ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTO

ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION

OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR

CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE

OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN SCIENCE (CONSERVATION BIOLOGY)

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN

2015 SANTANU GUPTA

PG DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

DURGAPUR GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN)

Dedicated

To

My Late Father Sri Sushanta Gupta

Dr DEBNATH PALIT

Department of Botany and

P.G Department of Conservation Biology

Durgapur Government College

Mob: 09832175737 Ph: 0342-2634565 (R) 0343-2504344 (O) E-mail: debnath_palit@yahoo.com J.N Avenue, Durgapur-713214 West Bengal, India

CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that the thesis entitled ‘ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

VALUATION OF WETLANDS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE’ which is being submitted by Sri

Santanu Gupta for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Science (Conservation Biology) of The University of Burdwan is a record of his own research work He carried out the work under my guidance in the Department of Conservation Biology

of The University of Burdwan Such help or source of information as has been availed of during the investigation is duly acknowledged

It is further certified that the matter embodied in the thesis has not been submitted for award of any other degree by him or by anybody else

Date:

I am especially grateful to Dr Dipak Ranjan Mondal, former Principal of the college and Sri Achintya Kumar Pal, Officer in Charge of the college for their advice and encouragement I also owe a special debt of gratitude to my teachers Dr Utpal Singha Roy, Head PG Department of Conservation Biology; Dr Bharati Mukherjee, Head Department of Botany; Dr Aloke Mukherjee and Sir Sanghamitra Sanyal whose teachings have been a constant source of knowledge and inspiration Thanks also go to the Librarian and Office staff of the Durgapur Government College, for their timely help

I would be failing in my duties if I do not mention the encouragement and blessings I received from Dr Arnab Banerjee, former faculty member of PG Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Government College

I specially acknowledge the financial assistance and guidance received from the Inspire Division, Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India in connection with the project I worked in I would like to thank Dr Amalesh Mukherjee, Scientist G, DST Government of India for his continuous support I would like to thank the Office of the District Magistrate, Birbhum; Birbhum Zilla Parishad, Birbhum and Fisheries Department, Suri, Birbhum for their timely help and cooperation

I would like to thank Dr Rudolf de Groot, Department of Environmental Systems Analysis, Wageningen University, USA; Prof Kevin J Murphey, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow,

United Kingdom; Prof Georg A Janauer, Department of Limnology and Oceanography, University of Vienna, Austria; Dr Zsolt Török, Danube Delta National Institute for Research and Development, Romania and Dr Sudip Chattopadhyay, Department of Biotechnology NIT Durgapur for inspiring myself through their continuous motivation and encouragements

I wish to specially thank my co-research scholars Miss Aparajita Mukherjee, Mrs Debalina Kar and Mrs Sharmila Roychowdhury for their help and suggestions

I would like to acknowledge the love, inspiration and heartily support I received from

my Late father Sri Sushanta Gupta, Smt Tanulata Gupta and my sister Chaitali Gupta towards the successful fulfillment of my Ph.D research

Place- Durgapur (Santanu Gupta) Date-

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER V: RESULTS

LIST OF TABLES

Convention (1989)

20

habitats, according to Cowardin et al (1979)

20 - 21

(1995)

25 – 26

different inventories

36

Wetlands Conservation Programme

36-39

10 Table 10 Major threats to Indian wetlands at a glance 41

11 Table 11 List of Ramsar Sites of the India (RAMSAR, 2015) 42 - 43

13 Table 13 Reasons for under valuation of wetlands 46 - 47

15 Table 15 Ecological valuation criteria and measurement indicators 51

16 Table 16 Socio-cultural valuation criteria and measurement

indicators

52 - 53

17 Table 17 Monetary valuation methods, constraints, and examples 60 - 62

18 Table 18 The relationship between ecosystem functions and

services and monetary valuation technique

62 - 63

20 Table 20 Demographic profile of Birbhum district, West Bengal,

India

77 - 78

22 Table 22 Data collection sheet for inventory and ecological

characterization of wetlands

87 - 90

23 Table 23 Data collection sheet for stakeholder analysis 92-93

24 Table 24 Data collection sheet for function analysis of wetland

services

94- 97

25 Table 25 Data collection sheet for ecological valuation of wetlands 99

26 Table 26 Data collection sheet for sociocultural valuation of

wetlands

100

27 Table 27 Data collection sheet for Economic valuation of wetlands 102

28 Table 28 Data collection sheet for conservation of wetlands 103-109

29 Table 29 List of wetlands (Block wise) in Birbhum District, West

Bengal, India

116-119

30 Table 30 Classification of wetlands according to area 121

31 Table 31 Aquatic species in floral composition of wetlands in

Birbhum District, West Bengal

128-130

32 Table 32 Checklist of avifauna associated with the wetlands of

Birbhum District during the study period

133-137

33 Table 33 Checklist of piscifauna associated with wetlands of

Birbhum District during the study period

139-141

34 Table 34 List of wetlands prioritized for wetland valuation studies in

Birbhum district

162-163

35 Table 35 Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field

survey in Suri subdivision, Birbhum district

170-171

36 Table 36 Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field

survey in Bolpur Sriniketan subdivision, Birbhum district

172-173

37 Table 37 Ecosystem services of wetlands as recorded during field

survey in Rampurhat subdivision, Birbhum district

174-175

38 Table 38 Statement of ecosystem services of wetlands in Birbhum

district based on field data

176-177

39 Table 39 Squred cosines of the ecosystem services to the first two

(F1 and F2) axis of the Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)

184-185

40 Table 40 List of ecosystem services for prioritization according to

Gross Importance (%) for ecological, sociocultural and economic valuation of wetlands

187-189

41 Table 41 List of ecosystem services selected for valuation of

wetlands (monetary)

189

42 Table 42 Key species (%) observed in wetlands of Birbhum district

during the present study

192-193

43 Table 43 Key water bird species recorded from wetlands in

Birbhum during the study period

194-196

44 Table 44 Population of notable water birds in wetlands of Birbhum

district, West Bengal

199

45 Table 45 Economic valuation of wetlands in Birbhum district, West

Bengal, India

204

46 Table 46 Range of monetary value of different ecosystem services

in wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

206-207

47 Table 47 Economic valuation of fish resources in wetlands of

Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

207-208

48 Table 48 Economic valuation of water for irrigated agriculture in

wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

208-209

49 Table 49 Economic valuation of water sports and activities in

wetlands of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

209-210

50 Table 50 Economic valuation of water for livestock in wetlands of

Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

210-211

51 Table 51 Economic valuation of livestock fodder in wetlands of

Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

211-212

52 Table 52 List of conservation measures to be implemented through

different Socioeconomic Developmental Plans (SDPs)

215-216

53 Table 53 Site specific conservation measures for Suri subdivision,

Birbhum district

218

54 Table 54 Site specific conservation measures for Bolpur Sriniketan

subdivision, Birbhum district

219

55 Table 55 Site specific conservation measures for Rampurhat

subdivision, Birbhum district

220

LIST OF FIGURES

(Note: Figure in parenthesis represents total number of

wetlands in respective State)

39

processes that comprise a wetland and the ecosystem

services they deliver

48

services provided by wetlands (US$/ha/year)

59

district, West Bengal India

13 Figure 13 Distance of studied wetlands from nearest locality

(village/town) in Birbhum district

120

14 Figure 14 Distribution studied wetlands in three subdivisions of

Birbhum district in relation with Elevation, Geographical

position and Size (area in hectare)

121

15 Figure 15 Biplot showing interrelationship of different morphometric

attributes studied in wetlands of Birbhum district during the

study period

122

16 Figure 16 Geomorphologic features of areas in and around the

wetlands of Birbhum District

125

17 Figure 17 Elevation (meter) of studied wetlands from MSL in

Birbhum district

126

19 Figure 19 Composition of water regime in studied wetlands 127

20 Figure 20 Composition of water source in studied wetlands 128

21 Figure 21 Species richness in different plant groups in wetlands

studied

130

22 Figure 22 Status of water birds in wetlands of Birbhum district 132

23 Figure 23 Population trend of water birds in wetlands of Birbhum

district

132

24 Figure 24 Composition of wetland fishes (Orders) in wetlands of

Birbhum District

138

25 Figure 25 Land use around the wetlands of Birbhum District 142

26 Figure 26 Prioritized wetland for valuation studies in Birbhum district,

West Bengal, India

164

27 Figure 27 Variation in wetland size (A= >8ha, B= <8ha) in Birbhum

district, West Bengal, India

165

28 Figure 28 Variation in elevational distribution of wetlands in Birbhum

district, West Bengal, India

165

29 Figure 29 Stakeholder composition in wetlands of Birbhum district 167

30 Figure 30 Provisioning services in wetlands of Birbhum District 178

31 Figure 31 Regulation services in wetlands of Birbhum District 179

32 Figure 32 Cultural and Supporting services in wetlands of Birbhum

District

180

33 Figure 33 Biplot derived from Multiple Correspondence Analyses of

ecosystem services observed in different wetlands of

Birbhum district

181

34 Figure 34 Biplot derived from Discriminant analyses of ecosystem

services observed in different wetlands of Birbhum district

182

35 Figure 35 Biplot derived from Canonical Correspondence Analysis

(CCA) of ecosystem services observed in different we

tlands of Birbhum district

183

36 Figure 36 Scree Plot of F1-F7 axes derived from CCA 183

37 Figure 37 Dendogram derived from Cluster analysis of ecosystem

services depending on their association with different

wetlands of Birbhum district

186

38 Figure 38 Dendogram derived from Cluster analysis of wetlands

based on importance level of ecosystem services they

41 Figure 41 Bird families observed during the study period 196

42 Figure 42 Composition (%) of Bird families observed during the

45 Figure 45 Population trends of water bird species in wetlands 198

46 Figure 46 Composition of Sociocultural values in wetlands of

Birbhum district

201

47 Figure 47 Sociocultural values in wetlands of Birbhum district 201

48 Figure 48 Sociocultural values in wetlands of Suri subdivision of

Birbhum district

202

49 Figure 49 Sociocultural values in wetlands of Bolpur Sriniketan

subdivision of Birbhum district

202

50 Figure 50 Sociocultural values in wetlands of Rampurhat subdivision

of Birbhum district

202

51 Figure 51 Total value of wetlands in Birbhum district 205

52 Figure 52 Value of fish resource in wetlands of Birbhum 205

53 Figure 53 Value of water for irrigated agriculture in wetlands of

Birbhum

205

54 Figure 54 Value of water sports and activities in wetlands of Birbhum 205

55 Figure 55 Value of water for livestock in wetlands of Birbhum 205

56 Figure 56 Value of water for fodders of livestock in wetlands of

Birbhum

205

57 Figure 57 Dendogram derived from AHC analysis of wetlands

depending on monetary value they provide

212

58 Figure 58 A schematic diagram on the major SDPs for conservation

and wise use of wetlands in Birbhum district

217

LIST OF PLATES

10 Plate 10 Macrophyte species in wetlands of Birbhum with

economic importance

181

11 Plate 11 Siltation a major threat of wetlands in Birbhum district 216

PREFACE

between land and water, a collective

term for marshes, swamps, bogs and

described as the “kidneys” of the

landscape as they filter sediments and

nutrients from surface water

Wetlands are often referred to as

“biological supermarkets” because they

support all life forms through extensive

food webs and biodiversity They help

regulate water levels within watersheds,

improve water quality, reduce flood and

storm damages, provide habitat for

important fish and wildlife, support

activities and perform some useful

ecological balance

Dense human population in catchments,

urbanization and various anthropogenic

leading to degradation in their quality

and quantity

Now, there is increasing concern to conserve and restore perishing wetlands and endangered habitats to achieve ecological sustainability

“Value” is an anthropogenic concept as

it depends upon the perception or judgment of the human society about the usefulness of something The goods and services provided by an ecosystem are then considered as values All values are derived from the functions

wetlands perform certain functions and hence, have some values

Valuation forms a key exercise in

conservation The basic aim of valuation

is to determine people’s preferences- how much they are willing to pay for, and how much better or worse off they would consider themselves to be as a result of changes in the supply of, different goods and services

Wetlands provide various goods and

services such as food production,

climate regulation, pollution control etc

Efforts to quantify these services are not

without their critics There are those who

resist putting dollar values in nature,

since not everything that humans’ value

has a price None the less, the use of

human currency to evaluate natural

services is a growing field in economics

(e.g Costanza et al., 1997)

quantifying the benefits that people

associated with their loss, and the

resources uses which are compatible

with wetland conservation vis-à-vis

contribute to wetlands degradation

understand the economic decisions and

economic activities which impact on

wetlands integrity and status

Due to wide, variable and often unclear

ecological, economic and management

boundaries of wetlands, and because

many wetlands goods and services are

particularly difficult to value

The economic benefits generated by wetlands, and the economic costs associated with wetlands degradation or loss, are frequently overlooked- by government and private industry, as well

as by the land and resource users in the wetland areas As well as resulting in decisions being made or activities being carried out which have negative impacts

on wetlands, this omission has meant that the potential of wetlands to generate income, subsistence and other benefits has been under- emphasized in both conservation and development policy, planning and practice Attaching monetary values to wetlands goods and services aims to make them directly comparable with other sectors of the economy when activities are planned, policies are formulated and decision made

Wetland ecosystems sustain life on

understanding of the biology, chemistry,

anthropogenic activities and unplanned

developmental activities have impaired

the wetland ecosystems’ functions and

are resulting in the extinction of these

fragile ecosystems The consequence

may be long term and possibly

irreversible changes

Such changes reduce the value of the

wetland ecosystems, even affecting the

economy Understanding of functions

and values of the ecosystem is crucial

for appropriate decision making The

decisions with the holistic ecosystem

approach ensure the sustainability of the

wetland ecosystem

The objectives of the present study:

present author took the responsibility to

assess the wetlands in Birbhum district

The study can be broadly put into three

aspects:

a) Wetland inventory and ecological

characterization, b) Valuation of

selected wetlands and c) Wetland

conservation for sustainable use

The objectives of this study include:

1 Preparation of an inventory of the concerned water-bodies / wetlands

2 Ecological characterization of the concerned water-bodies / wetlands:

a) Assessment of various ecological components of selected wetlands

biodiversity with special emphasis

on macrophytes, water birds and piscifauna in selected wetlands

3 Evaluation of ecological, cultural and economic values of wetlands

sustainable utilization of wetlands

This work discusses the valuation of wetland ecosystems in Birbhum district,

a drought prone region in West Bengal, India considering different benefits derived from wetlands as goods and services

In this respect, the present study is

probably one of the few initiatives to

conceptualize and quantify the values of

wetlands in Birbhum district, West

Bengal, India The work embodied in the

thesis is presented in form of eight

chapters

After introducing the study in the

Chapter I, a detailed review of both the

theoretical and empirical studies on

wetlands along with valuation and

conservation of wetlands is presented in

the Chapter II Chapter III outlines a

general account of Birbhum District

followed by Chapter IV which illustrates

the detailed methodology used in the

study

Results of this work are presented in

Chapter V In Chapter VI, the whole

work has been discussed keeping parity

with the results in Chapter V and finally

the work has been summarized along

with conclusion in Chapter VII All the

references cited in different chapters,

sections and subsections have been

presented collectively in Chapter VIII

The wetlands considered in the present

work need rational utilization, periodic

monitoring, management and protection for conservation before it is too late, since they collectively constitute a

importance

This documentary work may prove its worth in laying the foundation of a

conservation programme for health, economy and environment in Birbhum District, West Bengal, India

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Wetland ecosystems are beauty of nature and wealth for future As defined by the Ramsar Convention (1971), wetlands include a wide variety of habitats such as marshes, peat lands, floodplains, rivers and lakes, and coastal areas such as salt marshes, mangroves, and sea grass beds, but also coral reefs and other marine areas no deeper than six meters at low tide, as well as human-made wetlands such

as waste-water treatment ponds and reservoirs They are the ―water logged wealth‖

(Maltby, 2013; Ghadimi et al., 2014; Ajibola et al., 2015) Wetlands are defined as

―lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-system‖ where the water table

is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water Wetlands are diverse ecosystems that link people, wildlife and environment in special and interdependent ways through the essential life-support functions of water (Maltby and Barker, 2009).Wetlands are perhaps the most interesting landscapes in the world to have earned global importance during the last few decades They are being discussed all round the world in matters of environmental protection, pollution

control, eco-restoration, biodiversity conservation etc (Chaudhuri et al., 2012;

Andersson, 2012; di Martino, 2014)

Wetlands have been drawing considerable attention of agriculturists, natural and social scientists, urban planners, land managers, landscape designers and many others Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, an international agreement signed by 168 countries, wetlands are defined as follows ― wetlands are

areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas

of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters (Article

1.1) In addition, for the purpose of protecting coherent sites, the Article 2.1 provides that wetlands to be included in the Ramsar List of internationally important wetlands

―may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands

(RAMSAR, 1971) However Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF, Government

of India) has not adopted a clear distinction between Lakes and Wetlands (MoEF, 2009) Shallow lakes (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes They support high densities and diversity

of fauna, particularly birds, fishes and macroinvertebrates, and therefore, have high

value for biodiversity conservation These shallow lakes are rightfully categorized as

―WETLANDS‖ (MoEF, 2010)

What is of utmost necessity concerns the dissemination of a comprehensive idea about wetlands In view of this there have been several attempts to define it with as much clarity as possible One of the early definitions of wetland was presented by United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 1956 through their Circular 39 which reads

as ―The term Wetlands refers to lowlands covered with shallow and sometimes temporary or intermittent waters They are referred to by such names as marshes, swamps, bogs; wet meadows, potholes, sloughs, and river overflow lands Shallow lakes and ponds, usually with emergent vegetation as a conspicuous feature, are included in the definition, but the permanent waters of streams, reservoirs and deep lakes are not included Neither are water areas that are so temporary as to have little

or no effect on the development of moist soil vegetation (Mitsch and Gosselink,

1986) According to US Army Corps of Engineers (1977) the term wetland means

those ―areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil condition” Wetlands generally include swamps,

marshes, bogs, and similar areas The most accepted and frequently used definition

of wetland was adopted by the wetland scientists associated with the US Fish and

Wildlife Service which is ―Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water”

They must have one or more of the following attributes (Cowardin et al., 1979)

(a) at least periodically the land supports predominantly hydrophytes

(b) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil and

(c) the substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water

at sometime during the growing season of each year

According to Cook (1996), wetland can be considered a place where inundation must occur for at least 14 days and saturation for at least about 60 consecutive days The modified version of its definition as per IUCN (1999) treats wetlands as all submerged or water saturated lands, natural or manmade, inland or coastal,

permanent or temporary, static or dynamic, vegetated or non-vegetated which necessarily have a land-water interface

Wetlands representing an ecotone between terrestrial uplands and true aquatic

bodies cover about 6% of total earth surface (Williams, 1990; Tiner, 2002; Cózar et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2012; Troxler et al., 2014) Interestingly these are ubiquitous

being found in almost every climatic realm from tundra mires of the pole to the tropical mangroves of the equator, and in every continent except Antarctica As per Ramsar Convention (1971) wetlands identified to be internationally important as per the norms laid down by Ramsar Bureau, are designated as ‗Ramsar sites´ Until

2015, no less than 2186 wetlands of 160 countries covering a total area of 208,674,247 hectares are known to be Ramsar Sites

Wetland support very large numbers, and a rich diversity of animal and plant species (Maltby, 2009) Wetlands are well known for high diversity in class, composition and four broad categories of functions viz physical/ hydrological, chemical, biological and

socioeconomic (Junk et al., 2013; Huryna et al., 2014; Gardner et al., 2015)

Wetland supports plant species intermediate between true aquatic and terrestrial habitats (Banerjee and Venu, 1994; Ghosh and Santra, 1995; Cronk, 2001; Vymazal,

2013; Ellery, 2015; Watson et al., 2015) According to Mistch and Gosselink (1986)

wetlands support vegetation adapted to the wet conditions (hydrophytes) and conversely is characterized by an absence of flood intolerant vegetation Plants growing in wetlands are not only economically important but also play a number of

important ecological functions in addition to primary production (Marchand et al.,

2010; Hamilton, 2014) Wetlands are known to trap pollutants, decompose various wastes and are aptly regarded as the ―Kidneys of landscape‖ for the function they

perform (Mistch and Gosselink, 1986; Salvato et al., 2012; Marois et al., 2015) It is

important for a nation to conserve wetlands and their biodiversity to define its ―critical environmental capital‖ (Denny, 1991; Mafabi, 2000; Gibbes et al., 2009; Finlayson,

2012, 2014) Wetlands are important for the provision of environmental and ecological services (MA, 2005) that result from functioning

Wetlands are geologically very young and ecologically very fragile They occur in all climates and change peripherally with time and season Although wetlands are

among the most productive and restorative or optimizing ecosystems, they are

destroyed all over the world irrationally (Gibbs, 2000; Zhang et al., 2010; Fennessy,

2014).Tropical countries like Cameroon, Nigeria, Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and

Vietnam have lost over 80 percent of their freshwater wetlands (Mc Neely et al., 1990; Mc Neely, 1992; Alongi, 2008; Laurance et al., 2012; Vázquez-González et al.,

2014) resulting in disruptions of the hydrological cycle, destruction of habitats of migratory birds, impoverishment of piscifauna and loss of biodiversity In many cases

they are exploited exclusively for pisciculture and agriculture (Naylor et al., 2000; Mwanja et al., 2007; Martins et al., 2010; Pascual-Aguilar et al., 2015) Monoculture

practices for a specific resource at the cost or depletion of nontarget biodiversity have been creating critical environmental conditions much affecting the life sustaining system of the nature

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates conservatively that wetlands cover seven percent of the earth‘s surface and deliver 45% of the world‘s natural productivity and ecosystem services of which the benefits are estimated at $20 trillion a year (Source : www.MAweb.org) Wetlands deliver multiple co-benefits of significant social and economic values, and can help address a wide range of needs and objectives Many of the ecosystem services that benefit people, society and the economy at large are related to water and wetlands through water provision, regulation, purification and groundwater replenishment, and are crucial in addressing objectives of water security and water for food security Ecosystem services provided

by wetlands also play important roles in relation to nutrient cycling, climate mitigation and adaptation, food security, job security and a range of cultural benefits, including knowledge (scientific and traditional), recreation and tourism, and formation of cultural values, including identity and spiritual values The values of benefits provided by wetlands, per unit area, have consistently been shown to be orders of magnitude higher than for other ecosystems Importantly, most of this value is derived from their role in regulating water; for example, water-related disaster risk reduction

Wetlands provide natural infrastructure that can help meet a range of policy objectives Beyond water availability and quality, they are invaluable in supporting climate change mitigation and adaption, disaster risk and impact reduction health as

well as livelihoods, local development and poverty eradication Meeting sustainable water management objectives cost effectively Wetlands provide natural infrastructure that delivers a wider range of services and benefits than corresponding man-made infrastructure, and at lower cost They are also an important complement

to man-made infrastructure in river basin planning and management efforts Wetlands can provide protection against coastal and river flooding to (partially) offset the need for man-made infrastructure, while simultaneously providing a multitude of other services, such as tourism and recreation, carbon storage or a range of provisioning services Nature-based solutions can constitute a lower cost approach than alternative built capital solutions, or offer significant cost savings where an integrated natural and man-made infrastructure approach is adopted

Wetlands provide multiple benefits to cities and rural communities The aesthetic and recreational amenities of urban wetlands, and their value as wildlife habitat, can be significant The capacity of a functional urban wetland in flood control can also be very important In Sri Lanka, for example, flood attenuation and wastewater treatment provided by the 3000 ha Muthurajawela Marsh near Colombo have been valued at over US$5 million/year and US$1.6 million/year respectively This exceeds the value of the wetland for agricultural production (around US$0.3million/ year) more than twentyfold In rural areas, wetlands provide multiple benefits that are vital

to local communities The water tank system in Kala Oya, Sri Lanka provides water for domestic use and livestock, fish and wild plants with benefits for the majority of households exceeding those from rice cultivation Wetlands have high nature conservation values Wetlands are among the most bio-diverse ecosystem types They are home to a very diverse range of animal and plant species which live permanently in wetlands or rely on wetlands for at least part of their life cycle They are particularly important for migratory species, especially migratory water birds Because of the threats to wetlands they support a disproportionate number of high conservation priority species

However, the very existence of these unique resources is under threat due to developmental activities, and population pressure (Narayanan and Venot, 2009; He

et al., 2015; Oduor et al., 2015) Despite these benefits (Boyer and Polasky, 2004; Zedler and Kercher, 2005; Gardner et al., 2008; Georgiou and Turner, 2012; Mitsch

et al., 2015) wetlands are the first target of human interference and are among the most threatened of all natural resources (Battisti et al., 2008; Venturas et al., 2013;

Van Rees, 2014) Around 50% of the earth‘s wetlands is estimated to already have disappeared worldwide over the last hundred years through conversion to industrial,

agricultural and residential developments (Pittman and Waite, 2009; Gao et al.,

2012; Abebe, 2014) Even in current scenario, when the ecosystem services provided by wetlands are better understood - degradation and conversion of

wetlands continues (Cui et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015) This is largely due to the fact

that the ‗full value‘ of ecosystem functions is often ignored in policy-making, plans and corporate evaluations of development projects This calls for a long term planning for preservation and conservation of these resources

India with its large geographical spread supports large and diverse wetland classes, some of which are unique The Indian subcontinent is also familiar as the aquatic subcontinent There is a close intrication of water bodies with the food and livelihood

of the Indian communities in addition to various aspects of socioeconomic implications The topographic, climatic, and geographical diversity of India sustains a great diversity of wetlands, which belong to five major categories, viz

i) Wetlands of the Himalayan Region,

ii) Wetlands of the Gangetic plains,

iii) Wetlands of the peninsular uplands,

iv) Coastal wetlands and

v) Wetlands of the oceanic islands

The first scientific mapping of wetlands of the country was carried out using satellite data of 1992–1993 by Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad The exercise classified wetlands based on the Ramsar Convention definition This inventory

estimated the areal extent of wetlands to be about 7.6 m ha (Garg et al., 1998) The

estimates did not include paddy fields, rivers, canals and irrigation channels Thus, all these early assessments were marred by problem of in adequate understanding

of the definition and characteristics of wetlands (Gopal and Sah, 1995)

Wetlands of India are considered to have unique ecological features which provide

numerous products and services to humanity (Prasad et al., 2002) These wetlands

support a spectacular concentration of individual species as well as diversity of species and thereby act as important genetic reservoirs In addition they provide excellent habitats for migratory avifauna and nurture a broad spectrum of animal forms and microorganisms Most of the Indian wetlands are in the floodplains of rivers, lakes, and streams India with its large geographical spread supports large and diverse wetland classes, some of which are unique Wetlands, variously estimated to be occupying 1-5 per cent of geographical area of the country, support about a fifth of the known biodiversity Like any other place in the world, there is a looming threat to the aquatic biodiversity of the Indian wetlands as they are often under a regime of unsustainable human pressures Sustainable management of these assets therefore is highly relevant Realizing this, Govt of India has initiated many appropriate steps in terms of policies, programmes and plans for the preservation and conservation of these ecosystems The Ministry of Environment and Forests has identified a number of wetlands for conservation and management under the National Wetland Conservation Programme and some financial assistance

is being provided to State Governments for various conservation activities through approval of the Management Action Plans

Wetlands have been extensively investigated for their ecology, management,

conservation and restoration (Gopal et al 1982; Gore, 1983; Sharitz and Gibbons, 1989; Lugo et al 1990; Mitsch, 1994; Koudstall and Slootweg, 1994; McComb and Davis, 1999; Westlake et al 1999; Keddy, 2000; Mitsch and Goselink, 2000; Fraser

and Keddy, 2005) Although the importance of Wetlands has been realized throughout the world the study of these ecosystems and scientific management still lag considerably behind the need, particularly in India (Gopal, 1990, 2000) As a step towards conservation and management of wetland ecosystems, a national inventory

October

1981 India acceded to the Ramsar Convention of 1971, which was an expression of the commitment of the international community to the cause of conserving wetlands and her Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) were

Harike Lake (Punjab), Loktak Lake (Manipur) and Sambar Lake (Rajasthan) were

enlisted as internationally important wetlands On 22nd January 2002 Kanjli (Punjab)

Asthamudi (Kerala), Bhitar Kanika Mangrove (Orissa), Bhoj (Madhya Pradesh), Deepor Beel (Assam), East Calcutta Wetlands (West Bengal), Korellu Lake (Andhra Pradesh), Point Calimeri Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu), Pong Dam Lake (Himachal Pradesh), Sastharnkotta Lake (Kerala), Tsomoriri (Jammu & Kashmir), Vernbanad-kol wetland (Kerala) have been recognized as Ramsar sites Till date there are 26 such wetlands of International importance (i.e Ramsar sites) The Ministry of Environment and Forests have also identified a few more wetlands for research and survey such as Dal Lake (Jammu and Kahsmir), Renuka (Himachal Pradesh), Kabar lake (Bihar), Pichola (Rajasthan), Ujni (Maharashtra), Bhoj (Madhya Pradesh), Koleru (Andhra Pradesh), Astamudi (Kerala)

West Bengal, a state in the eastern portion of India, stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south With Sikkim and Bhutan on the north, Assam and Bangladesh in the east, Orissa, Bihar and Nepal in the West and the Bay

of Bengal in the South, West Bengal attains geographical as well as wildlife features

and ecological continuum stretching from the tropical to temperate and alpine zones The plant diversity stretches from the magnificent littoral forests of the Sundarbans to the luxuriant forests of the Eastern Himalaya The major landmass of West Bengal is divisible into two natural subdivisions viz., the Northern Himalayan and the Plains which is a part of the massive Gangetic delta extending from the West Dinajpur in the north to the intricate deltaic system of creeks of the South 24 Parganas There has been an extension of hilly plateau of Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa along the western boundary of the state into the bordering districts viz Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulia and Midnapore The geographical features of the state have given rise to 5 well defined phytoecological zones viz., the Himalayan zone of Darjeeling; Submontane Terai region and the adjacent plains; vast alluvial plain on both sides of the Bhagirathi and its northern and western tributaries; the western dry flank of Chotonagpur plateau and the mangrove forest of the Sundarbans Due to rivarian origin of major landmass of West Bengal like its eastern counterpart under monsoonic regime, the wetlands form an important constituent of her geography

The climate of the state is that of tropical in the south and humid tropical in the north The four main seasons are summer, monsoon, autumn and winter The minimum temperature ranges between 12-15 ˚C while maximum temperature ranges between

of 38-40 ˚C West Bengal experiences torrential rainfall during June to September The annual average rainfall of the state is about 4170 mm The Ganges is the only

and the other flows through the state in the names of Bhagirathi and Hooghly The Ganga delta including the Sunderbans is full of rivers and creeks, which form a web like network Most of the wetlands show varied floral and faunal diversity The common aquatic plants are water hyacinth, water lily, lotus, water-clover, water spinach and water-weeds, apart from algae and phytoplankton Few plants like

(‗singara‘ or ‗paniphal‘) are widely cultivated in the wetlands The common faunal elements in the water bodies are fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mollusks along with a wide variety of migratory and resident avifauna

Certain wetlands in this state deemed important include those of Jaldapara Wildlife

19.8.2002 as Ramsar site (No 1208) i.e a wetland of international importance According to the recent survey by Space Application Centre (SAC 2011), the wetlands in West Bengal comprise 1107907 ha of area accounting for about 12.5 %

of geographical area of the state Total number of wetlands mapped in the state is

147826 including 138707 wetlands smaller than 2.25 ha The total number of inland wetlands are found to be 8670, under natural (3675) and man-made (4995) The total number of coastal wetlands is 449 comprising of 421 natural and 28 man-made The total area of inland and coastal wetlands are 747383 ha and 221817 ha respectively The major wetland types are River/Stream (559192 ha) followed by Mangroves (209330 ha), lakes/ponds (58654 ha), Waterlogged (56603 ha) and Reservoirs (22672 ha) In addition, 138707 smaller wetlands (< 2.25 ha) were also

identified All wetlands with open water features have shown a decrease in water spread from post-monsoon to pre-monsoon

important district in relation to agriculture, education and culture The district has a triangular tract of country bisected longitudinally by the loopline of East Indian Railway The district is under the regime of dry tropical monsoon type of climate Wetlands herein are of both natural and man-made origin In major part of the Birbhum district the surface is covered by a succession of undulations, the general trend of which is from north-west to south-east In the northern most part of Birbhum there are several swamps On the Dwaraka-Mayurakshi interfluves large water bodies occupy a low lying depression Several marshes are also found on the right bank of the Mayurakshi All of them are connected with the master stream by spill channels Many derelict channels forming linear or ox-bow lakes are found on the right bank of the Dwaraka During the monsoon a large part of the low lying area becomes submerged under water Tanks area also found in the district mostly to carry out irrigational purposes

According to the recent survey by Space Application Centre (SAC 2011), the wetlands in Birbhum District comprise 14351 wetlands that include 408 wetlands > 2.25 ha and 13943 wetlands < 2.25 ha in this district Out of 408 mappable wetlands,

93 are natural and the remaining 315 are man-made The wetlands occupy an area

of 27660 ha including the small wetlands River/Stream ranked first in terms of area (10499 ha) accounting for 37% of wetland area Seasonal variation in open water spread is mainly shown by River/Stream which is 5621 ha in post monsoon and decreased to 5063 ha The area coverage shows that the natural wetlands are quite big in size The turbidity of the region is mainly of medium type The area covered by aquatic vegetation in the district is 202 ha and 358 ha in post and pre monsoon The total number of small wetlands (>2.25 ha area) identified in the district is 13943 (SAC 2011)

In view of their enormous importance and multifarious implications it was felt necessary to locate and study the wetlands in Birbhum district with special emphasis

on their values The biodiversity, importance and conservation status of these and

other wetlands of West Bengal are yet to be adequately studied and their ecological

and economic values need thorough assessment Earlier study on Wetlands in

Birbhum District, West Bengal includes investigations pioneered by Palit et al

(2006), Palit and Mukherjee (2007); Palit and Palit (2008), Palit and Mukherjee

(2010); Palit, Mukherjee and Gupta (2012 a,b); Gupta et al (2013); Gupta and Palit

(2014) Since the wetlands of Birbhum District are socioeconomically hitherto almost

unexplored, the scope was availed to undertake the present work Considering the

important contributions of different benefits (i.e wetland services) to the ecology and

economic importance of wetlands; this work is concerned with survey of wetlands in

Birbhum District with special reference to valuation of wetlands

Keeping parity with the objectives, various relevant aspects of the wetlands in

Birbhum district have been studied This work focus on the inventory, ecological

characterization, valuation and conservation of wetland ecosystems in Birbhum

district- a drought prone region in West Bengal, India In this respect, the present

study is probably one of the few initial attempts to conceptualize and quantify the

values of wetlands in Birbhum district, West Bengal, India

This thesis is divided into eight chapters After introducing the study in the Chapter I,

a detailed review of both the theoretical and empirical studies on wetlands along with

valuation and conservation of wetlands are presented in the Chapter II Chapter III

outlines a general account of Birbhum District followed by Chapter IV which

illustrates the detailed methodology used in the study Results of this work are

presented in Chapter V In Chapter VI, the whole work has been discussed keeping

parity with the results in Chapter V and finally the work has been summarized along

with conclusion in Chapter VII All the references cited in different chapters, sections

and subsections have been presented together in Chapter VIII The wetlands

considered in this work need rational utilization, periodic monitoring, management

and protection for conservation before it is too late, since they collectively constitute

a fragile natural resource of great importance This documentary work may prove its

worth in laying the foundation of a wetland based multidimensional conservation

programme for health, economy and environment in Birbhum District, West Bengal

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Wetlands are amongst the most productive ecosystems on the Earth (Ghermandi et al., 2008), and provide many important services to human society (ten Brink et al., 2012) However, they are also ecologically sensitive and adaptive systems (Turner et al., 2000) Wetlands exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis,

geographical location, water regime and chemistry, dominant species, and soil and sediment characteristics (Space Applications Centre, 2011) Long regarded as wastelands, wetlands are now recognized as important features in the landscape that provide numerous beneficial services for people and for fish and wildlife (Scholz,

2011; Kar, 2013; Zheng et al., 2015) Some of these services, or functions, include

protecting and improving water quality, providing fish and wildlife habitats, storing floodwaters and maintaining surface water flow during dry periods These beneficial services, considered valuable to societies worldwide, are the result of the inherent and unique natural characteristics of wetlands (EPA, 2015)

As any scientific study the emergence of wetlands in the realms of science is not spontaneous It passed through different stages of development And in each stage the scientists studied the wetlands available to them with the theoretical and philosophical background of their ages Since the wetland is considered a transitional area between land and water Smith (1980) aptly described it as a half-way world between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems It is largely dominated by water and has special type of flora and fauna, which usually undergo times scheduled characteristics changes from hydric to mesic types Wetlands in general are shallow water bodies in which water keeps up for most part of the year and may recede below the surface level during the dry season (Casanova and Powling, 2015) These constitute complex hydrological and biogeochemical systems In addition to the presence of shallow, unique wetland soils and vegetation adapted to wet conditions, wetlands have a number of other characteristics that distinguish them from other ecosystem yet make them less easily defined (Zinn and Copeland, 1982;

Reed et al., 1995; Van der Valk, 2012) Mainly because of wide diversity of wetland

types and difficulty often faced with in demarcating the boundaries of this ecosystem, the definition itself shows diversity and becomes a subject of debate

2.1 Wetlands definitions

The term wetlands is used for such diverse habitats in different climatic zones of the earth that it is indeed difficult to define it in simple terms The situation is further complicated by the fact that whereas ecologists use the term ‗wetland‘ for ecosystems with specific ecological characteristics which differentiate them from other ecosystems, the conservationists insist on including a wide range of aquatic habitats (from temporary ponds to large deepwater lakes and reservoirs, from small streams to large rivers and estuaries as well as coastal waters and coral reefs) Accordingly, wetlands have been defined variously during the past two decades The definitions range from simple working definitions to highly technical ones The IUCN defined wetlands very broadly for the purpose of Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of

International Importance (IUCN, 1971) as: Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters A major confusion in applying

this definition is caused by the fact that this definition is silent about the depth of water and the presence of biota, especially the kind of vegetation The presence of waterfowl is considered a feature of special importance although other criteria have been gradually developed during the past few years Unfortunately, over the years, the 6 meter depth limit for marine areas has often been interpreted to cover freshwater areas as well, and has been extended even further to include all rivers, lakes and reservoirs

Cowardin et al (1979), on the other hand, used detailed scientific criteria to define wetlands in the United States According to them: Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near

more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3) the substrate is non soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year Cowardin et al (1979) further elaborated to delimit wetland areas as: The term wetland includes a variety of areas that fall into one of five categories: (1) areas with hydrophytes and hydric soils,

such as those commonly known as marshes, swamps, and bogs; (2) areas without hydrophytes but with hydric soils- for example, flats where drastic fluctuation in water level, wave action, turbidity, or high concentration of salts may prevent the growth of hydrophytes; (3) areas with hydrophytes but nonhydric soils, such as margins of impoundments or excavations where hydrophytes have become established but hydric soils have not yet developed; (4) areas without soils but with hydrophytes such as the seaweed-covered portion of rocky shores; and (5) wetlands without soil and without hydrophytes, such as gravel beaches or rocky shores without vegetation

The definition was further clarified by setting the boundary of wetlands with both the terrestrial and deepwater habitats The boundary with deepwater habitats is more important in the context of IUCN definition and management of wetlands According

to Cowardin et al (1979), The boundary between wetland and deepwater habitat in the Marine and Estuarine systems coincides with the elevation of the extreme low water of spring tide; permanently flooded areas are considered deep water habitats

in these systems The boundary between wetland and deepwater habitat in the Riverine, Lacustrine and Palustrine systems lies at a depth of 2 meter below low water; however, if emergents, shrubs, or trees grow beyond this depth at any time, their deepwater edge is the boundary This definition, despite its limitations for

practical use, is widely used by wetland scientists To overcome the difficulty in deciding whether a plant is a hydrophyte or not, the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service prepared a list of hydrophytes for identifying wetlands Thus, the two definitions represent the most general and most technical definition respectively

2.2 Classification of wetlands

Wetlands occur extensively throughout the world in all climatic zones and are estimated to cover about 6% of the earth‘s surface They include a wide spectrum of habitats ranging from extensive peat bogs of northern latitudes to tropical mangrove forests, from seasonal ponds and marshes to floodplains and permanent riparian swamps, from freshwater shallow lakes and margins of large reservoirs to salt lakes, brackish lagoons, estuaries and costal salt marshes (Tiner, 2015) Extensive beds of marine algae (kelps) along sea coasts and coral reefs are also considered as

wetlands Thus wetlands exhibit very large differences in their habitat characteristics such as hydrological regimes, water quality and soils, and in the nature and diversity

of their biota Wetlands also occur in all shapes and sizes ranging from less than one hectare to hundreds of square kilometers in area (Semlitsch, 2000; Van Meter, 2014) Therefore, it is equally difficult to classify wetlands into different types More than fifty schemes of classification have been proposed for wetlands in different countries, and there is hardly any scheme that satisfies all scientific criteria and is also practically applicable in the field Various classification schemes have employed

a few to a large number of criteria which have been given different weightage

The simplest classification is the one proposed by Scott (1989a) for use in Ramsar Database, and followed in the Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989b) It recognizes simply 22 wetland types listed in Table 1 Most of these types are artificial and heterogeneous assemblages For example, the category freshwater ponds, marshes and ‗swamps‘ is different from ‗shrimp ponds, fish ponds‘ on one hand and from the ‗swamp forest, temporarily flooded forest‘ on the other The ‗rice paddies‘ are distinguished from ―flooded arable land‘ whereas the ‗salt pans‘ and

‗salt lakes‘ are recognized as different types This classification has been followed

by the revised Directory of Indian Wetlands (WWF/AFB, 1993)

The most comprehensive and elaborate hierarchical system of classification has

been developed by Cowardin et al (1979) for the United States Fish and Wildlife

Service (Table 2) It covers the deepwater habitats also, and has been extensively used in the United States for preparing wetland inventories It recognizes five major systems (Marine, Estuarine, Riverine, Lacustrine and Palustrine) which are divided into subsystems based on the nature and extent of flooding A number of classes are recognized in each subsystem largely on the basis of the nature of the substratum Other characteristics like water regime, water chemistry, soil types, vegetation and anthropogenic factors have been used as modifiers to further subdivide classes into lower categories Dugan (1990) suggested a classification scheme which is very similar to Cowardin system It groups the wetlands first into salt water, fresh water and manmade wetlands These are further subdivided into categories based on their hydrological characteristics (Table 3) This scheme is relatively simple and practical

At the same time it accords recognition to the hydrological attributes and

distinguishes between natural and manmade wetlands Ramsar Convention, at the fourth Conference of the Contracting Parties (Montreux, 1990) adopted a simple classification system of wetlands types for the description of Ramsar Sites (Table 4, Davis, 1994) The system recognizes 35 types grouped under three major categories: marine and coastal wetlands, inland wetlands and man-made wetlands

In India, a classification of all wetlands has never been attempted although the forested wetlands, both freshwater and marine, were recognized as ―Littoral and Swamp Forests‖ by Champion and Seth (1968) who subdivided them further into a number of subtypes The herbaceous wetlands which are more widespread and are not associated with specific forest types, have never been organized into categories

or types Thus a proposed classification scheme by Gopal and Sah (1995) has been given which may serve as a useful guide for surveying wetlands in the country In the proposed scheme (Table 5), wetlands are first grouped into saline and freshwater types which are then distinguished between those with herbaceous or woody vegetation These categories are divided further on the basis of their hydrological regimes, particularly the duration of flooding The hydrological regimes directly control the type of vegetation in a wetland, and hence, wetland types are identified

by their dominant vegetation It must be pointed out that even the permanently flooded wetlands exhibit large water level changes and a large part of their area may become exposed for a short period Further, more than one vegetation type may occur in a wetland In such cases, the wetland may be classified according to the dominant type of vegetation

It is also necessary to recognize a distinction between the natural and anthropogenic (modified and created by humans) wetlands In fact, today in India there are more manmade aquatic habitats than natural ones Besides large areas of paddy fields, there are numerous fish ponds (often modified from the marshes) and shallow reservoirs Most of these anthropogenic wetlands are managed for specific economic activity whereas some are incidental to other forms of water resource utilization (e.g irrigation) These wetlands cannot be distinguished from the natural ones by their vegetation or animals but their management has to take into account the fact that they are man-made and therefore, their hydrology is regulated by humans for various other reasons For example, two herbaceous wetlands associated with the shallow

littoral zone of a natural lake and a reservoir may have similar biota but the fact that the reservoir may be used for irrigation (and thereby result in large man induced water level changes), require ample consideration in management

Table 1: Wetland types initially recognized by the Ramsar Convention (1989)

1 Shallow sea bays and straits (under six meters at

low tide )

2 Estuaries, deltas

3 Small offshore islands, islets

4 Rocky sea coasts, sea cliffs

5 Sea beaches (sand, pebbles)

6 Intertidal mudflats, sand flats

7 Mangrove swamps, mangrove forest

8 Coastal brackish and saline lagoons and marshes

9 Salt pans (artificial)

10 Shrimp ponds, fish ponds

11 Rivers, streams-slow flowing (lower perennial)

12 Rivers, streams- fast flowing (upper perennial)

13 Oxbow lakes, riverine marshes

14 Freshwater lakes and associated marshes

17 Water storage reservoirs, dams

18 Seasonally flooded grassland, savanna, palm

savanna

19 Rice paddies

20 Flooded arable land, irrigated land

21 Swamp forest, temporarily flooded forest

22 Peat bogs

Table 2: Hierarchical classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats,

according to Cowardin et al (1979)

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Reef

Reef Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore

Unconsolidated shore Aquatic Bed

Reef

Reef Streambed Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore Emergent wetland Scrub shrub wetland Forested wetland

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore Emergent wetland

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore Emergent wetland

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Rocky shore Unconsolidated shore Emergent wetland

Unconsolidated Bottom

Aquatic Bed Unconsolidated shore Moss-Lichen Wetland Emergent wetland Scrub shrub wetland Forested wetland

Table 3: Wetland classification suggested by Dugan (1990)

1 SALTWATER

depth at low tide, including sea bays, straits

ii) subtidal aquatic vegetation, including kelp beds, sea grasses, tropical marine meadows

iii) coral reefs

2 Intertidal i) Rocky marine shores, including cliffs and rocky shores

ii) Shores of mobile stones and shingle

iii) Intertidal mobile unvegetated mud, sand or salt flats iv) Intertidal vegetated sediments, including salt marshes and mangroves, on sheltered coasts

1.2

Estuarine

estuarine systems of deltas

2.Intertidal i) Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats, with limited

vegetation

ii) Intertidal marshes, including salt marshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes, tidal brackish and freshwater marshes

iii) Intertidal forested wetlands, including mangrove

swamp, Nipa swamp, tidal freshwater swamp forest

ii) Riverine floodplains, including river flats, flooded river basins, seasonally flooded grasslands

2.2

Lacustrine

ii) Permanent freshwater ponds (<8ha)

plain lakes

2.3

Palustrine

inorganic soils, with emergent vegetation whose bases lie below the water table for a least most of the growing season

ii) Permanent peat-forming freshwater swamps, including tropical upland valley swamps dominated by Papyrus or Typha

iii) Seasonal freshwater marshes on inorganic soil, including sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes, and bamboos

iv)Peatlands, including acidophilous, ombrogenous, or soligenous mires covered by moss, herbs or dwarf shrub vegetation, and fens of all types

v)Alpine and polar wetlands, including seasonally flooded meadows moistened by temporary waters from snowmelt

vi)Freshwater springs and oases with surrounding vegetation

vii) Volcanic fumaroles continually moistened by emerging and condensing water vapour

marsh, shrub carr and thickets, on inorganic soils

ii) Freshwater swamp forest, including seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps on inorganic soils iii)Forested peat lands, including peat swamp forest 3.MANMADE WETLANDS

iii) Seasonally flooded arable land

mining pools

ii) Wastewater treatment area, including sewage farms, settling ponds and oxidation basins

consumption with a pattern of gradual, seasonal, drawdown of water level

ii)Hydro-dams with regular fluctuations in water level on

a weekly or monthly basis

Table 4: Classification system for Wetland Types (Davis, 1994)

Marine and Coastal Wetlands

1 Marine waters-permanent shallow waters less than six meters deep at low tide; include sea bays, straits

2 Subtidal aquatic beds; includes kelp beds, sea grasses, tropical marine

meadows

3 Coral reefs

4 Rocky marine shores; includes rocky offshore islands, sea cliffs

5 Sand, shingle or pebble beaches; includes sand bars, spits, sandy islets

6 Estuarine waters; permanent waters of estuaries and estuarine systems of deltas

7 Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats

8 Intertidal marshes; includes salt marshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised saltmarshes, tidal brackish and freshwater marshes

9 Intertidal forested wetlands; includes mangroves swamps, nipa swamps, tidal freshwater swamp forests

10 Brackish to saline lagoons with one or more relatively narrow connections with the sea

11 Freshwater lagoons and marshes in the coastal zone, includes delta lagoon

and marsh systems

Inland wetlands

1 Permanent rivers and streams includes waterfalls

2 Seasonal and irregular rivers and streams

3 Inland deltas (permanent)

4 Riverine floodplains; includes river flats, flooded river basins, seasonally flooded grassland, savanna and palm savanna

5 Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha), includes large oxbow lakes

6 Seasonal freshwater lakes (over 8 ha), floodplain lakes

7 Permanent and seasonal, brackish, saline or alkaline lakes, flats and

marshes

8 Permanent freshwater ponds (below 8 ha), marshes and swamps on

inorganic soils; with emergent vegetation waterlogged for at least most of the

growing season

9 Seasonal fresh water ponds and marshes on inorganic soil; includes sloughs,

potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes

10 Shrub swamps; shrub dominated freshwater marsh, shrub carr, alder thicket;

on inorganic soils

11 Freshwater swamp forest; seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps; on inorganic soils

12 Peatlands; shrub or open bogs, fens

13 Forested peatlands; peat swamp forest

14 Alpine and tundra wetlands; includes alpine meadows, tundra pools,

temporary waters from snowmelt

15 Freshwater springs, oases

16 Geothermal wetlands

Manmade Wetlands

1 Water storage areas; reservoirs, barrages, hydroelectric dams, impoundments (generally over 8 ha)

2 Ponds, including farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks (generally below 8 ha)

3 Aquaculture ponds; fish ponds, shrimp ponds

4 Salt exploitation, salt pans, salines

5 Excavations; gravel pits, borrow pits, mining pools

6 Waste-water treatment; sewage farms, settling ponds, oxidation basins

7 Irrigated land and irrigation channels; rice fields, canals, ditches

8 Seasonally flooded arable land, farmland