Understanding GPS Principles and Applications Second Edition

Understanding GPS Principles and Applications Second Edition For a listing of recent titles in the Artech House Mobile Communications Series, turn to the back of this book Understanding GPS Principles and Applications Second Edition Elliott D Kaplan Christopher J Hegarty Editors artechhouse.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Understanding GPS: principles and applications/[editors], Elliott Kaplan, Christopher Hegarty.—2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references ISBN 1-58053-894-0 (alk paper) Global Positioning System I Kaplan, Elliott D II Hegarty, C (Christopher J.) G109.5K36 2006 623.89’3—dc22 2005056270 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Kaplan, Elliott D Understanding GPS: principles and applications.—2nd ed Global positioning system I Title II Hegarty, Christopher J 629’.045 ISBN-10: 1-58053-894-0 Cover design by Igor Valdman Tables 9.11 through 9.16 have been reprinted with permission from ETSI 3GPP TSs and TRs are the property of ARIB, ATIS, ETSI, CCSA, TTA, and TTC who jointly own the copyright to them They are subject to further modifications and are therefore provided to you “as is” for informational purposes only Further use is strictly prohibited © 2006 ARTECH HOUSE, INC 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062 All rights reserved Printed and bound in the United States of America No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-894-0 10 To my wife Andrea, whose limitless love and support enabled my contribution to this work She is my shining star —Elliott D Kaplan To my family—Patti, Michelle, David, and Megan— for all their encouragement and support —Christopher J Hegarty Contents Preface Acknowledgments CHAPTER Introduction xv xvii 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Condensed GPS Program History 1.3 GPS Overview 1.3.1 PPS 1.3.2 SPS 1.4 GPS Modernization Program 1.5 GALILEO Satellite System 1.6 Russian GLONASS System 1.7 Chinese BeiDou System 1.8 Augmentations 1.9 Markets and Applications 1.9.1 Land 1.9.2 Aviation 1.9.3 Space Guidance 1.9.4 Maritime 1.10 Organization of the Book References 4 10 10 11 12 13 14 14 19 CHAPTER Fundamentals of Satellite Navigation 21 2.1 Concept of Ranging Using TOA Measurements 2.1.1 Two-Dimensional Position Determination 2.1.2 Principle of Position Determination Via Satellite-Generated Ranging Signals 2.2 Reference Coordinate Systems 2.2.1 Earth-Centered Inertial Coordinate System 2.2.2 Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed Coordinate System 2.2.3 World Geodetic System 2.2.4 Height Coordinates and the Geoid 2.3 Fundamentals of Satellite Orbits 2.3.1 Orbital Mechanics 2.3.2 Constellation Design 2.4 Position Determination Using PRN Codes 2.4.1 Determining Satellite-to-User Range 2.4.2 Calculation of User Position 21 21 24 26 27 28 29 32 34 34 43 50 51 54 vii viii Contents 2.5 Obtaining User Velocity 2.6 Time and GPS 2.6.1 UTC Generation 2.6.2 GPS System Time 2.6.3 Receiver Computation of UTC (USNO) References 58 61 61 62 62 63 CHAPTER GPS System Segments 67 3.1 Overview of the GPS System 3.1.1 Space Segment Overview 3.1.2 Control Segment (CS) Overview 3.1.3 User Segment Overview 3.2 Space Segment Description 3.2.1 GPS Satellite Constellation Description 3.2.2 Constellation Design Guidelines 3.2.3 Space Segment Phased Development 3.3 Control Segment 3.3.1 Current Configuration 3.3.2 CS Planned Upgrades 3.4 User Segment 3.4.1 GPS Set Characteristics 3.4.2 GPS Receiver Selection References 67 67 68 68 68 69 71 71 87 88 100 103 103 109 110 CHAPTER GPS Satellite Signal Characteristics 113 4.1 Overview 4.2 Modulations for Satellite Navigation 4.2.1 Modulation Types 4.2.2 Multiplexing Techniques 4.2.3 Signal Models and Characteristics 4.3 Legacy GPS Signals 4.3.1 Frequencies and Modulation Format 4.3.2 Power Levels 4.3.3 Autocorrelation Functions and Power Spectral Densities 4.3.4 Cross-Correlation Functions and CDMA Performance 4.4 Navigation Message Format 4.5 Modernized GPS Signals 4.5.1 L2 Civil Signal 4.5.2 L5 4.5.3 M Code 4.5.4 L1 Civil Signal 4.6 Summary References 113 113 113 115 116 123 123 133 135 140 142 145 145 147 148 150 150 150 Contents ix CHAPTER Satellite Signal Acquisition, Tracking, and Data Demodulation 153 5.1 Overview 5.2 GPS Receiver Code and Carrier Tracking 5.2.1 Predetection Integration 5.2.2 Baseband Signal Processing 5.2.3 Digital Frequency Synthesis 5.2.4 Carrier Aiding of Code Loop 5.2.5 External Aiding 5.3 Carrier Tracking Loops 5.3.1 Phase Lock Loops 5.3.2 Costas Loops 5.3.3 Frequency Lock Loops 5.4 Code Tracking Loops 5.5 Loop Filters 5.6 Measurement Errors and Tracking Thresholds 5.6.1 PLL Tracking Loop Measurement Errors 5.6.2 FLL Tracking Loop Measurement Errors 5.6.3 C/A and P(Y) Code Tracking Loop Measurement Errors 5.6.4 Modernized GPS M Code Tracking Loop Measurement Errors 5.7 Formation of Pseudorange, Delta Pseudorange, and Integrated Doppler 5.7.1 Pseudorange 5.7.2 Delta Pseudorange 5.7.3 Integrated Doppler 5.8 Signal Acquisition 5.8.1 Tong Search Detector 5.8.2 M of N Search Detector 5.8.3 Direct Acquisition of GPS Military Signals 5.9 Sequence of Initial Receiver Operations 5.10 Data Demodulation 5.11 Special Baseband Functions 5.11.1 Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio Meter 5.11.2 Phase Lock Detector with Optimistic and Pessimistic Decisions 5.11.3 False Frequency Lock and False Phase Lock Detector 5.12 Use of Digital Processing 5.13 Considerations for Indoor Applications 5.14 Codeless and Semicodeless Processing References 153 155 158 159 161 162 164 164 165 166 170 173 179 183 184 192 194 199 200 201 216 218 219 223 227 229 231 232 233 233 233 235 235 237 239 240 CHAPTER Interference, Multipath, and Scintillation 243 6.1 Overview 6.2 Radio Frequency Interference 6.2.1 Types and Sources of RF Interference 6.2.2 Effects of RF Interference on Receiver Performance 6.2.3 Interference Mitigation 6.3 Multipath 243 243 244 247 278 279 x Contents 6.3.1 Multipath Characteristics and Models 6.3.2 Effects of Multipath on Receiver Performance 6.3.3 Multipath Mitigation 6.4 Ionospheric Scintillation References 281 285 292 295 297 CHAPTER Performance of Stand-Alone GPS 301 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Measurement Errors 7.2.1 Satellite Clock Error 7.2.2 Ephemeris Error 7.2.3 Relativistic Effects 7.2.4 Atmospheric Effects 7.2.5 Receiver Noise and Resolution 7.2.6 Multipath and Shadowing Effects 7.2.7 Hardware Bias Errors 7.2.8 Pseudorange Error Budgets 7.3 PVT Estimation Concepts 7.3.1 Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision in GPS 7.3.2 Accuracy Metrics 7.3.3 Weighted Least Squares (WLS) 7.3.4 Additional State Variables 7.3.5 Kalman Filtering 7.4 GPS Availability 7.4.1 Predicted GPS Availability Using the Nominal 24-Satellite GPS Constellation 7.4.2 Effects of Satellite Outages on GPS Availability 7.5 GPS Integrity 7.5.1 Discussion of Criticality 7.5.2 Sources of Integrity Anomalies 7.5.3 Integrity Enhancement Techniques 7.6 Continuity 7.7 Measured Performance References 301 302 304 305 306 308 319 319 320 321 322 322 328 332 333 334 334 335 337 343 345 345 346 360 361 375 CHAPTER Differential GPS 379 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Spatial and Time Correlation Characteristics of GPS Errors 8.2.1 Satellite Clock Errors 8.2.2 Ephemeris Errors 8.2.3 Tropospheric Errors 8.2.4 Ionospheric Errors 8.2.5 Receiver Noise and Multipath 8.3 Code-Based Techniques 8.3.1 Local-Area DGPS 379 381 381 382 384 387 390 391 391 Contents xi 8.3.2 Regional-Area DGPS 8.3.3 Wide-Area DGPS 8.4 Carrier-Based Techniques 8.4.1 Precise Baseline Determination in Real Time 8.4.2 Static Application 8.4.3 Airborne Application 8.4.4 Attitude Determination 8.5 Message Formats 8.5.1 Version 2.3 8.5.2 Version 3.0 8.6 Examples 8.6.1 Code Based 8.6.2 Carrier Based References 394 395 397 398 418 420 423 425 425 428 429 429 450 454 CHAPTER Integration of GPS with Other Sensors and Network Assistance 459 9.1 Overview 9.2 GPS/Inertial Integration 9.2.1 GPS Receiver Performance Issues 9.2.2 Inertial Sensor Performance Issues 9.2.3 The Kalman Filter 9.2.4 GPSI Integration Methods 9.2.5 Reliability and Integrity 9.2.6 Integration with CRPA 9.3 Sensor Integration in Land Vehicle Systems 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.2 Review of Available Sensor Technology 9.3.3 Sensor Integration Principles 9.4 Network Assistance 9.4.1 Historical Perspective of Assisted GPS 9.4.2 Requirements of the FCC Mandate 9.4.3 Total Uncertainty Search Space 9.4.4 GPS Receiver Integration in Cellular Phones—Assistance Data from Handsets 9.4.5 Types of Network Assistance References 459 460 460 464 466 470 488 489 491 491 496 515 522 526 528 535 540 543 554 CHAPTER 10 GALILEO 559 10.1 GALILEO Program Objectives 10.2 GALILEO Services and Performance 10.2.1 Open Service (OS) 10.2.2 Commercial Service (CS) 10.2.3 Safety of Life (SOL) Service 10.2.4 Public Regulated Service (PRS) 10.2.5 Support to Search and Rescue (SAR) Service 559 559 560 562 562 562 563 Index Integration, 459–554 CRPA, 489–91 GPSI, 470–88 GPS/inertial, 460–91 land vehicle systems, 491–522 overview, 459–60 receiver, in cellular phones, 540–43 sensor, 491–522 ultratight, 485 Integrity, 343–60 anomalies, sources, 345–46 criticality, 345 defined, 343–44 enhancement techniques, 346–60 GALILEO, determination, 589–91 performance requirements, 353 Intelligent transportation systems (ITS), 646–47 Interagency GLONASS Coordination Board (IGCB), 597 Interference acquisition effects, 256–69 AGC and, 248–50 bandlimited white noise, 260–61 C/A code vulnerability, 269–73 carrier tracking effects, 256–69 data demodulation effects, 256–69 effect on code tracking, 273–78 effect on receiver performance, 247–78 front-end considerations, 247–48 Gaussian, mitigating, 279 intentional, 243, 244–45 jamming, 244–45 matched spectrum, 259–60 mitigation, 278–79 narrowband, 259 narrowband, mitigating, 278 power ratio, 273 pulse, mitigating, 278 radio frequency, 243–79 range to, computing, 267–69 signal levels, computing, 265–67 spectrum matching wideband, mitigating, 279 spoofing, 244–45 types and sources, 244–47 unintentional, 245–47 Interferometric GPS (IGPS), 420 Intergovernment Navigation Information Center (INIC), 615 International GNSS service (IGS), 453–54 693 International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), 31–32 International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), 578 Internet-Based Global DGPS (IGDG), 450 Intervoting, 116 I/O devices, 108–9 Ionosphere, 295 Ionospheric delay difference, 390 Ionospheric divergence, 302, 311 Ionospheric effects, 310–14 Ionospheric errors DGPS, 387–90 WADGPS, 395 Ionospheric-free pseudorange, 312–13 Ionospheric modeling geometry, 313 Ionospheric pierce points (IPPs), 438 altitude, 440 defined, 388 latitude/longitude calculation, 440 relative position, finding, 440 Ionospheric refraction, 311 Ionospheric scintillation, 295–97 amplitude fading due to, 295–96 defined, 243 perturbation, 295 phase variation due to, 296–97 simulated effects, 296 tracking outages, 297 IRIDIUM LEO constellation, 46 Issue of data ephemeris (IODE), 144 Issue of data (IOD), 426 J Jammers, 257 BLWN null-to-null, 268 C/A code, 272 CW, 269 EIRP of, 269 LOS range, 269 range to, as function of EIRP, 270–71 Jamming, 244–45 BLWN waveform, 264 defined, 243 resistance, improving, 658 resistance quality factor, 258 resistance quality factors, summary, 261 situational awareness, 255–56 tolerable, 265, 266 tolerable power, computing, 261–65 Jamming-to-received-signal power ratio, 257 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, 627 694 Japanese QZSS program, 625–29 J/N meter, 255–56 JPL approximation, 176 J/S computing, 261–65 as function of receiver tracking threshold, 265 performance, 263 performance summary, 264 K Kalman filter, 94, 95, 334 complementary, 408, 409 defined, 334, 466 equation summary, 468 for estimating x, 467 features, 97 illustrated, 468 implementing, 517 of partitioned design, 487 in planned upgrades, 100–101 processing rate, 486 processing scheme, 469 real-time, 516 state vector, 516 two-accelerometer INS model, 515–19 ubiquitous, 515–22 updates, 517 Kalman gain, 467 matrix, 469 matrix computation, 478–79 Keplerian orbital elements, 37, 39, 40 L L1 civil (L1C) signal, 150 L2 civil (L2C) signal, 145–47 convolutional encoder, 147 generator illustration, 146 power spectrum, 146 L5 signal, 147–48 generation, 147 I5/Q5 PRN code generation, 148 Land applications, 11–12 navigation, 646–47 surveying, 418 Land vehicle systems integration, 491–522 principles, 515–22 sensor technology, 496–515 Launch and early orbit phase (LEOP), 582 L-band signal transmission environments, 529 Index Least-squares ambiguity decorrelation adjustment (LAMBDA), 412 Least-squares ambiguity search technique (LSAST), 412 Least squares estimate, 663–64 Left-hand circularly polarized (LHCP) antennas, 105 Legacy Accuracy Improvement Initiative (L-AII), 88, 100–101 Legacy GPS signals, 123–42 autocorrelation functions, 135–42 direct sequence PRN code generation, 127–33 frequencies and modulation format, 123–33 illustrated, 145 power levels, 133–35 power spectral densities, 135–42 structure, 127 structure illustration, 124 See also Signals Linear feedback shift register, 118 Line biases, 424 Line of sight (LOS), Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS), 359 DH/RVR for, 448 ground facility (LGF), 446 integrity monitoring function, 448 performance requirements, 448 ranging sources availability, 449 segments, 446 Local-area DGPS (LADGPS), 391–94 code-based, performance, 393–94 defined, 391 implementation, 391 position domain corrections, 391 pseudorange domain corrections, 392–93 See also Differential GPS (DGPS) Local oscillators (LOs), 156 Location measurement units (LMUs), 541 Location technologies, 549 Loop filters, 179–83 analog, 180 characteristics, 180 digital, 181 first-order, 180, 181 FLL-assisted PLL, 182 objective, 179 second-order, 180, 181 third-order, 180, 181 Loops AFC, 170 carrier tracking, 164–73 Index code tracking, 173–78 Costas, 166–70 frequency lock (FLLs), 170–72 phase lock (PLLs), 165–66 M Magnetic compasses, 514–15 Majority vote, 116 Map aiding, 505, 506 calibration, 506, 507 databases, 504–7 matching, 505 Mapping applications, 648 Mapping functions, 312 dry component, 319 navigation-oriented, 318 wet component, 319 Marine applications, 14 navigation, 642–45 navigator outputs, 659 Market(s), 635–41 addressable, 639, 640 commercial, 637 competitive systems and, 640–41 financial projections, 660–61 forecasts, 635 GALILEO, 636, 638–39 GPS user-oriented, 639 growth, 640 limitations, 640–41 military, 637 policy and, 640–41 promise, 641 recreational, 650 scope, 638–39 segmentation, 638–39 unique aspects, 639–40 user equipment needs for, 657–60 value, 638–39 See also Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Mask angle, 341 Master control station (MCS), 68 data processing, 92–100 data processing software, 88 data-smoothing interval, 93 description, 89–90 ephemeris and clock processing, 95–97 estimation/prediction function, 92 functions, 89 695 measurement processing, 92–95 monitor stations and, 90–92 navigation service integrity monitoring, 90 primary task, 89 problems, 346 upload message dissemination, 99–100 upload message formulation, 97–99 Matched spectrum interference, 259–60 Matrix/vector scheme, 61 Maximum likelihood estimate, 663 M code, 5, 148–50 BOC modulation, 149 defined, 148 direct acquisition, 229–31 sideband acquisition processing, 230 signal broadcast, 150 signal generation, 149 spot beam, 150 tracking loop measurement errors, 199–200 MDGPS/NDGPS, 429–31 coverage, 431 data link, 430–31 defined, 429 international harmonization, 431 network architecture, 430 network design, 429–30 performance, 431 Mean mission duration (MMD), 74, 75 Mean motion, 39 Mean radial error (MRE), 465 Measurement errors, 183–200 atmospheric effects, 308–9 C/A and P(Y) code tracking loop, 194–99 ephemeris, 305–6 FLL tracking loop, 192–94 hardware bias errors, 320–21 M code tracking loop, 199–200 multipath and shadowing effects, 319 PLL, 319 PLL tracking loop, 184–91 pseudorange error budgets, 321–22 receiver noise and resolution, 319 relativistic effects, 306–8 satellite clock, 304–5 stand-alone GPS, 302–22 Measurement information elements, 551 Measurement quality monitor (MQM), 449 MEMS technology, 504 Message formats DGPS, 425–29 navigation, 142–45 SBAS, 438 696 Message formats (continued) version 2.3, 425–28 version 3.0, 428–29 Microwave landing system (MLS), 420 Military applications, 654–57 autonomous receivers, 656 markets, 637 signal acquisition, 229–31 use equipment, 655–56 Mission control centers (MCCs), 433 Mobile station-assisted, 523 Mobile users, UTC computation, 63 Modernized GPS signals, 145–50 illustrated, 145 L1 civil (L1C), 150 L2 civil (L2C), 145–47 L5, 147–48 M code, 148–50 See also Signals Modulation BPSK, 113–14 DSSS, 114–15 GLONASS system, 608 types, 113–15 M of N search detector, 227–29 algorithm, 227 detection probability, 228 false alarm probability, 228 Monitor stations, 87, 90–92 clock, 97 combined Air Force and NGA network, 102 coverage, 91 defined, 90 list of, 90 MS-assist exchange, 549–51 MS-based exchange, 551–54 Multifunctional Navigation-Information Center (MNIC), 615 Multifunctional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), 13, 355 ground network, 435 ground segment, 432 proposed geostationary space segment/ service area, 445 Multipath, 279–95 antennas and, 293 characteristics, 281–85 defined, 243, 279 DGPS, 390–91 diffuse scattering model, 283 effect on receiver performance, 285–92 Index errors introduced by, 280 estimating delay lock loop (MEDLL), 294 in GNSS context, 280 indoor, 284 induced errors, 292 large delay, 279 mitigation, 292–95 models, 281–85 near-in, 285 one-path, effect on pseudorange estimation, 286, 288, 289 one-path specular model, 285 outdoor, 280 performance, assessing, 287 phases, 284 power, 290 reflections from nearby objects, 279–80 spread, 282 stand-alone GPS, 319 in terrestrial applications, 283 Multipath-to-direct ratio (MDR), 281 carrier phase error, 290 independence from range, 283 Multiple reference consistency check (MRCC), 449 Multiplexing CDMA, 115, 116 FDMA, 116 TDMA, 116 techniques, 115–16 N Narrowband interference, 259 Narrow-lane, 417 Nationwide DGPS See MDGPS/NDGPS Navigation accuracy, 90 air, 645–46 assistance, 546 civil applications, 641–47 dead-reckoning (DR), 461 defined, land, 646–47 marine, 642–45 measurement, incorporation rate, 203, 217 satellite, constellation design, 48–49 Navigation land Earth stations (NLESs), 433 Navigation message correction table (NMCT), 144 Navigation message format, 142–45 illustrated, 143 transmission, 143 Index Navigation message (GLONASS), 609–11 C/A, 610 P code, 610–11 Navigation-oriented mapping functions, 318 Navigation payload control, 72–73 illustrated, 73 Inmarsat 4, 444 overview, 72–74 responsibilities, 72 total (TNP), 81 Navigation/receiver processors, 108 NAVSTAR GPS, Neighbor test, 509 Network assistance, 522–54 acquisition, 543–44 cellular phone integration, 540–43 data, 525 FCC mandate requirements, 528–35 GPS positioning methods, 525 historical perspective, 526–27 mobile station, 523 navigation, 546 total uncertainty search space, 535–40 types, 543–54 Neuman-Hofman (NH) synchronization codes, 148 Niell mapping function, 318 Noise environment characteristics, 368–69 phase, 186–89 receiver, 319, 390–91 thermal, 185–86 white, 260–61 Noncoherent early-late processing (NELP) code tracking accuracy, 277 code tracking error, 275 error for BPSK-R, 277 lower bound code tracking error, 277 Nuisance parameters, 294 Numerically controlled oscillators (NCOs), 157, 158 carrier, 161 measurements, 161 update schedule, 205 Nyquist sampling theorem, 251 O Obliquity factor, 312, 441 Odometers, 519–20 OmniTRACS System, 646, 652, 653 697 Online Positioning User Service (OPUS) tool, 453 On-the-fly technique, 419 Orbital plane locations, 69 Orbital slot assignments, 69 Organization, this book, 14–19 Orthometric heights, 32 OS service (GALILEO), 560–62 Over-the-air location protocol standards, 548–54 MS-assist exchange, 549–51 MS-based exchange, 551–54 P Parity equations, 398 Parity space, 410 Partials derivatives, 56 Partitioned design, 484, 485 Partitioned tracker/navigator block diagram, 484 P code, 50 code accumulator synchronization, 206–16 design specification, 130 generation, 127 generator illustration, 131 GLONASS, 609 initial code sequences, 129 L2, power spectrum, 140 navigation message (GLONASS), 610–11 normalized/simplified autocorrelation function, 138 phase assignments, 129 power spectrum, 139 as PRN sequence, 128 setter algorithm flowchart, 213 setup, 209–14 successful handover to, 214 Pdfs for binary decision, 221 determining, 221–22 Nakagami-m, 296 Performance code-based LADGPS, 393–94 comparison across receivers, 375 core paradigm, 365 daily navigation report, 363 GALILEO, 559–63 GPS receiver issues, 460–64 local paradigm, 366 in moderate urban canyon, 494 on-orbit frequency standard, 370 optimal, 362 698 Performance (continued) regional paradigm, 365 in severe urban canyon, 495 three-dimensional position error, 372 Performance measurement, 361–75 contrast, 365 long-term accuracy, 361 low density, 366 See also Stand-alone GPS Phase alignment, 160 Phase lock detectors, 233–35 Phase lock loops (PLLs), 157, 165–66 bandwidth, 170 Costas, 170 discriminator, 165, 167, 168 jitter thresholds, 190, 191 measurement errors, 319 short-term pure modes, 166 thermal noise, 185–96 See also PLL tracking loop measurement errors Phase measurements, 61, 217 Phase noise Allan deviation oscillator, 187–88, 189 vibration-induced oscillator, 186–87 See also Noise Phase refractive index, 311 Physical environment characteristics, 369 PLL tracking loop measurement errors, 184–91 Allan deviation oscillator phase noise, 187–88, 189 dynamic stress error, 188–90 reference oscillator acceleration stress error, 190 sources, 184 thermal noise, 185–86 total, 190–91 vibration-induced oscillator phase noise, 186–87 See also Measurement errors Position, navigation, and timing (PNT) error vector, 368 global capability, 373 Position, velocity, and time (PVT) accuracy metrics, 328–32 additional state variables, 333–34 determination, 3, 67, 68 dilution of precision, 322–28 estimation concepts, 322–34 Kalman filtering, 334 weighted least squares (WLS), 332–33 Index Position determination with PRN codes, 50–58 three-dimensional, 24–26 two-dimensional, 21–24 user, calculating, 54–58 via satellite-generated ranging signals, 24–26 Position determining entity (PDE), 524 Position DOP (PDOP), 327 cumulative distribution, 336, 339 cumulative distribution, with four geostationary satellites, 358 GPS availability based on, 335 Positive feedback loop, 499 Postdetection integration, 158–59 Power-delay profile (PDP), 281, 284 Power flux densities (PFDs), 669 conversion, 673 defined, 671 Power spectral densities (PSDs), 117, 669 conversion, 673 decrease, 671 Power spectrum C/A code, 139 L1 C/A code, 141 L2 civil (L2C) signal, 146 L2 P(Y) code, 140 P(Y) code, 139 Power supply, 109 PPS users algorithms, 126 cryptographic keys, 124 Y-code access, 126 Y-code hardware, 126 Precise Positioning Service (PPS), Precision approach aircraft landing systems, 651 Precision time facility (PTF), 589 Predetection integration, 158–59 defined, 158 phase alignment, 160 Prepositioning, 462, 463 PRN codes autocorrelation characteristics, 135 defined, 114–15 finite-length, 118 generators, 71 I5/Q5 generation, 148 nonstandard (NSCs), 75 overview, 115 position determination with, 50–58 SBAS, 439 Index values as random coin-flip sequences, 120 Propagation delays, 281 free-space loss, 669–72 velocity, 309 PRS service (GALILEO), 562 Pseudolites, 128 airport, 449 ambiguity resolution, 421 defined, 128 Pseudorandom noise (PRN) modulation, Pseudorange, 201–16 code accumulators, 205–16 defined, 53, 201 delta, 216–18 domain corrections, 392–93 double difference, 405–6 error budgets, 321 indoor applications, measurements, 238–39 ionospheric-free, 312–13 measurements, 54, 202–4, 405 measurements, linearized, 547 measurement time skew, 204–5 narrow-lane, 417 one-path multipath effect, 286, 288, 289 representation, 55 satellite transmit time and, 201 single difference, 405 smoothing, 407–9 time equivalent, 303 Pseudosampling, 169 Pulse blanking, 278 Pure quaternion, 424 P(Y) code autocorrelation function, 141 cross-correlation level, 142 direct acquisition, 212–13 tracking loop measurement errors, 194–99 Q QR factorization, 410, 412, 413 Quadrature sampling, 169 QZSS program, 625–29 constellation, 626–27 future development, 629 ground support, 628 introduction, 625 navigation services/signals, 628–29 orbit, 626–27 organizational structure, 626 overview, 625–26 reference systems, 628 699 spacecraft development, 627–28 system coverage/accuracy, 629 user equipment, 628 R Radio determination satellite service (RDSS), navigation services, 621 service infrastructure, 618–21 Radio frequency interference, 243–79 Radionavigation aids, RAIM availability, 353–55 availability, improving, 355 availability results, 359 fault detection, 354 outages, maximum duration, 359 RAIM algorithms, 346 detection threshold, 349 inputs, 347 nonweighted solution, 352 requirements, 347 self-consistency of measurements, 347 snapshot, 347 weighted solution, 352 Range to interference, computing, 267–69 to jammer, as function of EIRP, 270–71 measurement timing relationships, 53, 303 satellite-to-user, 51–54 Ranging and integrity monitoring stations (RIMS), 433 Rayleigh distribution, 222 Read-only memory (ROM), 524 Received isotropic power (RIP), 670 Receiver independent exchange (RINEX), 451, 452 Receivers control segment, 91 GNSS, 433 UTC computation, 62–63 See also GPS receivers Recreational markets, 650 REDMAN, 78 Reference coordinate systems, 26–34 Reference oscillator acceleration stress error, 190 Reference time of ephemeris, 37 Refractivity, 314, 315 Regional-area DGPS, 380, 394–95 Relative differential positioning, 380 Relativistic effects, 306–8 Repeat-back spoofers, 244 700 Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs), 591–92 Return on investment (ROI), 638 Reverse geocoding, 493 Rider constellations, 45–46, 47, 48 Right ascension of the ascending node (RAAN), 40 Right-hand circularly polarized (RHCP) antennas, 104–5 RMS bandwidth, 196, 274, 275 carrier phase tracking error, 292 delay spread, 285 ranging error, 292 Robertson approximation, 176 RTCM SC-104 version message format, 428 version message frame, 425 version 2.3 message header, 426 version 2.3 message types, 427 version 3.0 message frame, 429 Rubidium AFSs (RAFSs), 77–78 S Sagnac effects, 307 Sampling requirements, 369 SAR architecture, 591–92 architecture illustration, 592 service support, 563 signal plan, 576–77 transponder, 584 See also GALILEO Satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS), 9, 355–59, 432–46 architecture, 433–35 BeiDou-1, 623 data block format, 438 defined, 432 functionality, 433–35 functional overview, 436 GEOs, 442–44 history, 432 message format/contents, 438 message types, 439 PRN codes, 439 ranging C/A codes, 437 requirements, 432–33 signal structure, 435–38 user algorithms, 439–42 utilization by nonaviation users, 444–46 Index Satellite blocks Block I, 74 Block II, 74–75 Block IIA, 75–76 Block IIF, 83–86 Block IIR, 76–83 Block III, 86–87 development, 71–72 Satellite clock error, 304–5 DGPS, 381–82 WADGPS, 395–97 Satellite orbits, 34–50 acceleration forces perturbing, 96 altitude, 44 characterization, 34 class, 47 constellation design, 43–50 eccentricity, 43–44 inclination, 44–45 inclined circular, 45–47 Keplerian elements, 37, 39, 40 mechanics, 34–43 Satellites availability, 344, 370 biases, 320 BNTS, 617–18 follow-on sustainment (Block IIF), 83–86 GLONASS system, 8, 9, 598, 599–602 initial concept validation (Block I), 74 initial production (Block II), 74–75 Inmarsat, 357, 442, 444 LEO, 47 locations, worldwide, 342 MEO, 47 navigation, constellation design for, 48–49 next generation (Block III), 86–87 outages, 341 QZSS, 627–28, 629 replenishment (Block IIR), 76–83 upgraded production (Block IIA), 75–76 visibility, 344, 345 Satellite-to-user range, 51–54 Schuler oscillation, 499 Scintillation, 295–97 amplitude fading due to, 295–96 defined, 243 perturbation, 295 phase variation due to, 296–97 simulated effects, 296 tracking outages, 297 Second Space Operation Squadron (2SOPS), 87, 88 Index Semicodeless processing, 239–40 Sensors Hall-effect, 510 inertial systems and, 496–504 integration, 491–522 integration principles, 515–22 position vs measurement domain integration, 515 technology, 496–515 transmission, 509–13 ubiquitous Kalman filter, 515–22 variable reluctance rotation, 511 wheel, 509–13 Shadowing defined, 280 of direct path, 280, 283, 292 stand-alone GPS, 319 Signal acquisition, 219–31 interference effects, 256–69 in jamming, 230 military, 229–31 M of N search detector, 227–29 as search process, 219 Tong search detector, 223–27 Signal-in-space (SISs) aberrations, 345 Signal modulators, 257 Signal quality monitor (SQM), 448 Signals attenuations, characterizing, 530–35 baseband, 159–61 BOC, 115, 121 characteristics, 113–50 characteristics summary, 149 cosine-phased, 121 CW, 253 DSSS, 114–15, 117–18 GPS evolution, legacy GPS, 123–42 models, 116–23 modernized GPS, 145–50 narrow bandwidth, 309 power levels, 133–35 processing, baseband, 159–61 received, frequency, 60 sine-phased, 121 Signal-to-noise power ratio meter, 233 Single difference (SD), 399, 405 Sky search, 231 Smart spoofers, 244 Smart weapons, 656 Snapshot RAIM algorithm, 347 701 SnapTrack System, 654 Software defined receivers (SDRs), 155 SOL service (GALILEO), 562 Space applications, 657 Spacecraft processor unit (SPU), 79 Space guidance applications, 13–14 Space segment, 68–87 constellation description, 69–71 constellation design guidelines, 71 defined, 67 description, 68–87 EGNOS, 444 GALILEO, 581–85 overview, 67–68 phased development, 71–87 WAAS, 443 See also GPS system Space stable, 464 Space-time adaptive processing (STAP), 491 Specific force, 497 Spherical error probable (SEP), 332 Spoofing, 244–45 Spreading codes, 571–74 Spreading symbol, 115 Spread spectrum, 115 Squaring loss, 275 Stand-alone ambiguity resolution, 421 Stand-alone GPS atmospheric effects, 308–19 availability, 334–43 continuity, 360 ephemeris error, 305–6 hardware bias errors, 320–21 integrity, 343–60 measured performance, 361–75 measurement errors, 302–22 multipath and shadowing effects, 319 performance, 301–75 pseudorange error budgets, 321–22 relativistic effects, 306–8 satellite clock error, 304–5 See also GPS Standard Positioning Service (SPS), 3, designation, dual-frequency, 362–64 State vector, 333 Static application on-the-fly technique, 419 land surveying, 418 Static time transfer, 372, 374 Static users, UTC computation, 62–63 702 Stationkeeping, 48 Surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters, 248, 320 Surveying applications, 648 Survey receivers, 659 T Tau-dither technique, 177 Taylor series, 55, 275 Telematics, 652–53 Telemetry (TLM) data, 143 Terrain mask, 341 Thermal noise PLL, 185–86 tracking loop order and, 196 See also Noise Third-body gravitation, 36 Thresholds detection, RAIM/FDE algorithms, 349 jerk stress, 191, 194 nonuniform ADC, 254 PLL jitter, 190, 191 Time error-free, 325 GPS system, 62 maximum search, 539, 540 skew, measurement, 204–5 uncertainty, 536 UTC, 61–63 See also Position, velocity, and time (PVT) Time division data multiplexing (TDDM), 200, 265 Time division multiple access (TDMA), 116 Time DOP (TDOP), 327, 328 Time of arrival (TOA) ranging, ambiguity, 22 common clock offset and compensation, 23 concept, 21–26 independent measurement errors, 23–24, 25 measurements, two-dimensional position determination, 21–24 Time-of-week (TOW), 144 Time to first fixes (TTFFs), 526, 534 Time transfer dynamic, 372, 373 static, 372, 374 Tolerable jamming, 265, 266 Tong search detector, 223–27 algorithm, 224 defined, 223 detection probability, 226, 227 false alarm probability, 226 Index mush counter, 226 operation, 224–26 Total electron count (TEC), 312 Tracking carrier, 155–64 carrier, loops, 164–73 code, loops, 173–79 signal, reflected, 509, 510 thresholds, 183–200 two-dimensional process, 154 Transit, 1–2 Transmission control processing/Internet processing (TCP/IP) protocols, 88 Transmission sensors, 509–13 Transponder landing system (TLS), 420 Transport telematics, 652 Traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs), 390 Tropospheric delay, 314–19 correction, 442 DGPS, 384–87 difference, variation, 386 horizontal, difference, 385 meteorological parameters, 317 path delay, 315 physics, 384 vertical, difference, 387 vertical delay, 316 wet/dry components, 317 zenith delay, 316 True anomaly, 38 Two-accelerometer INS Kalman filter model, 515–19 U Ultratight integration, 485 Uncertainty code phase uncertainty, 537 Doppler, 536, 540 frequency, 542 search space, 535–40 time, 536 Usable navigation service, 334 User differential range error (UDRE), 426 User equipment biases, 320 BNTS, 619, 620 GLONASS, 604–5 military, 655–56 needs for specific markets, 657–60 QZSS program, 628 User-equivalent range error (UERE), 301–2, 321 Index budgets, 321 GPS precise positioning service budget, 322 GPS standard positioning service budget, 322 total system, 321 User position accuracy requirements, 57 calculation, 54–58 in three dimensions, 54 user velocity computation and, 61 vector representation, 51 User segment antenna, 104–6 defined, 68 GPS set characteristics, 103–9 I/O device, 108–9 navigation/receiver processor, 108 overview, 68 power supply, 109 receiver, 106–8 receiver selection, 109–10 See also GPS system User velocity obtaining, 58–61 three-dimensional, 58 user position accuracy and, 61 UTC See Coordinated universal time V Variable reluctance rotation sensor, 511 Vehicle navigation systems, 491–92 availability, 491 generic architecture, 492 Vehicle tracking systems, 492 Velocity code flags, 439 errors, 515 external aiding, 164 INS outputs, 463 measurements, 58 user, obtaining, 58–61 zero, update, 502 See also Position, velocity, and time (PVT) Vertical alert limit (VAL), 442 Vertical delay, 316, 388 Vertical DOP (VDOP), 327 Vertical position errors (VPE), 361, 362 Vertical protection level (VPL), 347 Very high frequency data broadcast (VDB), 449 VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), 13 703 Vibration-induced oscillator phase noise, 186–87 Viterbi decoding, 232 Voltage controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO), 78 W WAAS, 355, 357, 432 broadcasts, 646 GEOs, 443 ground network, 434 Inmarsat-3 AORW/POR satellites, 442 primary service area, 443 space segment, 443 Walker constellations, 47–48 Wander azimuth, 464 Waveform generator/modulator/intermediate power amplifier/converter (WGMIC), 81 Weighted least squares estimate, 663–64 Wheel angles, 512 scale factor, 513 sensors, 509–13 Wide area DGPS (WADGPS), 395–97 concept illustration, 396 defined, 395 ephemeris errors, 395–97 ionospheric error estimation, 395 ionospheric propagation delays, 397 position estimate, 396 satellite clock errors, 395–97 See also Differential GPS (DGPS) Wide-area master stations (WMSs), 433 Wide-area reference stations (WRSs), 433 Wide-lane considerations, 416–18 integer ambiguity set, 417 Word hits, 345 World Geodetic System, 29–32 geodetic coordinate conversion, 31 user geodetic coordinates determination, 30–31 WGS 84, 29, 31–32 See also Coordinate systems Z Zenith delay, 316 Zero age of data (ZAOD), 305 Zero velocity update (ZUPT), 502 Recent Titles in the Artech House Mobile Communications Series John Walker, Series Editor 3G CDMA2000 Wireless System Engineering, Samuel C Yang 3G Multimedia Network Services, Accounting, and User Profiles, Freddy Ghys, Marcel Mampaey, Michel Smouts, and Arto Vaaraniemi 802.11 WLANs and IP Networking: Security, QoS, and Mobility, Anand R Prasad, Neeli R Prasad Advances in 3G Enhanced Technologies for Wireless Communications, Jiangzhou Wang and Tung-Sang Ng, editors Advances in Mobile Information Systems, John Walker, editor Advances in Mobile Radio Access Networks, Y Jay Guo Applied Satellite Navigation Using GPS, GALILEO, and Augmentation Systems, Ramjee Prasad and Marina Ruggieri CDMA 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Communications Handbook, Siegmund M Redl, Matthias K Weber, and Malcolm W Oliphant GSM Networks: Protocols, Terminology, and Implementation, Gunnar Heine GSM System Engineering, Asha Mehrotra Handbook of Land-Mobile Radio System Coverage, Garry C Hess Handbook of Mobile Radio Networks, Sami Tabbane High-Speed Wireless ATM and LANs, Benny Bing Interference Analysis and Reduction for Wireless Systems, Peter Stavroulakis Introduction to 3G Mobile Communications, Second Edition, Juha Korhonen Introduction to Digital Professional Mobile Radio, Hans-Peter A Ketterling Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System, Ahmed El-Rabbany An Introduction to GSM, Siegmund M Redl, Matthias K Weber, and Malcolm W Oliphant Introduction to Mobile Communications Engineering, José M Hernando and F Pérez-Fontán Introduction to Radio Propagation for Fixed and Mobile Communications, John Doble Introduction to Wireless Local Loop, Second Edition: Broadband and Narrowband Systems, William Webb IS-136 TDMA Technology, Economics, and Services, Lawrence Harte, Adrian Smith, and Charles A Jacobs Location Management and Routing in Mobile Wireless Networks, Amitava Mukherjee, Somprakash Bandyopadhyay, and Debashis Saha Mobile Data Communications Systems, Peter Wong and David Britland Mobile IP Technology for M-Business, Mark Norris Mobile Satellite Communications, Shingo Ohmori, Hiromitsu Wakana, and Seiichiro Kawase Mobile Telecommunications Standards: GSM, UMTS, TETRA, and ERMES, Rudi Bekkers Mobile Telecommunications: Standards, Regulation, and Applications, Rudi Bekkers and Jan Smits Multiantenna Digital Radio Transmission, Massimiliano “Max” Martone Multiantenna Wireless Communications Systems, Sergio Barbarossa Multipath Phenomena in Cellular Networks, Nathan Blaunstein and Jørgen Bach Andersen Multiuser Detection in CDMA Mobile Terminals, Piero Castoldi Personal Wireless Communication with DECT and PWT, John Phillips and Gerard Mac Namee Practical Wireless Data Modem Design, Jonathon Y 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Glisic and Branka Vucetic Third Generation Wireless Systems, Volume 1: Post-Shannon Signal Architectures, George M Calhoun Traffic Analysis and Design of Wireless IP Networks, Toni Janevski Transmission Systems Design Handbook for Wireless Networks, Harvey Lehpamer UMTS and Mobile Computing, Alexander Joseph Huber and Josef Franz Huber Understanding Cellular Radio, William Webb Understanding Digital PCS: The TDMA Standard, Cameron Kelly Coursey Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Elliott D Kaplan and Christopher J Hegarty, editors Understanding WAP: Wireless Applications, Devices, and Services, Marcel van der Heijden and Marcus Taylor, editors Universal Wireless Personal Communications, Ramjee Prasad WCDMA: Towards IP Mobility and Mobile Internet, Tero Ojanperä and Ramjee Prasad, editors Wireless Communications in Developing Countries: Cellular and Satellite Systems, Rachael E Schwartz Wireless Intelligent Networking, Gerry Christensen, Paul G Florack, and Robert Duncan Wireless LAN Standards and Applications, Asunción Santamaría and Francisco J López-Hernández, editors Wireless Technician’s Handbook, Second Edition, Andrew Miceli For further information on these and other Artech House titles, including previously considered out-of-print books now available through our In-Print-Forever® (IPF®) program, contact: Artech House Artech House 685 Canton Street 46 Gillingham Street Norwood, MA 02062 London SW1V 1AH UK Phone: 781-769-9750 Phone: +44 (0)20 7596-8750 Fax: 781-769-6334 Fax: +44 (0)20 7630-0166 e-mail: artech@artechhouse.com e-mail: artech-uk@artechhouse.com Find us on the World Wide Web at: www.artechhouse.com