; on epitaphs, –     ‘Afterthought’,  ‘Anecdote for Fathers’,  ‘An Evening Walk’,  ‘A Poet’s Epitaph’, ,  ‘A slumber did my spirit seal’,  ‘Characteristics of a Child Three Years Old’,  Descriptive Sketches,  Essays on Epitaphs, , –, ,  ‘Essay, Supplementary to the Preface’, , –, , , , , ,  ‘Goody Blake and Harry Gill’,  ‘High is our calling, Friend,  ‘Home at Grasmere’,  ‘Intimations of Immortality’,  letters, , , –, , , , ,  ‘Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey’, , , , , – Lyrical Ballads, ,  ‘Maternal Grief ’,  ‘Michael’, ,  Miscellaneous Poems,  Poems in Two Volumes,  Preface to the Lyrical Ballads, ,   Wordsworth, William, (cont.) ‘Resolution and Independence’,  ‘River Duddon’,  ‘Six months to six years added’, ,  ‘Surprized by Joy’, , , –, – ‘The Discharged Soldier’,  The Excursion, , ,  The Prelude, , , , –, , , –,  The Recluse, , ,  Index ‘The Ruined Cottage’,  ‘The Thorn’, – ‘These chairs they have no words to utter, – ‘Strange Fits of Passion’,  ‘Vernal Ode’,  ‘We Are Seven’, ,  Young, Edward, , –, , ,  Young, Julian Charles,          General editors   , University of Oxford  , University of Chicago       Romantic Correspondence: Women, Politics and the Fiction of Letters    British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire       Edmund Burke’s Aesthetic Ideology: Language, Gender and Political Economy in Revolution     Poetry as an Occupation and an Art in Britain, –       In the Theatre of Romanticism: Coleridge, Nationalism, Women             Keats, Narrative and Audience      Romance and Revolution: Shelley and the Politics of a Genre       Literature, Education, and Romanticism: Reading as Social Practice, –     Women Writing about Money: Women’s Fiction in England, –           Shelley and the Revolution in Taste: The Body and the Natural World         William Cobbett: The Politics of Style        The Rise of Supernatural Fiction, –       Women Travel Writers and the Language of Aesthetics, –       Napoleon and English Romanticism      Romantic Vagrancy: Wordsworth and the Simulation of Freedom         Wordsworth and the Geologists         Wordsworth’s Pope: A Study in Literary Historiography       The Politics of Sensibility: Race, Gender and Commerce in the Sentimental Novel      Reading Daughters’ Fictions, –: Novels and Society from Manley to Edgeworth         Romantic Identities: Varieties of Subjectivity, –    Print Politics: The Press and Radical Opposition in Early Nineteenth-Century England        Reinventing Allegory     British Satire and the Politics of Style, –       The Romantic Reformation: Religious Politics in English Literature, –         De Quincey’s Romanticism: Canonical Minority and the Forms of Transmission       Coleridge on Dreaming: Romanticism, Dreams and the Medical Imagination        Romantic Imperialism Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity            Ideology and Utopia in the Poetry of William Blake       Sexual Politics and the Romantic Author        Lyric and Labour in the Romantic Tradition        Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and their Circle     Rousseau, Robespierre and English Romanticism        Contesting the Gothic Fiction, Genre and Cultural Conflict, ‒       Romanticism, Aesthetics, and Nationalism             Romantic Poets and the Culture of Posterity