Public participation and legitimacy in the WTO

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND LEGITIMACY IN THE WTO The legitimacy of the WTO’s decision-making process has always been questioned, and many have advocated public participation mechanisms as a remedy Yves Bonzon considers the limits and potential of these mechanisms by advancing a conceptual framework which distinguishes the four ‘implementation parameters’ of public participation: the goal, the object, the modalities and the actors He addresses the issue of legitimacy by considering to what extent, and by virtue of which legal developments, one can see implementing the democratic principle as a goal for public participation in the context of the WTO By analysing the institutional structure of the WTO and its different types of decisions, he then outlines how this goal should influence the object and modalities of public participation, which decision-making procedures should be opened to public participation, and how the mechanisms should be implemented in practice Finally, he suggests specific amendments to existing WTO arrangements on public participation y v e s b o n z o n holds a PhD in international law from the University of Lausanne He was previously a researcher for the NCCR Trade Regulations project based at the World Trade Institute in Berne and a visiting researcher at the Institute of International Economic Law, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C cambridge international trade and economic law Series Editors Dr Lorand Bartels, University of Cambridge Professor Thomas Cottier, University of Berne Professor William Davey, University of Illinois As the processes of regionalisation and globalisation have intensified, there have been accompanying increases in the regulations of international trade and economic law at the levels of international, regional and national laws The subject matter of this series is international economic law Its core is the regulation of international trade, investment and cognate areas such as intellectual property and competition policy The series publishes books on related regulatory areas, in particular human rights, labour, environment and culture, as well as sustainable development These areas are vertically linked at the international, regional and national level, and the series extends to the implementation of these rules at these different levels The series also includes works on governance, dealing with the structure and operation of related international organisations in the field of international economic law, and the way they interact with other subjects of international and national law Books in the series: Public Participation and Legitimacy in the WTO Yves Bonzon The Challenge of Safeguards in the WTO Fernando Pie´rola General Interests of Host States in International Investment Law Edited by Giorgio Sacerdoti, Pia Acconci, Mara Valenti and Anna De Luca The Law of Development Cooperation: A Comparative Analysis of the World Bank, the EU and Germany Philipp Dann WTO Disciplines on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Balancing Policy Space and Legal Constraints Dominic Coppens Domestic Judicial Review of Trade Remedies: Experiences of the Most Active WTO Members Müslüm Yilmaz International Organizations in WTO Dispute Settlement: How Much Institutional Sensitivity? Marina Foltea Public Services and International Trade Liberalization: Human Rights and Gender Implications Barnali Choudhury The Law and Politics of WTO Waivers: Stability and Flexibility in Public International Law Isabel Feichtner African Regional Trade Agreements as Legal Regimes James Thuo Gathii Processes and Production Methods (PPMs) in WTO Law: Interfacing Trade and Social Goals Christiane R Conrad Non-Discrimination in International Trade in Services: ‘Likeness’ in WTO/GATS Nicolas Diebold The Law, Economics and Politics of Retaliation in WTO Dispute Settlement Edited by Chad P Bown and Joost Pauwelyn The Multilateralization of International Investment Law Stephan W Schill Trade Policy Flexibility and Enforcement in the WTO: A Law and Economics Analysis Simon A B Schropp PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND LEGITIMACY IN THE WTO YVES BONZON University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107067820 © Yves Bonzon 2014 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2014 Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Bonzon, Yves, 1980– author Public participation and legitimacy in the WTO / Yves Bonzon pages cm – (Cambridge international trade and economic law ; 15) ISBN 978-1-107-06782-0 (hardback) World Trade Organization Foreign trade regulation I Title K4610.B66 2014 3820 92–dc23 2014012735 ISBN 978-1-107-06782-0 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To Leonora 300 index Biodiversity Convention, 137, 148, 164 bottom-up approach, 32, 50, 51 CAC See Codex Alimentarius Commission Cairns Group, 117 Canada, 102, 260 Cardoso Report, 61 CARICOM, 117 Cartegena Biosafety Protocol, 137 Cass, Deborah, 65–6, 68 chairpersons assistance to, 122 public participation and, 118–19, 271 Charnovitz, Steve, 79 China Accession Protocol, 70, 71 democracy and, 74, 95 Report of Working Party on Accession, 76 TPRM reports, 72–3, 74 transparency issue, 72–3, 74, 76 US agreement on drugs, 88 CITES decision-making powers, 181, 182 public participation access to meetings, 217–18 implementation review, 224 legal basis, 184 oral statements, 220 procedures, 216, 225 Rules of Procedure, 184, 226 TRAFFIC, 195 voting rights, 195 written statements, 221 regime, 19, 176 trade measures, 179 US–Shrimp and, 137 civil society organizations See non-state actors coalitions, 117 Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) decision-making powers, 182 international standards, 158, 178 objectives, 176 public participation access to information, 223 accreditation, 204, 206, 207, 208 application processing, 212 goals of participants, 204 objectives, 194, 225 obligations of participants, 209–10 oral statements, 220 Principles, 186 procedures, 216, 226 Rules of Procedure, 184 sanctions, 211 written statements, 221 sardines, origin labelling of, 258 SPS Agreement and, 158, 241 Codex Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), 145 Committee on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions, 109 Committee on Budget, Finance and Administration, 109 Committee on Trade and Development, 107, 109 Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE), 107, 120, 147–8, 241, 242 competition, WTO and, 142 consensus decision-making formal rules, 104–5, 115–16 passive and active, 116–17 public participation and, 118 reverse consensus, 151 constitutionalism constitutional value association, 66 international constitutionalism, 54–5, 92–5 international law and constitutional principle of international democracy, 56–7 democracy, 50–63 trends, 13–14 WTO good governance, 64–8, 92–5, 236–7 accession protocols, 70–2 effectiveness vs good governance, 15, 75–9 insufficiency, 267–9 TPRM, 72–4, 75, 76 transparency provisions, 68–70 index Consultative Group of Eighteen, 119, 125 Consumers International, 203 controversy, varying legitimization requirement and, 88 cooperation functionalism, rise, 9–10 transgovernmental networks, 52 corporatism, 59–60 corruption, UN Convention against, 53 cosmopolitanism cosmopolitan democracy, 43, 51, 56 UN human rights law, 79 Cottier, Thomas, 80, 91, 94 Council for Trade in Goods (CTG), 109 Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property, 109 CTE (Committee on Trade and Environment), 107, 120, 147–8, 241, 242 Czechoslovakia, 63 decision-making (WTO) bargaining aspect, 229 categorization, 137–53 chains of decisions, 113–14, 179 consensus, 104–5, 115–17, 118, 151 further formalizing political decisions, 124–7 improving format, 247 institutional decisions, 114 legal nature, 150–3 legal status in dispute settlement, 152–3 meaning, 18–19 negative integration, meaning, 130 negotiations characteristics, 124 non-institutional decisions, 115 non-WTO norms externalizing political decisions, 154–68 rule-referencing, 154–61 package deals, 124–5 positive integration, 129 assessment of WTO bodies, 148–9 categorization attempts, 137–53 CTE decisions, 147–8 301 economic areas, 142 from negative to positive, 130–7 GATS Council, 145–6 social areas, 139–41 SPS Committee, 144–5 TBT Committee, 142–4 primary law, 152, 239, 242 public participation See public participation in WTO subsidiary law-making, 114, 239 survey, 129–69 democracy China and, 74, 95 cosmopolitan democracy, 43, 51, 56 EU Inter-Institutional Declaration (1993), 28 good governance and, 43, 75–9 highjacking, indigenous peoples, 52–3 international law and, 42 bottom-up approaches, 50 constitutional principle of international democracy, 56–7 constitutionalism, 50–63 deliberative democracy, 57–63 international constitutionalism, 54–5 international principle of democracy, 51–4 top-down approaches, 51 legitimacy and, 44–5 WTO improvements, 236–7 liberal democracy, 44–5 parliamentary participation, 18 pluralist tradition, 24, 25 TPRM and, 73–4 transitional democracies, 51–2 Denmark, Maastricht Treaty and, 27 developing countries ECOSOC participation, 200 exhaustible natural resources, 164 international standards and, 256, 258 regulatory harmonization and, 134 special and differential treatment, 145 transparency and, UNCCD and, 201 diamonds, 137 302 index Director-General appointment, 121 guardian of the treaties, 123, 234 informal powers, 123 non-state actors and, 233–4, 272 dispute settlement constitutional values and, 66–8 Doha’s work programme, 106 dynamic WTO treaties, 46 judicial activism, 136, 162, 241 legal status of WTO decisions, 152–3 legitimacy, 43 non-WTO norms, 14 international standards, 156–7 legitimacy, private standards, 160–1 trend, 129–30 positive integration, 137 procedural judicial review, 254–66 public participation, 6–7, 16–17, 238 strength, 151–2 WTO novelty, domestic law public participation and, 25–31 WTO law and, 150–1 Dunkel, Arthur, 123 economic liberalism, 10 ECOSOC ITO and, 230 public participation access to information, 222 access to meetings, 217 accreditation, 200, 203, 205, 208 agenda proposals, 218 application processing, 213 CONGO, 197 funding, 201 goal, 193, 225 goals of participants, 204 mechanisms, 185 monitoring, 214 obligations of participants, 210 observers, 196 oral statements, 219 procedures, 226 representativeness of participants, 206–7 sanctions, 210 working links, 215 written statements, 220 ECOWAS, 54 effectiveness thesis, 75–9, 267–9 environmental protection agriculture subsidies and, 148 Article XX exceptions, 149 CTE decisions, 147–8 fishery subsidies and, 148 mutual recognition, 141 Rio Convention, public participation, 50 services liberalization and, 148 sustainable development, 104 TBT Committee and, 143 Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI), 12 EU Draft Constitutional Treaty, 39 EC–Asbestos, 6, 136 EC–Biotech, 165 EC–Hormones, 2, 20 EC–Sardines, 156, 258–60 EC–Tariff Preferences, 165 EC–Tube or Pipe Fittings, 153 GATT exceptions and, 149 governance system, 60 input and output legitimacy, 81 international standards and, 159 public participation See EU public participation WTO origins and, 102 EU public participation Amsterdam Treaty, 28 Charter of Fundamental Rights, 28 comitology procedure, 30 Declaration on Democracy, Transparency and Subsidiarity (1993), 28 democratic deficit, 27 enforcement mechanisms, 39 European Economic and Social Committee, 232 Guidelines (2002), 29–30 clear communications, 36 goal, 32 modalities, 35, 36–7 objects, 34 index history, 27–30 identifying participants, 38 Lisbon Treaty, 28–9, 53 Maastricht Treaty, 27 Regulation (2001), 28 rights, first generation, 27 rights, second generation, 27 soft law instruments, 24 European Charter of Fundamental Rights, access to documents, 28 European Union See EU exhaustible natural resources, 164, 165–6 Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), 12 Fair Labour Association, 160 Fair Trade, 160 financial crisis, 233–4 fishery subsidies, 148, 155 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 12, 160 formalization, meaning, 2, 20 France Constitution, 86 Republican tradition, 59 free-riding, 101 Friends of the Chair, 118 Fukuyama, Francis, 51 functionalism, doctrine, G-4, 118 G-10, 117 G-20, 117 G-33, 117 GATS exceptions, 135–7, 149, 163–4 recognition of equivalence, 241 rule-referencing, 155 GATS Committee, public participation, 242 GATS Council negotiation function, 107, 111–12 positive integration and, 145–6 professional services, 146 GATT (1947) Consultative Group of Eighteen, 119, 125 defects, 102 good governance and, 63 303 negotiating culture, 231 objectives, origins, 100–1 WTO continuity, 104 GATT (1994) Article X (transparency) constitutionalism, 68–70 good governance, 237, 268 growing centrality, 79 interpretations, 26, 93–4, 238, 255 legalism, 75 US FAPA model, 75 Article XX exceptions, 135–7, 149, 163–4 General Council decision-making, 242 Guidelines for NGO relations, text, 273–5 public participation, 242 role, 107–8 Rules of Procedure, 234 Geneva Conference (1998), Germany corporatism, 59–60 Lisbon Treaty case, 87 Maastricht case, 27, 57 global administrative law, 48 Global Compact, 12 global governance meaning, 11 non-state actors and, 11–12 globalization discourse, 10 state authority and, 11 good governance democracy and, 43, 52–4 WTO constitutional principle, 63–79, 92–5, 236–7 accession protocols, 70–2, 237 amici curiae briefs, 93 effectiveness and, 75–9, 237, 267 insufficiency, 267–9 non-discrimination, 77 SPS Agreement, 69, 237 TBT Agreement, 78–9, 92–3, 237 TPRM, 72–4, 75, 76 transparency provisions, 68–70 304 index governance See good governance grandfather rights, 100 Green Room meetings, 118 HACCP, 145 Hathaway, Oona, 88 health measures Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health, 153 TBT Committee and, 143 Held, David, 56, 87 history of WTO origins of GATT, 100–1 WTO Agreement, 102–3 Hong Kong Conference (2005), Howse, Robert, 46, 88 human rights cosmopolitanism of UN human rights law, 79 liberal democracy and, 45 nineteenth-century international law, 11 WTO constitutionalism and, 67 humanitarian law, 19th century, 11 Idealist Schools, 49 IMF conditionality, 179 decision-making powers, 180, 181 ITO and, 100 objectives, 175 public participation access to documents, 190 accreditation, 200–1, 202 Guide, 185 objectives, 194 procedures, 215, 225 Transparency Policy, 186 structural adjustment programmes, 175 implementation parameters domestic systems, 31–9 assessment, 40–1 definition of participants, 37–8 enforcement, 38–9 goals, 32–3 modalities, 35–7 objects, 33–4 WTO, implied powers doctrine, 55, 103 IN-LAW project, 48 India–Quantitative Restrictions, 105, 153 indigenous peoples, rights, 52–3 Industrial Revolution, institutions institutionalization, 2, 20 international regimes, 179–82 public participation and, 112–13, 239–40 WTO See institutions (WTO) institutions (WTO) See also individual institutions chains of decisions, 113–14 compliance function, 110–11 composition of organs, 119–21 functions, 105–6 General Council, 107–8 implementation function, 111 institutional decisions, 114, 125 institutional differentiation, 99, 239, 269 international personality, 103–4 member-driven organization, 103–5, 124, 235, 239 Ministerial Conferences, 107–8 negotiating bodies, 106–7 negotiation function, 111–12 non-institutional decisions, 115 political organs, 16, 105 procedures, 115–21 formal rules, 115–16 practice, 116–18 public participation and, 112–13, 124–7, 239–40 regular bodies, 107–15 second-level bodies, 108–9 competences, 110–12 separation of powers, 105–6, 124 structure issues, 112–15 reforming, 124–7, 269 survey, 99–128 subsidiary law-making, 114, 125, 239 third-level committees, 109–10 competences, 110–12 integration See positive integration index Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, 166, 167 Inter-American Democratic Charter, 54 interests representation model, 25 international cooperation, 9–10, 52 International Court of Justice, source of law, 162 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 53, 56 International Labour Organization (ILO) decision-making conference decisions, 177, 181 legal nature, 178–9 objectives, 175 public participation access to documents, 187, 188–9, 191–2 access to information, 222 access to meetings, 217 accreditation, 205 application processing, 212 categories of participants, 203–4 goals of participants, 205 information required, 212 obligations of participants, 209 observers, 196, 203–4 oral statements, 220 procedures, 215, 225–6 public information disclosure, 186 representativeness of participants, 206 Rules of Procedure, 184, 185 voting rights, 195 written statements, 221 WTO labour standards and, 132, 141 international law bottom-up approach, 50 constitutionalization of democracy, 50–63 constitutional principle of international democracy, 56–7 deliberative democracy and public participation, 57–63 international constitutionalism, 54–5 international principle of democracy, 51–4 305 constitutionalizing trends, 13–14 democracy standards, 42 domestic law and, 150–1 hierarchy of norms, 43 institutional structures, 179–82 interpretation of WTO law and, 137, 163–6 legitimacy deficit, 45–50 scholarly projects, 47–9 legitimacy discourse, 43–5 public participation See also international organizations formal arrangements, 182–224 goals, 192–6 legal basis, 183–4 regime characteristics, 174–82 rules of procedure, 184 separate documents, 185–6 status of participants, 194–6 survey, 173–228 WTO procedural judicial review, 257 social legitimacy, 46 source of WTO law, 162, 163–6 state sovereignty perspective, 45 US–Shrimp, 137, 164, 165, 166, 167 International Law Commission, 180 International Office of Epizootics, 158, 241 international organizations interpretation of WTO law and, 164–6 public participation, 173–228 access to documents, 187–92 access to information, 222–3 access to meetings, 216–18 accreditation, 199–214 agenda proposals, 218–19 assessment, 225–8 formal arrangements, 182–224 forms of involvement, 216–24 goals, 192–6 implementation review, 224 input assessments, 223–4 legal basis, 183–4 objects, 214–16 observers, 195–6 oral statements, 219–20 306 index international organizations (cont.) regime characteristics, 174–82 rules of procedure, 184 separate documents, 185–6 status of participants, 194–6 structures, 196–9 transparency documents, 186 written statements, 220–2 International Parliamentary Union, 18 International Plant Protection Convention, 158, 241 international standards Committee decisions and, 149 decision-making, 178 growing use, 154 identification of relevant standards, 157–9, 270 private standards, 160–1, 256 role and impact, 156–7 rule-referencing, 155, 243 SPS Agreement See SPS Agreement; SPS Committee TBT Agreement See TBT Agreement International Standards Organization (ISO), 184, 195, 196, 204, 220 International Trade Organization (ITO), 100–1, 141, 230–1 IPA Project, 48–9 ISEAL, 264–5 ISO (International Organization for Standardization), 195, 196, 204, 220 Italy, Republican tradition, 59 Jackson, John H., 8, 64–5 Japan Japan–Alcoholic Beverages, 66–7 technical standards and, 159 judicial activism, 136, 162, 241 judicial review, WTO procedural judicial review case law, 258–63 improving public participation, 254–66 non-WTO law, 256 TBT Decision on International Standardization, 78–9, 92–3, 115–21, 257–8 Kelsen, Hans, 43 Kennedy Round, 101 Kimberley Process, 12, 137 Kingsbury, Benedict, 48 Krajewski, Markus, 47 Krisch, Nico, 48 Kyoto Protocol, 179, 182 labelling schemes, 160–1, 256 labour standards, 132, 141 Lamy, Pascal, 233–4 LCD countries, 117 League of Nations, legality principle formal legality, 82 material legality, 82 varying legitimization requirement and, 82 legitimacy concept, 43–5, 54 deficit, international law, 45–50 democracy and, 44–5 WTO improvements, 236–7 emergence of discourse, global governance and non-state actors, 11–12 history of discourse, 8–14 input and output, 49, 81–2 international law, discourse, 43–5 international law and constitutionalism, 13–14, 50–63 legitimacy chain, 47 normative legitimacy, 44–5 rise of international cooperation, 9–10 social legitimacy, 44, 46 varying See varying legitimization requirement WTO, input and output, 49 WTO criteria, 91 WTO deficit, 42, 44 Leutwiler Report, 123 level-playing fields, 10 Liberal Schools, 49 like products, 135 Lisbon Treaty, public participation, 28–9, 53 index Maastricht Treaty, 27 Majone, Giandomenico, 88 Marine Stewardship Council, 160 material-technical functions, 32–3 mechanisms, meaning, 2, 20 MERCOSUR democracy and human rights, 54 integration objectives, 175 MERCOSUR Forum, 232 MERCOSUR Trade Commission decisions, 177 public participation, oral statements, 219 Social and Economic Forum, 197 WTO coalitions, 117 Mexico Mexico–Telecoms, 164 origins of WTO and, 102 US–Tuna II (Mexico), amicus curiae briefs and, 94, 268 Millennium Forum, 197 mini-ministerials, 125 Ministerial Conferences legal status, 152, 153, 242 public participation, 235 role, 107–8 Rules of Procedure, 234 Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), Munich Group, 142 mutual recognition accountancy services, 146 environmental protection, 141 mechanism, 132–3 regulatory harmonization and, 133–4 SPS Agreement, 140 TBT Agreement, 140 NAFTA, 198, 217 NAMA 11, 117 natural resources, exhaustible resources, 164, 165–6 negative integration, meaning, 130 neo-Marxism, 50 networks, transgovernmental networks, 52 NGOs See non-state actors 307 non-discrimination, good governance and, 77–67 non-state actors accreditation, 7, 199–214 advocacy, 12 Agenda 21 and, 62 controversial issue, 1–3 defining, international organizations, 202–3 existing international participation rights, 62–3 funding sources, 208 global governance and, 11–12 Hong Kong Conference (2005), international organizations accreditation, 199–214 assessment of participation, 225–8 categories of participants, 203–4 criteria, 204–8 forms of involvement, 216–24 information required, 211–12 obligations, 209–10 observers, 195–6 sanctions, 210–11 status, 194–6 voting rights, 195 ITO and, 230 public participation and, 23 soft law texts, 14 status general legal status, 17 international organizations, 194–6 TNCs and, 11 WTO and See public participation in WTO non-WTO norms See also international law; international standards dispute settlement and, 14 international standards, 156–7 legitimacy, private standards, 160–1 trend, 129–30 as factual evidence, 166–7 identification of relevant standards, 157–9 interpretation of WTO law and, 163–6 308 index non-WTO norms (cont.) political decision-making assessment, 167–8 trend, 154–68 positive integration and, 241 private standards, 160–1 role and impact, 156–7 rule-referencing, 154–61 WTO procedural judicial review and, 256 normativity, meaning, 2, 19–20 notice-and-comment, 35 observer status international organizations, 120–1, 195–6 WTO, 251 OECD anti-competitive practices and, 164 Council decisions, 177 Guidelines on Multinational Enterprises, 12 public participation access to documents, 187, 190–1 access to information, 223 agenda proposals, 218 assessment of inputs, 224 Committees, 197–8 feedback, 227 Guidelines, 186 legal basis, 183 oral statements, 220 procedures, 215–16, 225, 226 transparency policy, 186 SCM Agreement and, 154 Organization of American States, 54 pacta sunt servanda, 150 Palestinian Authority, 88 Panitchpakdi, Supachai, 233 Paris Convention, 142, 154 parliamentary participation, 18, 26 Pauwelyn, Joost, 163 personality, WTO international personality, 103–4 Peru, EC–Sardines, 259 Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, 65, 67, 79 pluralism deliberative democracy and, 58 European Union and, 60 multiplicity of interest groups, 60 United States, 24, 25 political-acceptance function, 32–3 positive integration assessment of WTO bodies’ decisions, 148–9 CTE decision, 147–8 domestic law and WTO law, 150–1 economic areas, 142 from negative to positive, 130–7 GATS Council decisions, 145–6 instruments, 132 meaning, 129, 131 mutual recognition, 132–4 non-WTO norms, 241 assessment, 167–8 externalizing political decisions, 154–68 rule-referencing, 154–61 policed decentralization, 132 regulatory harmonization, 133–4 social areas, 139–41 SPS Committee decisions, 144–5 TBT Committee decisions, 142–4 WTO methods, 134–7 judicial activism, 136 Standard Codes, 134 primary law making, 152, 239, 242 procedures, WTO institutions, 115–21 process and production methods (PPMs), 135 professional services GATS Council Decision, 146 mutual recognition, 146 protest movements, 44 public hearings, public moral exception, 135, 164–6, 243 public participation See also specific countries and institutions accession protocols and, 70–2 chairpersons and, 118–19 conceptual framework, 23–41 conditions, 4, 23 consensus decision-making and, 118 index definition, 4, 23 dispute proceedings, 16–17 domestic systems, 25–31 GATT Article X, 68–70 institutional differentiation and, 99 institutional structure and, 124–7 international law, 53–4 deliberative democracy, 57–63 existing mechanisms, 61–3 impediments, 59–61 WTO procedural judicial review, 257 international organizations See international organizations international provisions at domestic level, 17–18 Rio Convention, 50 transparency requirement, 4–5, 23 WTO See public participation in WTO public participation in WTO circle of participants amicus curiae briefs, 253 categories, 250–4 criteria, 251–3 improving, 250–4 individual arrangements, 250–1 Rules of Procedure, 252 status, 251 synthesis, 253 current NGO relations, 5–6, 235–6 current situation, 4–7 Decision on Derestriction, 5, 244 improving, 245–6, 270 text, 275–7 forms of involvement, improving, 243–50 further formalizing, 229–66 Guidelines, 5–6, 235–6 improving, 234–54, 270–1 text, 273–5 implementation parameters, improving access to documents, 245–6 access to meetings, 246 amicus curiae briefs, 253 assessment of inputs, 250 circle of participants, 250–4 309 comment opportunities, 249 format of decisions, 247 forms of involvement, 243–50 goal, 236–7 Guidelines, 234–54, 270–1 notice, 248–9 object, 238–43 procedural judicial review, 254–66 separate advisory body option, 231–4 supervision of key actors, 247–8 transparency rules, 244–8 institutional structure and, 112–13, 124–7, 239–40 NGO experience, 272 object, 238–43 formal perspective, 239–40 material object, 240–3, 272 public–private partnerships, 12 Quad, 118 race to the bottom, 10, 134, 139 regimes, meaning, 19 regulatory harmonization, 133–4 Republican tradition, 59 Rio Declaration, 50, 62 Ripinsky, Sergey, 192 Rome Convention, 142 rule of law, 45 rule-referencing, 154–61 Russia, accession commitments, 71 Saudi Arabia, 71, 88 Scharpf, Fritz, 81 SCM Agreement, 148, 154 Seattle Conference (1999), mass protests, Secretariat enhancing powers, 126 formal powers, 121–2 practice, 122–3 public participation and, 6, 235–6, 237 role, 121–3 TPRM reports, 268 separation of powers, 45, 105–6, 124 Shaffer, Gregory, 149 Singapore issues, 132, 141 310 index Single Undertaking Approach, 107, 127, 239, 269 social areas positive integration in, 139–41 TBT Committee and, 143 social legitimacy, 44 sovereignty international law and, 45 WTO dispute settlement and, 67 Soviet Union, demise, 10 specialty principle, 103 SPS Agreement binding on all members, Guidelines, 152 international standards, 154 CAC standards, 176 enforcement mechanism, 179 identification of relevant standards, 157–9 private standards, 161 role and impact, 156–7 mutual recognition, 140 notice-and-comment procedures, 237 positive integration, 134 rule-referencing, 155 transparency, 69 SPS Committee Consistency Decision, 144 Equivalence Decision, 144 positive integration and, 142–5 public participation, 242, 252 Transparency Decision, 144 use of international standards, 145, 241 Standard Codes, 134 standards See international standards state sovereignty, 45, 67 Stein, Eric, Stewart, Richard B., 48 subsidiarity, EU Inter-Institutional Declaration (1993), 28 subsidiary law-making, 114, 125, 239 Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council, 160 Switzerland Constitution, subject matters, 86 Federal Act on Consultation, 31 enforcement, 39 goal, 32 identifying participants, 37–8 modalities, 35, 36–7 objects, 34 Federal Act on Transparency, 31 international agreements, 2010 referendum, 90 material legality, 83 public participation, 30–1 referenda, 24 Wäffler case, 91, 94 TBT Agreement binding on all members, good governance and, 78–9, 92–3, 237 international standards, 154 CAC standards, 176 Code of Good Practice, 69, 161, 264 Decision, 78–9, 92–3, 115–21, 257–8, 260, 264, 270 enforcement mechanism, 179 identification of relevant standards, 157–9, 167, 256, 258–60 interpretations, 238 monitoring, 145 private standards, 160–1 procedural judicial review, 257 role and impact, 156–7 mutual recognition, 140 notice-and-comment procedures, 237 positive integration, 134 rule-referencing, 155 social goals, 140 technical standards, 241 transparency, 69, 144 TBT Committee Code of Good Practice, 69, 161, 264 Decision on International Standardization, 78–9, 92–3, 115–21, 257–8, 260, 264, 270 positive integration and, 142–4 public participation, 242 Technical Committee on Customs Valuations, 115 terminology, 18–20 Tokyo Round, 101 index top-down approaches, 51 Trade Facilitation Agreement (2013), 69, 107, 142, 237 Trade Negotiations Committee, 106, 107 trade policy, public hearings, Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) administration, 121 democracy and, 50, 63 good governance and, 93, 268 transparency, 72–4, 75, 76 trade-related measures, harmonizing, 131 Trade Review Mechanism, establishment, 102 transgovernmental networks, 52 transnational corporations (TNCs) NGOs and, 11 OECD Guidelines, 12 transparency 2005 DG report, accession protocols and, 70–2 China, 72–3, 74, 76 dispute settlement, 6–7 effectiveness and, 75–9 EU Inter-Institutional Declaration (1993), 28 external and internal, 4–5 GATT See GATT (1994) improving WTO rules, 244–8, 270–1 access to documents, 245–6 access to meetings, 246 format of decisions, 247 supervision of key actors, 247–8 international organizations access to documents, 189–90 access to information, 222–3 guidelines, 186 public participation and, 4–5, 23 SPS Agreement, 69, 144 TBT Agreement, 69, 144 TPRM, 72–4, 75, 76 Trade Facilitation Agreement (2013), 69, 237 US FTAs, 94–5 TRIPS Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health, 153 311 incorporation of previous treaties, 142, 148, 154 positive integration, 134, 142 TRIPS Council, 107, 112 Truman, Harry, 101 Ukraine, accession, 71 UNCCD, 201 UNCED, 201 UNCLOS, 137, 164 UNCTAD, 201 UNECE, 50 UNESCO Convention, 137 UNFCCC decision-making powers, 181 public participation, 186 accreditation, 201, 202, 207 legal basis, 184 Rules of Procedure, 184 regime, 19, 176 United Nations Cardoso Report, 61 Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 201 Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 201 CONGO, 197 Convention Against Corruption, 53 Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 201 Declaration on Indigenous Peoples, 52–3 establishment, Framework Convention on Climate Change See UNFCCC human rights law, 79 Millennium Forum, 197 public participation, 183, 197 reforming General Assembly, 56 United States Czechoslovakia and, 63 FAPA, 24, 25–7 enforcement mechanisms, 38–9 full exemptions, 33–4 identifying participants, 37 modalities, 36 model for GATT, 75 312 index United States (cont.) objects, 33–4 partial exemptions, 33 public notices, 35 FTAs, transparency, 94–5 GATT exceptions and, 149 hegemony, 51 interests representation model, 25 international agreements Circular 175 Procedure, 84, 85, 89 executive agreements, 88, 89 publication, 84, 89 judicial review, standing, 26, 255 labour standards and WTO, 141 material legality principle, 83–5 non-delegation doctrine, 83–4 origins of GATT and, 100–1 origins of WTO and, 102 Fast-Track Authority, 102–3 Uruguay Round ratification, pluralism, 24, 25 presidential system, 26 REINS Act, 84, 86–7, 89 technical standards and, 159 US–Clove Cigarettes decision-making and, 108, 113–14, 127 international law and, 166, 239 procedural judicial review, 255 US–Gambling, 164 US–Gasoline, sustainable development, 104 US–Reformulated Gasoline, 162 US–Section 110(5) Copyright Act, 78 US–Shrimp amicus curiae, 6, 255 CTE Singapore Report, 153 due process, 70, 255 exhaustible resources, 165–6 importance, 2, 19–20 international law, 137, 164, 165, 166, 167 sustainable development, 104 US–Tuna II (Mexico) amicus curiae, 6, 93–4, 268 assessment, 263–6 international standards, 159, 160, 243, 260–3, 270 labelling schemes, 160–1, 256 Standardization Decision and, 78, 115 US–Underwear, 69, 255 Uruguay Round, history, 102–3 Van den Bossche, Peter, 192 variable geometry, 100, 125 varying legitimization requirement analytical frameworks, 81–5 assessment, 90–2 concept, 79–92 criteria, 33, 240, 269 categorization of WTO decisions, 137 degree of controversy, 88, 91–2 legal nature, 89–90, 242 scope, 85 subject matter, 86–7 types, 85–90 examples, 83–5 financial scope, 89 input and output legitimacy, 81–2 legality principle, 82 legitimacy discourse, WTO decisions, 91, 240 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 54, 114–15, 150, 153, 163–6, 239, 242, 256–7 Vietnam, accession process, 71 voting international organizations, 195 WTO procedures, 116 waivers, 152 Washington consensus, 50 Weiler, Joseph, 80 WHO decision-making, 179 Assembly decisions, 177 Health Assembly, 181 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), 137, 166 objectives, 176 public participation access to information, 222 access to meetings, 217 index accreditation, 199, 202, 205 agenda proposals, 219 demanding process, 228 goals of participants, 205 monitoring, 214 objectives, 193 obligations of participants, 209 observers, 196 oral statements, 220 Principles, 185 procedures, 215, 226 representativeness of participants, 206–7 Rules of Procedure, 184 voting rights, 208 written statements, 221 WIPO objectives, 175 public participation accreditation, 207 application processing, 213 Commissions, 198 information required, 211 Memorandum, 185 procedures, 215 Rules of Procedure, 184 Wolfrum, Rüdiger, 80 Wolfsberg Anti-Money Laundering Principles, 12 World Bank conditionality, 179 decision-making powers, 180, 181 Guidelines, 177–8 313 ITO and, 100 objectives, 175 Operational Standards, 177–8 public participation access to documents, 187, 188, 190–2 access to information, 222–3 accreditation, 207 assessment of inputs, 223–4 Committees, 198 feedback, 227 Guidelines, 185 objectives, 193–4 Policy on Access to Information, 186 procedures, 215 WTO See also specific treaties and mechanisms constitutionalism See constitutionalism decisions See decision-making good governance and See good governance institutions See institutions (WTO) legitimacy See legitimacy member-driven organization, 103–5, 124, 235, 239 multipolar organization, 231 objectives, 49, 103–4 WTO Law and domestic law, 150–1 WTO Agreement, history, 102–3 Ziamou, Theodora, 23 ... of international economic law, and the way they interact with other subjects of international and national law Books in the series: Public Participation and Legitimacy in the WTO Yves Bonzon The. .. result, the WTO caught the public eye In the late 1990s, the organization made media headlines and its Ministerial Conferences – starting in Geneva in 1998 and culminating in Seattle in 1999... public participation in the context of the WTO By analysing the institutional structure of the WTO and its different types of decisions, he then outlines how this goal should in uence the object and