critique confronts the world Without dogma, without new principles, it refuses to conform and instead demands insurrection of thought It must be ruthless, unafraid of both its results and the powers it may come into conflict with Critique takes the world, our world, as its object, so that we may develop new ways of making it influence is a step from critique towards the future, when effects begin to be felt, when the ground becomes unstable, when a movement ignites These critiques of the state of our world have influenced a generation They are crucial guides to change change is when the structures shift The books in this series take critique as their starting point and as such have influenced both their respective disciplines and thought the world over This series is born out of our conviction that change lies not in the novelty of the future but in the realization of the thoughts of the past These texts are not mere interpretations or reflections, but scientific, critical and impassioned analyses of our world After all, the point is to change it Titles in the critique influence change series Reclaiming Development An Alternative Policy Manual by Ha-Joon Chang and Ilene Grabel Realizing Hope Life Beyond Capitalism by Michael Albert Global Governance and the New Wars The Merging of Development and Security by Mark Duffield Capitalism in the Age of Globalization The Management of Contemporary Society by Samir Amin Ecofeminism by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale Women in the International Division of Labour by Maria Mies Grassroots Post-modernism Remaking the Soil of Cultures by Gustavo Esteva and Madhu Suri Prakash Debating Cultural Hybridity Multicultural Identities and the Politics of Anti-Racism edited by Pnina Werbner and Tariq Modood A Fundamental Fear Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism by S Sayyid The Lords of Human Kind European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age by Victor Kiernan Male Daughters, Female Husbands Gender and Sex in an African Society by Ifi Amadiume Marxism and the Muslim World by Maxime Rodinson Planet Dialectics Explorations in Environment and Development by Wolfgang Sachs Another World is Possible Popular Alternatives to Globalization at the World Social Forum Edited by William Fisher and Thomas Ponniah More Critical Praise for PLANET DIALECTICS ‘Brings together insights from anthropology, history, economics, cultural studies and environmental science to show that the rapidly expanding global market economy is designed to benefit only the few and will inevitably cause disastrous environmental overshoot Planet Dialectics is an impressive book.’ David Mittler in Resurgence ‘A remarkable book well written, full of food for thought It should attract a wide readership among students dealing with development, environment, globalization and planning issues.’ Progress in Development Studies ‘Sachs’ ideas are dynamite.’ New Internationalist About the Author Wolfgang Sachs is a researcher, writer and university teacher in the field of environment, development and globalization His bestknown works include the immensely influential Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power (2010), which has been translated into numerous languages; Global Ecology: A New Arena of Political Conflict (1993); Greening the North: A Post-Industrial Blueprint for Ecology and Equity (co-authored with Reinhard Loske and Manfred Linz, 1998); and (co-edited with Tilman Santarius) Fair Future: Resource Conflicts, Security, and Global Justice (2007) Planet Dialectics Explorations in Environment and Development Wolfgang Sachs With a Foreword by Susan George Zed Books London Planet Dialectics: Explorations in Environment and Development was first published in 1999 by Zed Books Ltd, Cynthia Street, London N1 9JF, UK This edition was published in 2015 www.zedbooks.co.uk Copyright © Wolfgang Sachs, 1999, 2015 Foreword © Susan George, 2015 Translation copyright Chapter © Patrick Camiller The right of Wolfgang Sachs to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988 Set in Monotype Dante by Ewan Smith, London Cover designed by www.alice-marwick.co.uk All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of Zed Books Ltd A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78360-340-4 pb ISBN 978-1-78360-341-1 pdf ISBN 978-1-78360-342-8 epub ISBN 978-1-78360-343-5 mobi Contents Foreword to the critique influence change edition Susan George ix Preface to the first edition xv Bibliographical note Part I The Archaeology of the Development Idea The Archaeology of the Development Idea Part II The Shaky Ground of Sustainability xxi 25 Global Ecology and the Shadow of ‘Development’ 27 The Gospel of Global Efficiency 47 Environment and Development: The Story of a Dangerous Liaison 56 Sustainable Development: On the Political Anatomy of an Oxymoron 71 91 Part III In the Image of the Planet One World – Many Worlds? 93 The Blue Planet: On the Ambiguity of a Modern Icon 110 Globalization and Sustainability 129 viii Planet Dialectics Part IV Ecology and Equity in a Post-development Era 157 Ecology, Justice and the End of Development 159 10 The Two Meanings of Resource Productivity 175 11 Speed Limits 187 12 The Power of Limits: An Inquiry into New Models of Wealth 197 Bibliography 213 Index 220 Foreword to the critique influence change edition Susan George Wolfgang Sachs wrote the essays in this volume between the mid-tolate 1980s and the end of the 1990s This welcome reprint thus comes roughly twenty to thirty years after he first conceived them The first thing the reader is likely to observe is how fresh they seem and how full of useful lessons they are – lessons that mostly have yet to be taken to heart and, above all, acted upon The second observation, at least for impatient readers like me, is to note how willfully stupid, short-sighted and mired in outworn ideology our elected leadership, institutions and purported ‘experts’ have shown themselves to be Many of the concepts Sachs develops and showcases were doubtless novel and original twenty or thirty years ago, but it is nothing short of scandalous that they should remain so in the second decade of the twenty-first century The very freshness and relevance of these ideas, when we discover them in these pages, is not a good sign for humanity or indeed for the survival of the species Change is painfully slow and humans must become quicker to recognise and act upon profound truths – or perish I, for one, would therefore have been happier had there been no need for a reprint of Sachs’s work, however pleased I may be to write this foreword His proposals should by now have become consensual, obvious and commonly accepted How often have we heard repeated Kenneth Boulding’s bon mot, ‘To believe that the economy can grow forever in a finite world, you have to be a madman or an economist’ Neither of the latter are in short supply, and we are still largely governed by both For several years, every year, sometime around mid-August, we start consuming the resources of Planet no 2, since by then we have ix Bibliography Adriaanse, A et al (1997), Resource Flows: The Material Basis of Industrial Economies, Washington, DC: World Resources Institute Agarwal, A and S Narain (1989), Towards Green Villages: A Strategy for Environmentally Sound and Participatory Rural Development, New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment Allen, J (1991), Biosphere The Human Experiment, New York: Penguin Altvater, E (1992), Der Preis des Wohlstands, Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot — and B Mahnkopf (1996), Grenzen der Globalisierung, Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot Anders, G (1980), Die 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loss of, 72, 166, 169, 171 Biodiversity Convention, 38 biomass, 38, 116, 128, 167, 199, 206; conversion of, 67 bioreservations, 128 biosphere, 112; calibrating of, 84, 125; earth as, 113; invention of, 117–24; nature of, 118; research into, 43; science of, 120; simplification of, 149 Biosphere project, 83 bipolarism, 74 blast furnaces, new technology of, 136 boundaries, removal of, 131 Brandt Report, 21, 98 Brazil, currency crash in, 143 Bretton Woods system, 131, 142 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 159 Brundtland Report (Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development) Our Common Future, ix, x, 34, 47, 51, 56, 76, 77, 99–100, 128, 153, 160, 173; setting for, 57–61 Bush, George, 27 Business Council on Sustainable Development, 80 cake, metaphor of, 165, 168 capital: movements of, deregulation of, 142; transfers of, 137 carbon dioxide, 80, 189; absorption of, 167, 190; emissions of, 48, 67, 138, 147 (limits on, 38); US emissions of, 39 (policy on, 38) Caring for the Earth report, 37 cars, 146, 188; and speed, 191–3; as timesavers, 193; building of motorways, 140; create their own failure, 202; fuel consumption of, 192; fuel-efficient, 41, 88, 135, 183, 184; growing population of, 42; ownership of, 74, 138; power of, 14, 15 (excessive, 203); redesign of, 203, 204 (for lower speeds, 195); resource input into, 192; unsustainability of, 171; vehicular space based on robber economy, 189 Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, 34 Cézanne, Paul, 177, 179, 180, 182 de Chardin, Teilhard, 118 Chiapas rebellion, 86 Chile, sale of tree-felling rights, 143 Chipko movement, 65–6 chlorofluorocarbons, 80; Montreal protocol, 37 Christianity, 107; fading of, 95 civilization, need for debate on, 181 220 Index Clark, Colin, Clean Air and Clean Water Act (USA), 175 climate change, 45, 65, 127, 167 Climate Convention, 38 Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth, 58, 76 CNN, 71 Colombus, Christopher, 71 colonialism, 162; decolonization, 161; European, 104 Columbia space shuttle, 114 Columbus, Christopher, 45, 72 commons: enclosure of, 87, 148, 173; global, 37 communications: global networks of, 132–3; speed of, 145; transnational, 133–4 competition, 140; standardization of, 140 computerization, resource input of, 193 computers, and ecological division of labour, 152 conservation, 77, 81–2 consumer goods, as a means of communication, 210 consumer society, rise of, 209 consumers, creation of, 19 consumption, 211; changing patterns of, 36; correlation with well-being, 210; design of new goods, 210; excessive, 168; overabundance of, 211, 212; resistance to, 208; vicious cycle of, 207 see also resources, consumption of contest perspective, 78–83 cow dung, as energy resource, 49, 50 creation, as sublimation of constraints, 180 credit card, introduced by Greenpeace, 199 Cree Indians, deer hunting among, 50 cultures, negligence towards, 101 currencies, as commodities, 142 currency crises, 142–7 Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, 59 Daly, Herman, 41, 88 dams, building of, 169 decentralization, 206; of functions of production, 150 deforestation see forests, cutting of demarcation, 131 deregulation, 139–42, 147 Descartes, René, 191 desertification, 35, 57, 125 development, 27–46, 75, 96; alternative model of, 76; and dissolution of cultures, 29; and redistribution, 164; archaeology of, xi, 3–23; as imperative, 4–5; as reincarnation of idea of progress, 165;5 concept of, demise of, 75–6; end of, 159–74; environment and, 221 56–70; excessive, 161; failure of, xi; hopes of, 170; limits to, 33; right to, 164; sacredness of, 27 Development Act (1929) (UK), developmentalist state, demise of, 163 dialogue of civilizations, 106 Dilthey, Wilhelm, 181 disembedding, 139 distances of travel, reduction of, 205–7 diversity, 149; and potential for innovation, 106; as obstacle, 99; genetic, 38; loss of, 86; of species, 44, 45; place-centred, 106 dolphin fishing, ban on, 141 drug trafficking, 22 Duden, Barbara, 117 Earth see planet Earth Earth Day, 153 Earth Observing System, 116 Earth Summit see UN Conference on Environment and Development eco-colonialism, 100 eco-efficiency, 80, 182, 183, 192 eco-intelligent goods and services, 198–201 eco-taxes, in European Union, 140 ecocracy, global, 67–8 ecological adjustment, 82–3; of North, 87 ecological agriculture, 200 ecological degradation, 23 ecological footprint, 166, 189, 199; of North, 87; of OECD, 167 The Ecologist, Blueprint for Survival, 58 ecology, xii, 33, 36, 47, 61, 79, 123, 130, 172, 207; and end of development, 159–74; as science, 62; global, 27–46; holism of, 63; imposition of new norms, 140; industrial, 200; plundering of, 138; technocratic, 124–8 ecology movement, 152, 153; antimodernism of, 61; in USA, 171 economists, blind eye of, 16–20 economy, concept of, 19, 178 ecosystems: theory of, 64; varied sizes of, 63 education, efficiency, 88, 178–9, 180; and sufficiency, 185–6; blind spot of, 182–5; global, gospel of, 47–55; revolution in, 39–42 Ehrlich, P., Population Bomb, 58 electric mixer, example of, 13–14 electrical appliances, spread of, 184 electricity, deregulation of market, 141 electronic communication: and stimulation of new technology, 195; constribution to speed, 192 electronic networking, 145–6; generative of travel, 145 222 Planet Dialectics Elizabeth I, Queen, x energy: cleaner sources of, 141; flows of, 63; renewable, 57; resources (over-use of, 89; reduced use of, 76, 88) Enlightenment, 95, 96, 97, 99, 161, 173 environment: and development, 56–70; concept of, 66 (ambivalence of, 56) environmental degradation, 35, 40, 45, 61, 166, 168, 190 environmental diplomacy, 38 environmental justice movement, in USA, 171 environmental management, 43 environmental policy-making, 171; shift in, 175 environmental space, notion of, 172, 173 environmentalism, 27 equity, principle of, 172 Eratosthenes, 111 ERS-1 satellite, 125 Europe: as home of literacy, 94; colonialism of, 75; common market, 32; separation from Other, 96 European Union (EU) 39, 97, 137, 141 export zones, establishment of, 150 factor of 10 reduction in resource use, 174, 183, 185, 203, 205 finance markets, 142–7; operations of, 134 fish resources: expropriated by the rich, 167; loss of, 166 fishing industry, 44 forests, 11, 51, 86; cutting of, 66, 140, 169, 171; fires in Indochina, 139; loss of, ix; resources, 169 fossil fuels, 152, 169, 184, 189, 197; consumption of, 48, 138, 188 fragmentation of existence, 212 France, as colonial power, 4, 161 free trade, 82, 98, 148, 184 freight, declining costs of, 147 Friends of the Earth, 153 frugality, 11–12; as key to well-being, 212 fuel oil, falling price of, 147 fuelwood, resources of, 35, 101 future, as repository of fears, 106 Gaia, 51 Gaia Atlas, 47 Gaia hypothesis, 118–24 Gandhi, Mohandas, 5, 7, 16, 17 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 134, 137, 154; reform of, 32; Uruguay Round, 131, 140, 154 genetic modification, and property rights 148–9 Geotechnica congress, 121 Germany, 132; carbon budget of, 167; energy consumption of, 171 globalization, x, xii, 57, 75, 97, 131, 163, 164, 169; and new colonization of nature, 147–9; and use of resources, 134–6 (increased, 136–47); contradictions of, 129–55; dependence on transportation, 146; of consciousness, 102; of experiential space, 71; of monoculture, 94; of political community, ix; undercutting social solidarity, 163 global cities, 133 global citizens, 153 global marketing, 132 Global Resource Information Database, 126 global responsibility, 124–5 global sourcing, 132, 146, 205 global warming, 22, 189 globalism, hegemony of, 42–6 GNP see growth Goethe, J.W von, 177 Golding, William, 121 good housekeeping, 54 Gore, Al, 85 Grand Canyon, flooding of, 57 ‘Green Revolution’, 149 greenhouse effect, 7, 15, 22, 39, 43, 51, 72, 84, 125, 153, 166, 167, 171, 190 Greening the North, xii Group of Seven, 35; Beijing Declaration, 31 growth: conservation of, 81–2; economic, 6, 10, 28, 33, 50, 59, 61, 74, 79, 88, 137, 138, 161, 166, 184 (costs of, shifted elsewhere, 168–9; limits to, 35, 39, 46, 58, 59, 166, 173, 182, 185, 202; modernization of, 182; negative consequences of, 89; unlimited, idea of, 197); effects of, 184; linear throughput model, 200; seen as benign, 165; selective, 40; synonymous with resource extraction, 135 Guatemala, 17 Gulf War, 20, 21 Hawken, Paul, 179; The Ecology of Commerce, 177 health, Heine, Heinrich, 188 Heraclitus, 20 Hinduism, 16, 50 Hobsbawm, Eric, 162 home perspective, 78, 86–9 home-grown economies, 206 homoeostasis, 63 Hopper, David, 65 hormone-intensive beef, 141 Index Hugh of St Victor, 107 Human Development Report, 73, 171 humankind, unity of, 99 Hume, David, 95 Hutchinson, G Evelyn, 118 Illich, Ivan, xiii immigration, 45, 72; perceived threat of, 22 imperialism, 154, 155; ‘double mandate’ of, income, renunciation of, 208 India, 93, 99, 104; car ownership in, 138; independence of, 16–17; methane emissions from, 39 Indonesia, currency crash in, 143 industrialization, 59, 67, 138, 174; excessive, 49 information highway, comparison to railways, 133 information technology (IT), 13 information universe, black holes in, 133 infra-red photography, development of, 116 intellectual property rights, 147; traderelated, 148 inter-generational equity, 159, 160, 173 interchangeability of parts, 199 International Biological Programme, 118 International Council of Scientific Unions, 120 International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, 120 International Labour Office (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), 144; as shadow government, 154 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Conservation Strategy, 81 Internet, 145 investment, direct foreign, 137–9 Iraq, 21 irrigation, 51 Irwin, James, 113 Japan, 32, 39, 94, 99, 132, 137, 144, 151, 152; space activity of, 125; video screen advertising in, 27 Johnson, Lyndon B., 57 justice: and the end of development, 159–74; and redistribution, 165; crisis of, 73–4; new colour of, 170–4 Kant, Immanuel, 95, 177, 189 Kennedy, John F., 12 Keynes, J.M., 11, 161, 209 Korea, South, 144; car ownership in, 138 Kurdistan, 23 Kuwait, Iraqi invasion of, 72 223 Lake Erie, death of, 57 land: degradation of, 166; demand for, 144 languages, survival of, 93–4 laundry detergents, redesign of, 199 Law of the Sea, 37 League of Nations, 94 lean production, 205 life expectancy, raising of, life on other planets, 119 light-bulbs, electricity-saving, 53 limes, as frontier, 78 limits, 181–2, 186; connection with creativity, 177; environmental, 53; power of, 197–212; productivity of, 179–80 see also self-limitation literacy, 9, 10; Europe as home of, 94 Local Exchange and Trading System (LETS), 209 localism, cosmopolitan, 105–7 longevity of products, 199 Los Angeles, smog, 57 Lovelock, J., 118–24 Lovins, Amory, 53 Lugard, Lord, machine, and body, 187–9 mafia, role of, 21 Maharashtra, cycles of production in, 18 Malaysia, 27, 144 malnutrition, elimination of, Malthus, Thomas, 58 mangrove forest, disappearance of, 151 mankind: concept of, 95; idea of, 108; noncentrist view of, 123; unity of, 106, 114, 122, 153 manpower development, 33 marginalization, xii market, 79; definition of, 18–19; efficiency of, 136; free trade policies, 32; integration, 28; invisible hand of, 135; liberalization of, 144; single, 97–9 Marshall Plan, new, 85 MasterCard, motto of, 130 material cycles in the economy, 176 Maya Indians, 17; killing of, 71 McNamara, Robert, 6, 9, 60 meat: consumption of, tripled, 139; production of, 151 meat-based nutrition, 171 medium-scale actors, advantages of, 206 mendicancy, state policies on, 11 Mercator, Gerardus, 111 meta-nation, concept of, 107 Mexico, 11, 86; currency crash in, 143; rescinding of forest laws, 143 224 Planet Dialectics Mexico City, earthquake in, micro-economics, 52 microchips, production of, 152 middle class: domination by, 169; global, 30 migration, threat of, 79 military intervention, 23 mines, as wombs of Mother Earth, 50 mining, 135, 140, 176, 192, 199; effects of, 169 moderation, as norm for public policy, 204 modernity, optimism of, 165 modernization, ecological, 79 money: as globalized market, 134; role of, 10 monocultures, 169 Montesquieu, C.-L de Secondat, 97 mortality, infant, reduction of, NASA, 116, 119, 120; Earth Systems Science programme, 121; Mission to Planet Earth programme, 125; view of ‘one earth’, 101 nation states, as centres of gravity, 162; demise of, 162; rise of, 169 National Science Foundation (USA), Global Geosciences programme, 120 nature: concept of, 66; conservation of, 81–2; crisis of, 74–5; human domination of, 64, 127, 147–9, 191; value attributed to, 58 negawatts, concept of, 53 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 5, 16, 17 New Deal, 11, 161 New International Economic Order (NIEO), 31, 80 Nigeria, 93; sale of oil exploitation rights, 143 North: as area for ecological adjustment, 87; interests of elites, 32; model of, 31; values of, 82 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 134, 154 North–South relations, 4, 5, 31–3, 40, 72, 74, 75, 78, 83, 150, 162, 170, 173; and aid, 164 oil crisis, 59 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 35, 79, 132, 137, 138, 141, 146, 152; transport in, 147 Other, need for, 106 ozone layer, hole in, 22, 43, 51, 84, 125 Persian Gulf, oil spillages, 126 pesticides, 51; use of, 144 pharmaceutical industry, 98 photo of earth see planet Earth photocopiers, redesign of, 200 Pinchot, Gifford, 59, 77 planet Earth: as homogeneous area, under globalization, 132; as management object, 83–4; carrying capacity of, 172; colour of, 117; finite limits of, 33–6, 122, 170; fragility of viii; image of, viii, x, 43, 110–28 (ambivalence of, 129; appropriated by multinationals, 154; construction of, 111–17); limits of, 112–13, 129, 130, 131, 153; medieval view of, 103; photographs of, ix, xii, 12, 56, 84, 99, 114, 121, 122, 124, 127, 145, 152; small size of, 113–14; space perspective of, 119–20; spaceship, metaphor of, 101; survival of, 56, 61, 65; unity of, 99–102; view of, 103; visibility of, 111 plant cultivation, selective breeding, 190 Polanyi, Karl, 139, 178 pollution, 40, 51, 57, 65, 125, 152, 153, 171, 175, 190; control of, 175; of air, 15; of seas, 22, 44; social distribution of, 172 population growth, 45, 79, 82, 127 post-development, xii Potsdam University, Geo-Sciences Institute, 121 poverty, 6, 7, 8, 33, 35, 56, 60, 144, 161, 173; absolute, 9–10, 60 (and nutrition levels, 10); and equity, 172; destitution, 11; discovery of, 8–12; elimination of, 35; invention of, 8–9; war on, 57 power stations, new technology of, 135 prakriti, 66 production, Man as source of, 177 productive forces, 178 productivity, 35, 137, 198; as efficiency, 178–9; imperative of, 209; of limits, 179–80; viewed as abundance, 177–8 see also resource productivity prosperity, new models of, 88–9 protectionism, 154 prudence of transactions, 54 Pythagoras, 111 quality of life, 88 paper, production of, 184 paperless office, 183 patents: on genetic innovations, 148–9; protection for, 148 Pax Americana, 97 Pearson Report, 97–8 railways, 188, 205; bursting the bounds of nature, 201; designed for lower speeds, 195; fuel consumption of, 192; invention of, 187 Rank Xerox, redesign of photocopiers, 200 Index von Raumer, Friedrich, 187 rebound effects, 183 recycling, 206 redistribution, 10 regeneration, 106–7 remote surveying, 116, 120 reproductive sector, gap with productive sector, 194 resource productivity, 180–2; meaning of, 175–86 resources: accelerated use of, under globalization, 136–47; consumption of, 166, 175 (by rich, 171; overseas, 151; social distribution of, 172; reduction of, 174, 176, 184); efficiency of management of, 41, 141; extraction of, 176; global inequality of use of, 173; monitoring consumption of, 101; scarcity of, 166; ubiquity of, 49–51; use of, and globalization, 134–6 Rio Declaration see UN Conference on Environment and Development risk zones, 21–2 Romantic movement, 61, 62 Roosevelt, Theodore, 59, 77 Rufin, Jean Christophe, The Empire and the New Barbarians, 78 Russia, currency crash in, 143 Sachs, Wolfgang: Global Ecology, xii; The Development Dictionary, xi Sagan, Carl, 121 salmon, farming of, 149–50 satellites, 119, 120, 125, 126, 203; ERS-1, 125; observation from, 84, 101, 114, 115, 116, 126, 130; television, 163 Saudi Arabia, 27 savages, use of term, 96 scale, as an ecological issue, 205 Schumacher, E.F., 58 Scientific American: issue on biosphere, 124, 127 security, 20–3, 85 security age, dawning of, 71 self-determination, space of, 98 self-limitation, 49, 89; universal, 106–7 Senegal, sale of fishing rights, 143 shrimps, breeding of, 151 sink for waste, nature as, 38, 74, 80, 166, 190, 192 slavery, 71 Sloterdijk, Peter, 110–11 slowness, selective, 191, 194–6 Smith, Adam, 18, 19, 207 soil erosion and degradation, ix, 51, 59, 65, 101, 169, 171, 176 225 solar power, 206 Sontag, Susan, 112, 115 South: as area for ecological adjustment, 82–3; claims for compensation, 39 sovereignty: of transnational companies, 154–5; principle of, 141 space: against place, 102–5; seen as homogeneous, 15 space probes, 119 spaces, plurality of, 205–7 speed: as privilege of the few, 191; epidemic effect of, 194; lack of natural measure for, 201; limits to, 187–96; lowering of, 201–4 see also cars SPOT project, France, 125 Sputnik, launch of, 57 stratified cosmos, abolition of, 103 structural adjustment, 144, 173 sufficiency, 39–42, 88, 185–6, 197 sugar, bio-engineering of substitutes, 98 supply chains, lengthening of, 150 surveillance, increase in, 68 survival, 51, 52, 128; as raison d’état, 64–7; of planet, 67, 100 Süss, Eduard, 118 sustainability x, xi, 53, 155, 172, 174, 176, 184, 185, 186; concept of, 159; of cultures, 55; of nature, 55 sustainable development, xi, 34, 42, 139, 159, 160; as oxymoron, 71–89; definition of, 81 ‘Sustainable Germany’, 195 Swaraj, 7, 16 ‘syntropy islands’, 80 tariff barriers, 140 technology, 14, 16, 43, 57; as Trojan horse, 12; clean, transfer of, 39; clean-up, 175; divide, 20; in overcoming scarcity, 170; replacing of labour, 198; representation of, 13; resource-light, xiii; standardized by multinationals, 136; structural changes in, 175; transfer of, 83 television, 210 Tenochtitlan, destruction of temples, 104 terminator genes, 148 territories, declining power of, 163 terrorism, 22 think globally, act locally, 153 Thoreau, Henry David, 212 time: as measure of wealth, 207–9; saving of, 193; scarcity of, 211; seen as linear, 15 Time magazine: declares Earth ‘Man of the Year’, vi; on security fears, 22–3 timescales: clashes of, 189–91; plurality of, 201–4 Todorov, Tzvetan, 107 226 Planet Dialectics Toffler, Alvin, 21 tourism, 144 traffic, blockages of, 196, 202 trains, speed reduction of, 203, 204 transnationalization, 163; of social relations, 152 transport: of passengers, growth of, 146; reduced to bearable levels, 206; rising costs of, 206; speed of, 183 Truman, Harry, 6, 7, 13, 21, 22, 28, 30, 73, 75, 170; Four Point programme, 3, 161 Turner, William, Rain, Steam and Speed, 188 underdevelopment, 5; definition of, 28; idea of, unemployment, 6, 7, 74, 162 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 97, 135; collapse of, 162 United Kingdom (UK), as colonial power, 4, 161 United Nations (UN), ix, 95, 97, 164 UN Charter, 5, 94, 96, 100, 161 UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), 57, 159 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (Earth Summit, Rio, 1992), xii, 27, 30, 34, 35, 37, 76, 80, 82, 124, 154, 160, 174; Agenda 21 see Agenda 21; Rio Declaration, 27, 160 UN Environment Programme (UNEP), 81 UNESCO, Man and Biosphere Programme, 120 United States of America (USA), 27, 32, 99, 132, 137, 141, 151; and new world order, 161; dominance of, 3, 22; energy consumption of, 171; environmental issues in, 57; model of development, (projection of, 5) universalism, 105, 107 village, renewal of, 16 volume effects, 183 wage labour, creation of, 19 war, as ‘the mother of all things’, 20, 116 waste, 176; disposal of, 125; globalization of production of, 169; zero emissions of, 200 water resources, regulation of consumption of, 101 water, resources, 11, 44, 57, 65, 86, 169, 184, 200; loss of, 166; misuse of, 48, 51 ways of living, structural changes in, 175 wealth: in time rather than cash, 207–9; new models of, 197–212; private accumulation of, 11 well-being, pursuit of, 209–12 Western values, 28, 47, 96, 162; of modernization, 67; of productivism, 29 women, status of, work and spend cycle, 208 work-time, reduction of, 208 World Bank, 5, 6, 8, 9, 34, 40, 60, 65, 81, 139 World Conservation Strategy, 34 World Resources Institute, 52, 67; Annual Report, 47 world risk society, 169, 170 World Trade Organization (WTO), 80, 131, 132, 134, 140, 141, 147, 154 Worldwatch Institute, 48, 49, 51, 53; State of the World, 47 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 81 Zapata, Emiliano, Zedler’s Universal Encyclopedia, 18 zero-options, possibilities of, 42 ... Magazine cover in January 1989 declaring the planet ‘Man of the Year’ These pictures granted us the great gift of perceiving the earth as a stunning and unlikely oasis in the unwelcoming and indifferent... idea of development was once a towering monument inspiring international enthusiasm Today, the structure is falling apart and is in danger of total collapse But its imposing ruins still linger... the Ruins Ruined buildings hide their secrets under piles of earth and rubble Archaeologists, shovels in hand, work through layer upon layer to reveal underpinnings and thus discover the origins