Agricultural Reform and Rural Transformation in China since 1949 Historical Studies of Contemporary China Series Editor Thomas DuBois (Australian National University) Editorial Board Joel Andreas ( Johns Hopkins University) Liping Bu (Alma College) Brian Demare (Tulane University) Xiaoping Fang (Nanyang Technological University) Xiaofei Kang (George Washington University) Huaiyin Li (The University of Texas at Austin) Glenn Tiffert (University of Michigan) Luman Wang (Virginia Military Institute) Michael Szonyi (Harvard University) VOLUME The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/hscc Agricultural Reform and Rural Transformation in China since 1949 Edited by Thomas DuBois Huaiyin Li LEIDEN | BOSTON This book is a result of the co-publication agreement between Social Sciences Academic Press and Koninklijke Brill nv These articles were selected and translated into English from the Chinese journal, Contemporary China History Studies (《当代中国史研究》 Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu) sponsored by the Institute of Contemporary China, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences The translation has received financial support from the Innovation Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: DuBois, Thomas David, 1969- | Li, Huaiyin Title: Agricultural reform and rural transformation in China since 1949 / edited by Thomas DuBois, Huaiyin Li Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, [2016] | Series: Historical studies of contemporary China, ISSN 2352-7919 ; volume | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016016317 (print) | LCCN 2016017693 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004290181 (hardback : alk paper) | ISBN 9789004322493 (e-book) | ISBN 9789004322493 (E-book) Subjects: LCSH: Agriculture and state China History 20th century | Social change China History 20th century | Social problems China History 20th century | China Rural conditions | China Social policy | China Politics and government 1949-1976 | China Politics and government 1976-2002 Classification: LCC HD2098 A355 2016 (print) | LCC HD2098 (ebook) | DDC 338.1/851 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016016317 issn 2352-7919 isbn 978-90-04-29018-1 (hardback) isbn 978-90-04-32249-3 (e-book) Copyright 2016 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa Fees are subject to change This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner Contents List of Contributors vii Translator’s Note ix Introduction Chinese Agriculture and Rural Development Reexamined: Western and Chinese Perspectives 1 Huaiyin Li and Thomas DuBois Part Political Programs in Practice The Origins and Development of China’s “Three Rural Issues” 25 Lu Xueyi The Scale and Distribution of New Rich Peasants after the People’s Republic of China’s Land Reforms 52 Su Shaozhi The Deep Plowing Movement of the “Great Leap Forward” 74 Zhu Xianling, Ding Zhaojun and Hu Huakai A Study of the Construction of Terraced Fields in Liulin County, Shanxi Province in the Era of Collectivization 101 Hao Ping Historical Observations Regarding the Large-scale Establishment of Rural Public Canteens in Hebei Province 115 Li Chunfeng From Busy-Season Childcare Centers to Full-scale Kindergartens—Rural Childcare Organizations in Shanxi Province in the 1950s 133 Han Xiaoli Restitution Paid by Rural People’s Cooperatives in the 1960s—An Inquiry Focused on Jiangsu Province 155 Wang Yugui vi Contents Transformations to Commune and Brigade Enterprises and the Rise of Rural Private Enterprises in Gaoyang County, Hebei Province in the Early Days of Reform and Opening 192 Feng Xiaohong Analysis of the Construction of Village Collective Economic Organizations and Related Issues in Changshu City—Four Case Studies 212 Zheng Yougui Part Flows of Goods, Money and People 10 The History of Rural Private Lending in Hubei Province, 1952–1954 231 Su Shaozhi and Chang Mingming 11 The South-to-North and North-to-South Flows of Grains and Cereals—Changes to Directions and Quantities of Flows of Grains and Cereals between North and South in Contemporary China 267 Zheng Yougui, Ou Weizhong, Kuang Chanjuan and Jiao Hongpo 12 Three Historic Changes to Inter-regional Grain Flows in the People’s Republic of China and Their Causes 287 Qu Shang and Su Shaozhi 13 Rural Population Flows in the Era of Collectivization—A Study of the Border Region between Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guangdong Provinces 314 You Haihua 14 A Review of Research on the State Monopoly 330 Wang Danli Index 361 List of Contributors Chang Mingming (常明明) Ph.D in economics, is professor in the Institute of International Economics, Guizhou University of Finance and Economics Ding Zhaojun (丁兆君) is a lecturer in the university history museum, University of Science and Technology of China Feng Xiaohong (冯小红) Ph.D in history, is associate professor in the history department of Handan College Han Xiaoli (韩晓莉) Ph.D in history, is assistant professor in the history department of Capital Normal University Hao Ping (郝平) Ph.D in history, is professor in the Institute of Social History of China, and director of the Institute of History and Culture, Shanxi University Hu Huakai (胡化凯) Ph.D in history of science, is a professor in the department of history of science and technological archaeology, University of Science and Technology of China Jiao Hongpo (焦红坡) is a researcher fellow in the department of contemporary agricultural history, Institute of Rural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture Kuang Chanjuan (邝婵娟) is an associate research fellow, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Li Chunfeng (李春峰) holds a Master of Laws, and works in the Hebei Provincial Academy of Social Sciences History Center viii List of Contributors Lu Xueyi (陆学艺 1933–2013) was research fellow and doctoral thesis advisor, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (cass); President, Chinese Sociological Association; Director, Institute of Sociology, cass; President, Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing University of Technology; President, Chinese Association for Rural Sociology Ou Weizhong (欧维中) a noted agronomist and the former chairman of the Institute of Rural Economics of the Ministry of Agriculture Qu Shang (瞿商) Ph.D in economics, is associate professor in Economics Institute, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law Su Shaozhi (苏少之) is professor in the School of Economics, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Director, Institute of Economic History of China Wang Danli (王丹莉) Ph.D in economics, is assistant research fellow, department of economic history, Institute of Contemporary Chinese Studies Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Wang Yugui (王玉贵) Ph.D in history, is professor in the history department of Jiangsu University You Haihua (游海华) Ph.D in history, is professor in the School of Marxism Studies, Zhejiang Gongshang University Zheng Yougui (郑有贵) is head of department of economic history, Institute of Contemporary China Studies Zhu Xianling (朱显灵) Ph.D., is an associate research fellow in the department of history of science and technological archaeology, University of Science and Technology of China Translator’s Note The Chinese word nongmin is typically translated into English as “peasant.” Its constituent characters are nong, which can mean “farming,” “agriculture,” or “rural areas” in general, and min, which means “person” or “people.” A nongmin is thus literally a “farmer” or a “rural person.” Prior to the recent era, most nongmin in China were peasants in the traditional definition, operating under a feudal system Shortly after the communist liberation of China, nongmin became a political denomination of class, at which point the status of nongmin became preferable to that of dizhu, or “landlord.” So in discussions of China’s official class system of that time, it is appropriate to translate nongmin as “peasant(s).” However, around the same time, the People’s Republic of China instituted the hukou or household registration system based on Soviet precedent This system divided China’s population into two categories: nongye, “agricultural” or in other words “rural,” and feinong, “non-agricultural” or in other words “urban.” Citizens registered “agricultural” generally belong to a village collective, which allots them parcels of land, some designated for farming, and some for homesteading Urban citizens are not allocated any land, but have other advantages in the cities where they are registered, in ease of finding employment and access to public schools and other public services Chinese people with either kind of registration are citizens who can apply for passports or party membership or official service, i.e with “citizens’ rights,” but there are distinct differences in the rights of either group In one of many examples, one often hears of the hundreds of millions of “rural migrants” in China, citizens registered “rural” despite living and working in urban areas, and their lack of access to full rights In modern China, when one uses the term nongmin, especially in official literature—an example being the “three rural issues” or sannong wenti—it is almost certainly in reference to hukou status, especially when statistics are being given So in this book, I almost always render the term nongmin as “rural citizen(s),” as I feel this term succinctly captures the nature of the population being described, unless in a particular instance it is clear that the author was referring to political class status or the occupation of farming in particular Index abnormal marriages 327 academics 5, 25n1, 26–28, 32, 36, 43, 53, 102–103n5, 121, 134, 156, 193, 224, 227, 330, 330n1, 333n8, 343–344n49 accumulation 7, 26, 45, 69, 169, 171, 206, 208, 235, 246, 257, 304, 336, 337, 337n24, 339, 343, 350, 351, 353 accumulation of means of production 257 adjudication 241 adjustments to agriculture 307 adventurism 145–146, 151 agricultural civilization 287 agricultural collectivization 1, 5–11, 55, 156n3, 190–191n56, 231, 257, 342, 343, 343n47, 353 agricultural cooperative movement 69, 70, 109, 288, 342, 343, 353 agricultural cooperatives 53, 62, 75, 82, 102, 102n4, 104–106, 116, 133, 135–139, 136n7, 136n10, 141, 150, 164, 232, 246, 257, 320, 342, 343 agricultural cooperatization 6n8, 53, 67, 70, 162n18 agricultural front 106 agricultural history research 267n1, 268 agricultural household registrations 45, 217 agricultural investments 220, 221 agricultural modernization 28, 41, 213 agricultural production 3, 6–8, 15, 26, 30–32, 41, 48, 106, 116, 123, 136, 161, 176–178, 246, 252n36, 272, 283, 288, 291, 297, 318, 320, 332, 333, 338–340, 342 agricultural production front line 178 agricultural production mutual aid 246 agricultural productivity 1, 4, 26, 79, 109, 282–284, 292, 339 agricultural products and by-products 119, 158, 171, 194, 337 agricultural science and technology 283 agricultural surpluses 6, 29, 337, 337n22, 339, 353 agricultural taxes 16, 53n2, 165, 166, 337 agricultural yields 26, 75, 78, 79, 96, 103, 106, 107, 109, 113, 127, 127n31, 174, 176 allocations 14, 16, 30, 42, 43, 46, 121, 149, 162, 182, 182n43, 183, 188, 188n51, 200, 214, 246, 268, 280, 285, 288, 291, 299–303, 305, 306, 312, 336, 341, 342, 354 amenorrhea 157 American corn 310, 311 Anhui 15, 31, 60, 62, 63n14, 64, 65, 68, 82, 89, 182, 268, 271, 273, 275n4, 278, 281, 282, 298, 304 animal products industries 295 anti-rightist movement 125, 127 appropriate rural land 47 appropriation 39, 47, 49, 159, 161–174, 172n27, 176, 178, 179, 186, 188, 189, 215 aquatic products 331, 332 Asian Financial Crisis 43 assemblies of geniuses and heroes 108 austere 349 auxiliary foods See non-staple foods backwardness 7, 109, 283, 336 backwardness of the rural economy 262 backyard furnace 118 balancing of supply and demand 285–286 bamboo 110, 118, 166, 171, 181, 182, 182n43, 188n52, 220, 327 bankrupt 159–160, 174, 189, 206, 207, 255, 256 basic grain supply 333 beans 109, 119, 271, 278, 279, 279n7, 288, 289, 300, 307, 308 Beidaihe 78, 117, 118 Beijing 6n9, 12n21, 26n2, 30, 37, 49, 55n6, 55n7, 70n18, 71n19, 75n3, 77n8, 78n10, 82, 95n28, 97n33, 112n20, 121n13, 121n14, 122n15, 124n20, 126n26, 128n33, 129, 129n35, 130n36, 143n29, 156n3, 158n7, 159n10, 160n11, 160n12, 161n16, 161n17, 162n18, 194n6, 232n2, 244n20, 267n1, 268, 271, 273, 277, 278, 280, 281, 289, 295n5, 298, 317, 322n18, 330n3, 331n4, 334n11, 334n12, 334n14, 335n18, 338n25, 348n65, 348n66, 352n79 bicycles 197, 347 big responsibility system 199–203, 205 Bixi Road 18, 212–213, 227 362 blind direction of production 165, 174, 188, 188n52 blockades 293 border region 53, 314–328 Bo Yibo 71, 71n19, 77n8, 128n33, 143n29, 161n17, 330n3, 333, 333n9, 334, 338, 338n27, 340, 340n33 burden on rural citizens 43, 119, 214, 216, 224, 225 busy season 13, 116, 122, 177, 250 busy-season childcare centers 133–152 capital accumulation 69, 336, 337, 339, 350, 351, 353 capital accumulation for industrialization 339 capitalist industrial and commercial enterprises 330 capitalist road 244 capitalists 53, 160, 244, 293, 330 capitalization 259 capital shortages 262 cash crop production 278 CAS Soil Institute 92 cattle 316 CBEs See commune brigade enterprises (CBEs) CCP See Communist Party of China (CCP) CCP Central Directives on Deep Plowing and Soil Improvement 78 CCP Central General Office 109 CCP Central Northeast Bureau Rural Work Department 56 CCP Central Politburo 78, 117, 121 CCP Central South-Central Bureau Rural Work Department 63 CCP Fifth Central Committee 108 CCP Politburo Standing Committee 267 Central Committee 12, 30, 34, 54, 55, 74, 97, 108, 116, 117, 120–122, 125, 126, 128–130, 158, 161, 163, 174, 194n6, 244, 283, 331, 347 Central Document Number One 299, 338 Central Financial Committee 331 central government 3, 11, 31, 38, 40, 46, 47, 49, 51, 117, 126, 158, 189, 195, 214, 268, 271–274, 278, 280–286, 288, 289, 294, 297, 298–300, 311, 331 Central Secretariat 161 Chahar 55 Index Changge County 75–77, 76n4, 76n5, 79–81, 80n12, 83–88, 92, 93, 93n24, 96, 97 Changshu City 18, 212–227 chemical fertilizers 2–4, 15, 16, 168, 283 Chen Yun 29, 30, 174, 334, 335, 343, 345 Chiang Kai-shek 267 chickens 144, 332 Childcare 14, 124, 133–152, 178 childcare mutual aid 134, 142n26 chili peppers 327 China Academy of Agricultural Sciences 84, 87, 95, 95n31, 367n1 China Academy of Agricultural Sciences Mechanization Institute 84 China Academy of Sciences Biology Division 94 China Academy of Sciences (CAS) Mechanical Institute 90 China Institute of Agricultural Sciences 93 China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research 94, 94n27 China’s economy 3, 288 Chinese civilization 287–288 Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Central Committee 54 Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) 144, 319n12 CIF See cost, insurance, and freight (CIF) circulation of agricultural products 48 circulation system for agricultural products 48 citizen income 217, 219, 220, 222–224 class distribution 237, 238 class line 261 climatic and geographic conditions 293 coal 106, 125, 149, 183, 197, 267, 347 collateral 251, 252 collective agriculture 1, 10, 15, 339 collective asset management 226 collective assets 214–220, 222–227 collective contracting 200, 205 collective economic organizations 41, 212–227 collective economy 18, 181, 203, 213, 224 collective-owned assets 219 collective ownership 160, 318, 327 collective ownership system 318 collective property rights 225 collective-run enterprise 217, 219, 220 Index collective welfare enterprises 118, 124, 147–152 collectivization 1–11, 14–18, 29, 41, 53, 55, 70, 101–114, 149, 156n3, 201, 231, 257, 314–328, 342, 343, 350, 353 collectivized production 125 commodity grains 295, 300, 346, 346n59 commune and brigade industries 194 commune brigade enterprises (CBEs) 16–17, 192–196, 192–207, 198–208 communism 11, 13, 117, 118, 123, 142, 150, 151, 156, 156n2, 158, 159, 160, 167 communist base areas 134 Communist Party of China (CCP) 10, 12, 28, 54–59, 63, 74, 76–78, 81, 108, 109, 116, 117, 120–122, 125, 126, 128, 129, 133, 158, 161, 174, 176, 179, 194, 213, 219, 232, 244, 267, 283, 331, 347 Communist Party of China (CCP)’s Eighth National Congress 76 communist pilots 117 comparative advantages 292, 294, 297–299, 302–306, 308, 309, 313 compensation and promotions of local officials 215 compulsory education 41, 46 Compulsory Education Law 46 Conference of 7000 Cadres 174 conservation 102–107, 109–114, 124, 130 conservation work 102, 103, 103n5, 104, 104n8, 105, 106, 109, 113 construction 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 26, 27, 31, 33, 34, 38, 40–42, 75, 76, 101–114, 116, 117, 119, 120, 134, 142, 143, 146, 148, 149, 151, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168, 170, 177, 181, 182, 188, 196, 197, 212–227, 257, 259, 283, 285–286, 300, 310–312, 318, 322, 324, 325, 331, 333, 338, 342, 344–345 consumer good 2–3, 11, 288 consumption 10, 33, 120, 122, 149, 166, 255, 273, 277, 279, 280, 284, 288, 295, 296, 303, 304, 306, 307, 310, 311, 333, 336, 339, 340, 341, 350, 352 consumption quotas 339 contracting system for collective enterprises 219 contracting systems 102–107, 109–114, 124, 130, 206 contract management system 215 363 contract purchase system 341 contract purchasing and market purchasing systems 285 controls on imports and exports 286 cooperative economic organizations 224–225, 261 cooperative economies 224–225, 261 cooperative movement 6, 63, 69, 70, 109, 116, 134, 136, 185, 288, 342, 343, 353 cooperativization 45 cooperatization 6n8, 53, 67, 69, 70, 105, 108, 109, 134, 141, 144, 162n18, 334 copper 166, 331 corn 19, 31, 76, 77, 80, 106, 151, 272–284, 289, 291–293, 295, 296, 300, 302, 304, 306–312 Corn Belt 283, 284, 292, 302, 309–312 corn processing 283 corn surpluses 281 corruption 40 cost, insurance, and freight (CIF) 311 cottage industries 193 cotton 27–30, 63, 77, 119, 197, 255, 273, 278, 280, 331, 332, 340, 341, 347–349 coupon rationing system 347–348 coupon system 31, 347–349 credit cooperatives 239, 245, 251, 256, 258–263 creditworthiness 248, 251–252 crisis preparedness 253 crop failures 10, 37n16, 66, 67n16, 312 crossover zones 67, 68 Cultural Revolution 4, 11n18, 82n15, 318, 323 culture 42, 47, 51, 102n5, 147, 150, 175 cyanosis 157 dams 102, 102n3, 104, 167 Dazhai 12, 30, 110, 111n19, 283 debt burdens 43, 232, 255, 256 debt to agriculture 48 decommissioned and discharged service-people 323 deep plowing 12, 13, 18, 74–97 demand for grain 31, 32, 273, 277, 289, 295, 301, 306, 333, 349 democratic governments 53, 54 democratic policies 71 democratic principles 159 Deng Xiaoping 1, 31, 129 364 Deng Xiaoping’s “southern tour” 31 deposits 101, 232, 258, 259, 261 development advantages of grain production 285 dietary alkali 347 disaster relief 31, 331, 345, 346 disaster relief grain 331 disasters 10, 11, 31, 33, 127, 173, 235, 286, 326, 331, 345, 346 discharge/demobilization 321–323 distribution 6, 10, 15, 30, 46–47, 51–71, 93, 117, 118, 120, 122, 126, 127, 161, 166, 168, 197, 200, 203, 204n32, 220, 222, 223, 225, 237, 238, 278, 286, 297, 302, 336, 337n22, 339, 341 Document Number One 299, 338, 341 domestic and international markets 302, 310 domestic industrial comparative advantage 306 domestic resources and markets 299 downsizing of urban workforces 328 draft animals 5–6, 79, 80, 81, 84, 91, 92, 95, 256 dried fruits and nuts 332 drought 10, 307, 326 Dual-oversight 215 ducks 332 East China 31, 60, 64, 88, 213, 288 economic backwardness 336 economic competition 68–70 economic construction 11, 31, 34, 41, 331, 333, 344 economic development 1, 2, 53, 54, 65–67, 69, 120, 193, 210, 213, 223, 234, 256, 267, 277, 297, 299, 306, 307, 309, 330, 346, 352–354 economic globalization 295n5, 299, 302, 305–313 economic growth 3, 11, 14, 43, 55, 69, 212, 216, 223, 225–227, 292–296, 299, 301, 309, 351 economic relief 262 economic restructuring 294, 299, 300 economic special zones 294 economic status 49, 238, 254 economy 1, 2n1, 4n4, 9n15, 13, 26, 33, 42, 44, 53, 62, 70, 91, 112, 118, 156, 182, 201, 208, 213n2, 216, 217, 223, 224, 239, 285, 294, 295, 299, 304, 308, 309, 331, 333n8, 350, 350n74 Index edema 157 edible oils 349 educated youth (zhiqing) 318 education 42, 46, 47, 51, 92, 140–142, 145, 147, 150–152, 175, 190, 190n56, 197, 320, 321 egalitarianism 54, 118, 129, 156, 159 eggs 96, 332, 347 Eight Character Guiding Policy 128 elderly 69, 124, 249, 252, 253 embezzlement 188 emergency grain reserves 331 empty shell villages 224 England 351 enterprise of communism 142, 150 era of collectivization 1, 101–114, 201, 314–328 era of cooperatization 141, 144 exchange of equivalents 159–161 exchanges of technology 305 exploitation 7, 52, 160, 234, 241, 253 exploiter class 240 exploit the peasant masses 248 export processing 196 factor and market prices 353 factor prices 342 family-based agricultural operations 330 family-based petty peasant economy 307 family side businesses 123, 176 family side industries 194 famine 11n20, 12n22, 12n23, 120, 127, 157, 240, 249, 252, 326–328, 1012 famous Chinese brands 213, 217 farm field infrastructure 312 farm implements 6, 76n5, 84, 84n18, 88, 89, 90n20, 96n32, 162, 164, 168, 169, 171, 185, 189, 196, 235, 256, 259 farming implements 76, 81, 246, 251 farming machinery 283 feed production 280, 281, 284–286 female labor 134, 136, 137, 139, 142n28, 146n39, 150 fertilizer 2–4, 15, 16, 27, 76, 77, 80, 93, 95, 96, 106, 168, 256, 257, 259, 283 feudal exploitation 241 feudal landlord class 248 financial battlefront 330 financial organizations 261, 263 financial regulation 215 fire-cured tobacco 327, 331 Index first big and second public 146, 148 First Five-year Plan 7, 8, 10, 333, 337 First Ministry of Machine-Building 90, 91, 91n21 fish 33, 166, 198, 347 fisheries 32, 198 five constants 215 five things in vogue 156, 156n2, 159, 161 fixed quota system 284 flood control 102, 102n3 flow of rural population 320–324 food processing 196, 285 food security 312, 313 food supply 117, 127, 280 food supply system 117, 118 forcible borrowing 241 foreign exchange 275, 284 foreign researchers 332, 349, 350 foreign resources 306 foreign trade system 305 forestry centers 318–320, 324 four great freedoms 231 freedom to lend 231, 242 free market 331, 352 fresh fruits 332 Fujian 17, 19n35, 37, 40, 60, 64, 65, 68, 88, 122n16, 214, 268, 272, 274, 278, 281, 282, 292, 298, 304, 306, 311, 314–328, 337n22 Gan-Min-Yue Border Region 314n2, 315–317, 319–322, 324, 326, 328 Gansu 37, 53, 60, 64, 65, 68, 82, 268, 271, 284, 298 geese 332 general line for the transitionary period 63, 244, 246, 351 genetically modified (GMO) 309–310 geographical advantages 304, 308, 309, 313 global economy 294, 299, 309 gluttonous 255 GMO See genetically modified (GMO) “going to the countryside” 315–320 government allocations 268 government-enterprise relations 214 government-enterprise separation 218 government fixed purchase system 341 government grain reserves 292 government-set prices 333, 336, 337 grain 26, 63, 76, 103n5, 119, 136, 166, 222, 233, 267–313, 316, 331 365 grain allocation 280, 288, 300, 301, 303, 306 grain allocation and sales agreements 306 grain as the guiding principle 30, 176 grain circulation 45, 286, 292n3, 293, 299–301, 311, 313 grain circulation system 281, 301–303, 332, 335, 337n17, 340–342, 344, 352, 354 grain coupons 31, 347–349, 348n66, 349n67 grain crisis of 1953 7, 332, 335, 335n18 grain crisis of spring 1955 349 grain growers 340 grain industry structure 306, 307 grain output 3, 31, 33, 41, 106, 108, 112, 119, 127–129, 271, 279, 281–286, 289, 292, 294, 297, 299, 301, 306, 308, 312–313, 341, 343 grain price fluctuations 285 grain prices 19, 30, 33, 41, 45, 285, 295, 297, 300, 304, 339, 341, 348, 348n66 grain processing enterprises 305 grain processing industries 280 grain protection 297, 304 grain rations 128, 222, 323 grain requisitioning 119, 123, 179, 346, 347, 349, 350 grain reserve system 286 grains and cereals flows 267–286, 332n7, 333n8, 335n16, 340n32, 340n38, 348n63 grain self-sufficiency 272, 273, 281, 291, 292, 295 grain shortages 10, 289, 292, 293, 296, 301, 304, 306, 310, 311, 352–353 grain surpluses 30, 288, 289, 293, 300, 304, 307 grain yields 82n13, 105–107, 111–113, 119, 271, 288, 291, 293, 326–327, 338 grand and spectacular movement 79 Grand Canal 288 grand tactics 174, 177 grand tactics operations 164 grassroots labor 112 grassroots organizations 342–344 Grassroots Political Mobilization 343–344, 344n50 great enterprise of communism 142 Great Forging of Steel and Iron 119, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172, 174, 188–189 366 Great Forging of Steel and Iron movement 156, 323 Great Forging of Steel and Iron of the Entire Populace 118 Great Leap 12n22, 12n23, 146 Great Leap Forward 1, 2, 4, 9–14, 74–97, 106, 115–118, 116n2, 123, 125–127, 126n26, 155–158, 167, 174, 178, 188n52, 271, 289, 315, 323, 338 green channel 315 Guangdong 37, 40, 61, 63–65, 68, 128, 128n34, 268, 268n3, 271, 273, 274, 278, 281, 282, 298, 304, 306, 311, 314–328, 346, 346n58 Guangxi 61, 88, 103, 268, 271, 273, 274, 278, 281, 282, 298, 311 Guangzhou Central Working Conference 129 guarantor 251, 252 Guizhou 37, 61, 64, 65, 68, 126, 268, 271, 272, 274, 278, 295, 298, 306 handicraft industries 176 handicrafts 14, 145, 151, 194, 196 handicraft workshops 330 Han Dynasties 103 Hangzhou Grain Bureau 310 healthcare 46, 47, 51, 117n3, 219, 221, 259 health insurance 216 heavy industry 2, 3, 11, 335, 336, 342, 343, 343n47, 349, 351, 353 heavy industry bases 273, 278, 280 Hebei 16, 55, 60, 64, 65, 68, 80, 82, 82n13, 115–130, 192–208, 268, 271, 272, 274, 277n6, 281, 284, 298, 347n62 Hebei Provincial Committee 117, 119–122, 124, 129 Hebei Provincial Party Congress 120 Heilongjiang 19, 54n5, 56–60, 64, 65, 68, 268, 271, 282, 284, 298, 310, 311 Heilongjiang Farm and Land Reclamation Bureau 310, 311 high-interest loans 259, 260, 262 high yield agriculture 168 high yields 92–96, 107, 109, 110, 112, 166, 168, 304 hired farmhand households 55, 237, 238, 247, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258 hired farmhands 55, 234, 237, 238, 242, 253, 262 Index hiring relationships 244 history of contemporary China 351 “hope projects” 46, 226n5 household contract responsibility system 30, 33, 36, 41, 198, 202, 205, 220, 222, 223, 299 household economies 63, 176, 239, 262 household operations 203, 204 household planning 344 household registrations 35, 45, 217, 315n4, 322, 345 household registration system 9, 45, 327, 344, 345 household responsibility system (HRS) 1, 15, 26, 199, 202, 203, 206, 222 housing 117n3, 140, 163, 164, 165, 169n26, 169n27, 170, 174, 181–185, 181n38, 183n46, 186n50, 188n51, 218, 219 HRS See Household responsibility system (HRS) Huang-Huai-Hai Region 273, 277n6, 278, 280, 281, 302 Hubei 8, 42, 61–65, 62n11, 68, 82, 231–263, 268, 273, 274, 275n4, 278, 281, 282, 287n1, 298, 304, 345, 345n54, 346, 347n62, 350 human migration 321 hunan 61–66, 62n12, 66n15, 68, 128, 129, 244, 268, 271, 273, 274, 275n4, 278–282, 298, 304–305, 335n16, 340n38, 350 husbandry 32, 83, 196, 198, 296 husbandry industry 301 illicit trading 328 illiteracy 41–42 imbalance between supply and demand of grain 333 imbalance in grains and cereals output 277 immature soil 76, 78, 79, 92, 105, 106, 108–109 impoverished rural households 258, 261, 262 improved varieties 283, 291, 293 income 4, 6, 9, 26, 27, 35–37, 43, 50, 52, 56n8, 61, 63–67, 67n16, 70, 70n18, 123, 137, 139, 169, 176, 181, 194, 197, 198, 202, 214–227, 235, 240, 247, 249, 253–255, 261, 262, 285, 304, 308, 327, 336 distribution 9, 46–47, 51 redistribution 336 incomes of northern rural citizens 308 367 Index increased yields 13, 75, 76n6, 96, 97 individual economy 62, 68, 70, 201–203 indolence 255 industrial commodities 337 industrialization 1–3, 8, 14–18, 27, 33, 34, 45, 48, 217, 288, 330, 334–337, 339, 342, 344, 350, 351, 353, 354 industrial monopoly 336 industrial products 28, 337 industry 7, 10, 26–28, 33, 35, 42, 54, 91n21, 127, 140, 175–178, 193n4, 195, 197, 203–205, 207, 213, 217, 220, 223, 279, 281, 282, 285, 295, 299, 301, 302, 306–309, 313, 320, 332, 343, 351 comparative advantages 299, 302, 309, 313 restructuring 295 structure 301, 306, 307, 309, 351 infirm 39, 69, 174, 249, 253 information and transportation technology 302 infrastructure 27, 33, 38, 41, 170, 312, 325 infrastructure for grain circulation 286, 297 Inner Mongolia 64, 68, 83, 83n16, 268, 271, 272, 281, 282, 284 inputs of labor 339 Institute of Economics of the China Academy of Sciences 121, 193n4 institutional planning 328 insurance 216, 219, 222, 311 integrated nationwide grain market 285–286 integration with the global economy 299, 309 intensive agriculture 96, 176, 293 interest 4, 8, 33, 34, 40, 45, 46, 53, 54, 121, 140, 164, 190, 214, 232–234, 238, 240–244, 248–253, 255, 257–259, 262, 294, 300, 304, 309, 340n32 interest-free loans 248, 250, 262 interest rates 164, 243, 244, 249, 250, 251, 253, 258, 262 interlaced influence effect 207 international comparative advantage in rice production 308 international embargo 5, 312 international markets 302–304, 306, 307, 310, 313 inter-provincial planned allocations of grain 299 inter-regional grain circulation 293, 299, 311 inter-regional grain flows 287–313 intra-regional transfers 268 irrigation 4, 14, 41, 75, 97, 101n2, 104, 104n7, 105n11, 106n12, 111, 113, 113n21, 116, 119, 175, 221, 256, 257, 293, 312 irrigation works 27, 33, 75, 102, 116, 119, 164, 167, 168, 170, 174, 181, 185, 283, 300 Japan 28, 48, 53, 54, 54n3, 310 Jiangnan 103, 155n1 Jiangsu 17, 37, 40, 60, 64, 65, 68, 82, 155–190, 212–213, 217, 222, 225–227, 268, 273, 275n4, 278, 281, 282, 298, 310, 345, 345n55, 345n56, 346, 346n56, 347n62 Jiangsu Bosideng Corp 222 Jiangsu Changsheng Group Co., Ltd 217, 219–220 Jiangsu Menglan Group Co 221 Jiangxi 61–63, 62n13, 182, 244, 268, 271, 273, 275n4, 278, 280–282, 298, 305, 314–328 Jiang Zemin 42 Jilin 54n5, 56, 57, 59, 60, 64, 65, 68, 83n16, 268, 271, 274, 277n6, 278, 280–282, 284, 298 Jiulian Mountains 315 kindergarten 14, 124, 133–152, 164 knitting industry 205 Kunshan 157, 157n5, 184, 185, 187, 188n51 labor 2–4, 6, 9, 10, 12–14, 16, 17, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 47, 49, 52, 54, 69, 80, 81–83, 94, 95, 97, 105, 106, 108–112, 110, 111, 116, 116n2, 118, 119, 125, 128, 129, 134–140, 136, 137, 143n28, 146n39, 150, 151, 156, 160, 162, 163, 165, 168–170, 174, 175–178–180, 176–178, 178n36, 188n52, 189, 204, 205, 206, 219, 219n4, 223, 233, 238, 240, 250, 251, 253, 255, 258, 285, 288, 294, 295, 297, 303, 307, 315, 317, 318–320, 324, 325, 328, 339 and land productivity 285 cooperatives 177 exchange 138–140 laboring masses 93, 232, 238, 239 laid-off workers 316 368 laissez-faire 122 land 29, 53, 75, 103, 123, 136, 158, 202, 214, 234, 282, 294, 316, 336 appropriations 49 and labor costs 297 ownership 50–51, 53 pawning 255 reforms 5, 5n7, 6, 9, 10, 33, 52–71, 75, 231–241, 246–258, 262, 288, 333 renting 244 requisitioning 38, 39, 40, 49, 179, 181 resource 38, 40, 168, 178, 294, 307 revolutions 53 sales 49, 244, 255 taxes 336 landlord class 232, 234, 238, 240, 248 landlords 53, 54, 60, 64, 160, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 240, 248, 250, 251, 253 laogai 180 large formation warfare 325 large-scale campaigns 178, 184 large-scale construction of farm fields 312, 325 large-scale development of farm fields 283 large-scale economic construction 331, 334 large-scale establishment of collective settlements 172 large-scale establishment of commune and brigade public enterprises 174 large-scale establishment of public canteens 121, 123, 156, 164, 166, 167, 172 large-scale movements 165, 328 law of value 338, 338n26, 347, 354 leather 197, 200, 331 leftist 13, 54, 113, 118, 120, 123–125, 127, 156, 174, 271, 272 “leftist” mistakes 118, 120, 125, 156, 174, 271, 272 legislative protections 241 Lehui Rice Company 310 liaoning 54n5, 56, 59, 60, 64, 65, 68, 82, 82n15, 268, 271, 274, 277n6, 278, 282, 284, 289, 298 Liaoxi 56–59 liberating female laborers 137, 142n28 liberation 26, 53–54, 54n4, 116n2, 125, 134– 135, 137, 142n28, 150–152, 233, 251n35 liberation of women 125 Li Dequan 144 light industry 2, 351 Index Lijiazhai 75, 79, 96 Li Peng 18, 212, 213n2 literacy 41–42, 137 Liu Shaoqi 129, 161, 161n16 livestock feed 273, 275, 277–281, 292, 295 industry 273, 275, 280 manufacturing industry 292, 295 processing industry 279 living needs 240, 263 living standards 301, 304, 347 Li Xiannian 29, 30 Liyueju 75 loans 3, 7, 18, 159, 232–235, 238–263, 300 loan sharking 232, 245, 248, 254 local processing of grains 284 loess 101 Loess Plateau 101–104, 102n2, 102n5, 103n5, 103n6, 106, 107, 109–113 looms 202, 204–205, 207 lower-middle-income peasant 261 low-interest loans 240, 260 low interest rates 250, 258, 262 Lü Bingguang 76, 76n7 Lüliang Mountain Range 101 Lushan Conference 123–125, 127, 157 macroeconomic controls 43, 353, 354 macroeconomic policy 285, 286, 307, 339, 342 main foods See staple foods Manchuria 58 manure 76, 95, 96, 106, 116, 166 manure fertilizer 95 Mao Zedong 6n9, 31, 33, 54, 75, 75n2, 75n3, 77, 97n33, 112, 112n20, 121, 121n13, 121n14, 124n21, 128n34, 156, 159n10, 160n11, 160n12, 189, 244n20, 267, 318 market economy 17, 18, 39, 44–45, 50, 280, 312, 343n49, 354 marketization 281 marketization reforms 268, 281, 294n4, 299–301, 303 markets 2, 4, 7, 13, 17, 18, 27, 28, 31–32, 38, 39, 41, 44–45, 50, 182, 182n43, 194, 217, 249, 280, 285–286, 297, 299, 301–307, 310–313, 331–333, 333n10, 336, 337, 341, 343n49, 345, 349, 349n69, 352–354 operations 333 pricing mechanism 333 reforms 13, 285 Index resource allocation mechanisms 336 marriage and funeral expenses 259 martyrs 69, 108 marxist 159, 160 mass line 13, 162, 176 matches 117n3, 347 Ma Tongyi 75 meal ticket 122, 123, 126, 127 means of production 69, 162, 166, 168, 182, 257, 258, 303, 334 meat production 296 mechanisms for resource and production factor allocations 354 mechanized 307 mechanized agriculture 297 microeconomic management mechanisms 342 microeconomic restrictions 353 middle-income-peasanthood 254 middle-income peasant households 240, 247, 254, 255, 261 middle-peasant-ization 65, 67, 67n17, 71 middle peasants 6, 9, 53, 54, 55, 60, 64, 67, 69, 70, 129, 238, 239, 242, 244, 250, 254, 256, 257, 262, 318 migrant laborers 31, 35, 36, 47, 49 migrants 1, 17, 39, 49, 151, 325 military 13, 80, 82, 160, 165, 168, 180–181, 242, 251, 321, 322, 325n28, 328 milk 347 millet 77 mines 316, 320 Ming and Qing Dynasties 288, 327 Ministry of Agriculture 40, 43, 49, 77, 78, 84, 84n18, 90n20, 91, 125, 212n1, 267n1 Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) 268, 270, 276, 288, 291 Ministry of Finance 43, 52, 53n2 Ministry of Land and Resources 38, 49 Ministry of Land Resources 40 Ministry of Water Resources 39–40 misappropriations of funds and materials 156 model kindergartens 142–149 modern corporate governance structures 226 modern corporate systems 218 modern financial system 262 MOFCOM See Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) 369 money lending 45 mountain-bound migration 326 mountainous 103, 108, 109, 113, 315, 318, 324, 325, 328 mountainous regions 103, 109, 113, 324, 325, 328 movement of the population 50 multiple cropping 176, 293 mushrooms 198 mutual aid 5, 6, 75, 134, 141, 142n26, 241, 246, 248, 251, 254, 257, 260–262 mutual aid and cooperation 244, 245, 352 National Bureau of Statistics 31, 56, 56n8, 61, 63, 70n18, 281n8 National Conference for Selection through Appraisal and Lectures Regarding Deep Plowing Implements 91, 91n22 National Conference on Deep Plowing Implements and Soil Improvement 84, 92 national economy 6, 26, 28–30, 118, 127, 128, 173, 194, 199n15, 239, 294, 308 national grain conference 334 National People’s Congress 46, 213, 221, 222 national savings 351 Nationwide Deep Plowing Implements and Soil Improvement 77 nationwide grain market 285–286 natural disasters 11–12, 33, 127, 235, 286 net exporters 29, 271, 275, 288, 289, 311 new areas 54n4, 62, 67, 68, 232, 243 new democratic society 351 newly liberated area 54n4, 232 new rich peasant economy 58, 63 new rich peasants 52–71, 247, 254 Ninth Plenum of the Eighth CCP Congress 128, 161, 174 no-interest 260 non-agricultural industries 217, 294 non-staple foods 32 North China 55, 60, 64, 288, 295, 302, 303 North China Bureau 55 northeast 48, 54n5, 56–60, 62–64, 68, 204, 277, 281, 288, 292, 295, 296, 302, 309, 310, 314, 315 Northeast Bureau 54, 56–59 Northeastern Corn Belt 309–312 northern plains 297 Northern Region Agricultural Conference 272 370 northern rice self-sufficiency 275 north-to-south grain transfer 268, 270, 273–278, 280, 284, 287–293, 296, 297, 299, 301, 302, 307, 309–313 northwest 60, 64, 204, 281, 288n2, 295, 302 Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University 93 Number One Cooperative 75 nursemaid group 135, 137 official promotions 322 officials 5, 8, 14, 17, 18, 31, 37, 38, 40–42, 48, 51, 63, 80, 83, 105, 108, 109, 112, 113, 117–121, 125, 127, 135, 140, 142, 144–148, 150, 152, 156, 159, 173, 176, 188, 189, 215–217, 219, 223–226, 231, 241, 242, 244, 246, 254, 258, 261, 270, 272, 283, 284, 288, 300, 312, 320, 321, 325, 328, 330, 331, 339, 342, 348, 351, 354 oil bearing materials 331 old areas 54, 54n4, 55, 56, 64, 67, 68 Old China 237, 244 opening to the outside 303 open market 331 opportunistic behavior 341, 353 opportunity costs of agriculture 294, 295, 297, 307 organic fertilizers 96 Outline Land Law of China 54 ownership by all the people 160 paddy field 84, 91, 95, 108 Panjing Commune 319 partitioning of national income 336 patriotic education 142 Pearl River Delta 17, 39, 311 Pearl River Valleys 287–288 peasantry 45, 160, 162 peasants 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 26, 33, 45, 52–71, 151, 159, 160, 161, 169n24, 178n36, 232, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 244, 247, 253, 261, 262, 318 peasant worker tide 328 penalties for non-payment 258 Peng Dehuai 11, 13, 123, 124n19 pension 221, 222 pension insurance 216 People’s Bank of China 244, 245 Index people’s commune movement 115, 118, 124, 133, 142, 143, 144, 156, 158, 159, 164, 166, 271, 289, 338, 342, 353 people’s communes 1, 10, 12, 29, 41, 82, 83, 102n4, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 126, 128, 129, 130, 146, 151, 158, 159, 162, 168n21, 232, 320 people’s livelihoods 238 people’s militias 177 People’s Republic of China 2, 29, 41, 52–71, 75, 84n18, 101n2, 102, 104, 112, 113, 134, 151, 156n3, 194, 232n2, 237, 238, 240, 241, 256, 270, 287–313, 330, 333, 334n11, 336, 345n53, 351, 352 period of collectivization 350 pigs 135, 144, 178, 235, 331 planned allocations 299, 303 planned birth 42 planned economy 26, 37, 39, 40, 44–47, 49, 50, 268, 280, 299, 351–354 planned grain supply 331, 346 planned purchases and planned supply 331 planned supply 331, 344, 345, 346 planning and allocation institutions 336, 342 plow oxen 171, 257, 259 polarization 7, 53, 71 political upheavals 325 poor and middle peasants 6, 318 poor peasants 7, 53, 54, 55, 60, 65, 69, 70, 159, 234, 237, 238, 239, 242, 247, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 261, 262 population 1, 4, 10, 12, 15, 16, 27–29, 31–35, 45, 46, 50, 56, 59, 65, 70, 71, 77, 116, 157, 172, 174, 176, 189, 214–216, 218, 260, 289, 291–293, 297, 307, 312, 314–328, 333, 339, 344, 345, 351, 352, 354 population movement 16, 315, 324–328, 345 pork 347 poultry 295, 297 poverty 1, 4, 35, 37, 50, 55, 69, 71, 106, 107, 109, 204, 232, 245, 254, 257, 258, 262 practical experience 48, 96, 97 pre-approved budget and accounting system 215, 216 prefectural-level cities 48 preferential policies 294 preferential pricing 285 pre-school 145, 150, 151 Index preschool education 142, 143, 147, 150 price scissors 38, 48, 336, 337, 337n23 price subsidies 344 primary agricultural products 288, 352 primitive accumulation of capital 26, 45, 337, 351 private enterprises 36, 39, 192–208, 219 private family side-businesses 123 private grain traders 333 private lending 8, 231–263 private ownership 6, 126 private ownership system 176 private property rights 242, 252 production 1, 26, 55, 82, 104, 116, 134, 156, 194, 231, 272, 288, 318, 330 production and circulation systems 330 production brigade 13, 41, 102n4, 104, 116, 125, 128, 143, 159, 165, 174, 318 production mutual aid teams 246, 257 professionalization of officials 223–224 profits 38, 49, 200, 201, 206, 218, 221, 222, 253, 261, 303, 305, 351 profit sharing 206 promissory notes 173, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189 property rights 17, 218, 225, 242, 252 property rights reforms 218, 220, 226 protectionism 305, 308 public accumulation funds 246 public enterprises 159, 165, 167, 168, 174, 177, 179, 323, 324, 325 public granaries 233 public institutions and enterprises 323 public welfare enterprise 149, 246 purchase and sales system for agricultural products 342, 348 pursuit of profit 245, 253 Qin 103, 135, 136, 139, 146, 149, 325 Qing Dynasty 40, 102n3 Qinghai 37, 60, 64, 65, 68, 268, 271, 298 quota 111, 126, 127, 166, 178, 179, 198, 200, 201, 284, 308, 311, 339, 345, 346, 347 rations 118, 121–123, 126, 128, 129, 143, 149, 166, 176, 222, 323, 325 raw material in feed production 284 reactionary 125 recruiting students 321 recruitment 174, 321, 323 371 refined goods 249 refined grain 149, 249, 295 refined white rice 295 reform and opening 26, 27, 28, 30, 33, 35, 44, 47, 113, 192–208, 232, 279, 292–295, 297, 300n6, 301 regional balance of grains and cereals supply and demand 267, 303 regional comparative advantage 297–299 regional export price advantage 310 regional grain production structures 284 regional supply of and demand for grains and cereals 277 regulatory 341 Rehe 56–59, 61 Renmin ribao 76, 76n7, 78, 78n9, 79n11, 82n13, 82n14, 82n15, 83n16, 93, 93n23, 93n25, 94n26, 95n30, 96n31, 118n4, 123n17, 143n28, 233n5 Republican Era 40, 54n5 requisitioning 38–40, 49, 119, 120, 123, 179, 181, 331, 334, 338, 343, 346, 347, 349, 350 requisitioning of public grain 331 research 5, 12, 12n21, 13, 19, 25n25, 27, 43, 53, 54n3, 56n8, 74n1, 84, 89, 90, 92, 94, 94n27, 102n5, 113, 128, 133, 133n1, 134, 155, 156, 158n7, 159n10, 163n19, 174, 181, 192, 193, 193n2, 193n4, 194n6, 212, 213, 232, 251n35, 267n1, 268, 281n8, 328, 330–354 resident committees 344 resource planning and allocation system 336, 342 restitution 13, 155–190 campaign 190 committees 162 restructuring of rural industry 274 return to the city movement 320 revolution 1, 4, 4n5, 5, 7, 8, 9n16, 11n18, 13, 33, 53, 54, 69, 76n5, 81, 82n15, 84, 90, 93, 110, 134, 176, 193n4, 304, 318, 323, 336n20, 349n68 rice 4, 31, 103, 197, 198, 203, 220, 268, 271–280, 275n4, 277n5, 282, 284, 288, 289, 291–293, 295, 296, 300–312 Rice Belt 302 rice sack 300, 301, 303, 312 rich peasant(s) 7–9, 18, 52–71, 232, 234, 237, 238, 240, 242–245, 247, 250, 253, 254 372 rich peasant economy 58, 63, 245 rightist conservative thought 77 rightist opportunism 157 rightist opportunists 124 road networks 315 rural areas 4, 5, 26–30, 32, 33, 35, 37, 40–51, 53–55, 63n14, 64, 116, 117, 118, 125, 126n26, 127, 142, 151, 155, 157–159, 161, 176, 194, 202, 204, 213, 234, 315, 324, 325, 328, 331, 345, 350, 352, 353 rural assistance loans 246 rural capital 245, 262, 263 rural childcare organizations 133–152 rural China 1, 2, 17, 17n33, 18, 26, 41, 134, 145, 238, 250n32, 328, 343n49, 344–345 rural citizen(s) 5, 26–51, 54, 55, 75, 119, 123, 126, 138, 185, 188, 189, 214, 216, 217, 222, 224, 225, 231, 232, 239, 241, 243, 245, 246, 249–253, 255–258, 261, 294, 300, 301, 308, 313, 320, 321, 323, 325, 327, 332, 336, 338–340, 342, 345, 348, 352, 354 rural citizen economic organizations 313 rural class structure 70 rural collectives 63, 119 rural communes 67, 144 rural cooperative movement 116 rural credit cooperatives 239, 251, 258–263 rural debt(s) 18, 232, 241, 242, 243 Rural Debt Disputes 232 rural economic development 54, 65, 69, 213 rural economic policies 34, 69, 300n6 rural economy 5, 34, 41, 50, 52n2, 54–59, 62n12, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 212n1, 213, 215, 233n4, 234, 236, 237n8, 239, 242, 258n49, 262, 352 rural financial regulation reforms 215 rural financial services 263 rural financial system 231, 235, 263 rural grassroots work 320 rural households 41, 45, 55, 56n8, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 66–70, 70n18, 183, 186, 201, 202, 203, 205, 207, 232, 234, 235, 237, 239, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 252, 254, 255, 257, 258, 261, 262, 322, 331 rural individual economy 62, 68 rural industrialization 1, 2, 14–18, 192, 217 rural industry 193n4, 207, 255, 257, 274 rural laborers 49, 177, 315, 324, 325, 328 rural land system 50 Index rural lending demand 261 rural loans 252–256 rural mass movements 349 rural modernization 213, 214, 217 rural people’s commune movements 271, 289 Rural People’s Communes 102n4, 120, 126, 128, 129, 130, 158 Rural People’s Cooperatives 155–190 rural population 4, 15, 34, 35, 45, 46, 59, 65, 70, 71, 116, 157, 260, 314–328, 333, 339, 345, 351, 352, 354 rural population flows 314–328 rural private enterprises 192–208 rural private lending 231–263 rural public canteens 115–130, 151 rural restitution work 186 rural system 50, 352n79 rural taxation 215 rural work 5, 27, 28, 44, 122, 123n17, 126, 194n6, 338n25 Rural Work Departments 5, 51, 56–59, 58n9, 63, 63n14, 167, 177, 179n37, 181n40, 244, 246, 247, 256, 258, 259, 260 Russia 310 salaries of professionalized officials 223 saline-alkaline soil 283 sanctions 293 sanitation 140, 142 SARS 47 Satellite Commune 117, 118, 145, 149 scientific experimentation 97 seasonal production 259 secondary and tertiary industries 39, 43, 49, 220, 223, 294, 295, 297, 299, 307 secondary enterprises 137, 177 secondary income 327 Second World War 48 self-reliant 293 self-sufficiency 168, 272, 273, 275, 281, 283, 284, 291, 292, 306, 312 seniors 137, 141, 157, 219, 221, 222, 253, 326 separation of government from enterprises 224 sesame 77 sesame oil 243 Shaanxi 37, 53, 53n2, 61, 64, 65, 68, 82, 103, 103n5, 107, 251n34, 268, 271, 281, 284, 298 Index Shandong 40, 60, 64, 65, 68, 74, 75, 82, 83, 89, 268, 271, 272, 277n6, 281, 288n2, 298 Shanghai 36, 37, 49, 129, 268, 271, 274, 278, 281, 282, 298, 306, 310, 319, 334n13, 343, 344, 344n50, 346, 346n60, 348n65, 349n68 Shanghai-Nanjing Road 168 Shanxi 12, 60, 62, 62n10, 64, 65, 68, 82, 101–114, 133–152, 268, 271, 284, 298, 340n35 shareholding corporations 185, 214, 218, 220, 226 shareholding reforms 225 shares 15, 18, 188, 204–205, 207, 218, 219, 224, 226, 247, 258, 259, 279, 285 Sichuan 61, 64, 65, 68, 129, 268, 271, 273, 274, 278, 281, 298, 306, 346, 346n57 sideline industry 194, 201, 202, 204n31, 219, 255, 257, 259 six in-the-fields 83 Sixth Plenum of the Eighth CCP Central Committee 120, 121 Sixty-Article Regulations for Agriculture 179, 180 slack farming season 177, 250, 327 small peasant economy 335, 342, 351, 352 Smith, Adam 251, 252n34 soap 117n3, 347 socialism 4n4, 7, 8n13, 124–127, 143n28, 160, 213n2, 349n70, 352 socialist construction 11, 106, 108n17, 109n18, 114, 120, 146n38, 148, 149 socialist economy 11, 112, 245, 245n22 socialist education movement 190 socialist market economy 190, 190n56 socialist modernization 26, 27, 33, 288 socialist reformation 134, 330, 352 socialist society 351 social mobility 344, 354 social security system 235, 262 social structure 45–46, 134, 344, 352, 353 socioeconomic development 223, 267, 352 soil erosion 101, 102, 102n5, 103, 104, 108, 112, 113 soil improvement 77, 78, 78n9, 79, 84, 89, 90n19, 92, 103 soil maturation 107 solo practitioners 202 373 song-and-dance troupes 177 Songjiang 56, 57, 59 South-central region 69, 244n19, 251n35 Southern Jiangsu Model 17, 212–213, 225–227 South Korea 48, 310 south-to-north grains and cereals transfer 267, 270, 273, 277 South-to-North grain transfer 268, 270, 273, 280, 283, 284, 287–294 Soviet Union 3, 7, 9, 11, 29, 45, 142, 337 soybeans 271, 278, 279, 279n7, 288, 289, 300, 307, 308 specialized and vocational schools 219, 223 spices 332, 354 stabilizing market prices 353 standardized kindergartens 143 staple foods 32 State Administrative Council 52, 232, 331, 347 State Agricultural Loans 251, 256–259 state bank loans 259 state banks 239, 256, 259, 263 State Bureau for Letters and Calls 40 state corn reserves 282 State Council 31, 109, 116, 174, 179, 194, 194n6, 195n7, 243, 272, 282, 283 State Council’s Development Institute 46 State Council’s Research Development Institute 43 state grain monopoly 8, 30, 41, 248, 249, 262, 285, 330, 331, 334, 341, 343n49, 345–348, 346n56, 346n57, 346n58, 347n61, 349n68, 350, 353 state guiding policy for agriculture 272 state macroeconomic policies 286 state-mandated protection price 304 state monopoly 248, 249, 288, 327, 330–354 state monopoly on grain 63, 248, 299, 332n7, 339n29, 340, 340n38, 347, 351 state planning 182, 195, 281n8, 311, 342 state requisitioning of grain 334, 338, 343 state-run agriculture 257 state-run farms 179, 180, 319 state-run or collective farms 324 state-run store 327 steel 10, 87, 97, 118, 119, 156, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172, 174, 188, 323, 331 stud farms 172 374 sugar 197 supply and demand 239, 285–286, 300 supply and demand for grains 267, 273, 277, 281, 282, 282n8, 286, 289, 303, 333, 333n8, 341, 346 supply and demand imbalances 285 supply and demand of capital 243, 251, 262 supply quota systems 345, 347 supply system 117, 118, 123, 124, 125, 129, 344, 346, 346n60, 349 surpluses 6, 29, 30, 31, 259, 280, 281, 283, 286, 288, 289, 293, 295, 300, 304, 306, 307, 326, 335, 337, 337n22, 339, 353 surplus grain 45, 239, 261, 296, 304, 305, 307, 331, 339 Suzhou 156, 157n4, 162, 163, 163n19, 163n20, 167–171, 168n21, 168n22, 168n23, 169n24, 169n25, 169n26, 169n27, 172n28, 173n32, 174, 174n33, 174n35, 176, 178, 178n36, 179, 179n37, 181, 181n38, 181n39, 181n40, 182, 182n41, 182n42, 182n43, 183n44, 183n46, 183n47, 184–187, 186n50, 187, 188n51, 190n56 sweet potatoes 77, 80, 93 Taiwan 48 taking grain as the key link 103n5, 272 Tang and Song Dynasties 287 taxation system 339 technical and specialized colleges 321 technical school 216 terraced fields 101–114, 283 terraces 12, 102–113 tertiary industry 39, 43, 49, 220, 223, 294, 295, 297, 299, 305, 307 textiles 192, 193n4, 196, 197, 201–205, 207 Thai rice 308, 311 Third Plenum of the Eleventh Communist Party of China (CCP) Congress 194 Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 30, 34 14th National Conference of the Communist Party of China 42 14th National Congress of the Communist Party of China 44 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China 35, 49 “three fixeds” policy 342, 349 three great battles 330 Index three-in-one traditional economic system 342 Three Norths Conference 128 “three rural issues” 5, 25–51, 113, 352 Three Souths Conference 128 three-tiered economy of communes 194 three years of economic difficulties 326 Tianjin 37, 90, 124, 268, 271, 273, 277, 278, 280, 281, 289, 298 Tibet 37, 268, 271, 274, 278, 281, 298 tile kiln 196, 197, 203 timber 166, 181, 182 tin 166, 331 tobacco 77, 80, 197, 327, 331 topsoil 84, 91, 95, 96, 105–108 town economic service center 215 town management of village accounts 214–216 town management of village finances 224 township and village enterprises (TVEs) 1, 17, 33–34, 42, 44–45, 206n37, 207n39, 213, 217, 220, 292, 294 tractors 4, 90, 91, 111 trade system 304, 305 traditional agriculture 336–337 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) 331 traditional handicrafts 196 traditional rural economic system 342 traditional techniques 293 transaction costs 302, 333 transcontinental ships 310 transportation 2, 16, 42, 48, 160, 168, 175, 177, 197–198, 302–304, 310, 311, 325 trends of pessimistic thought 124 troubled households 69, 248 tubers 279 TVEs See township and village enterprises (TVEs) Twelve Instructions 128, 158 two-track system 299, 312 uncompensated appropriations 161–174, 178, 179, 186, 188, 189, 215 uncultivated land 165, 180, 318 United States (US) 11, 309, 310 university students 47 unusual marriages 328 upgrading 15, 111, 112, 306, 309 upgrading China’s industry structure 309 375 Index urbanization 1, 2, 27, 32, 34, 37–39, 344, 354 urban or rural household registrations 45, 322, 345 urban public enterprises 323, 324 urban-rural disparity 38, 45–46, 48–50 urban-rural duality 50, 344, 349, 353 urban-rural dual social structure 45–46 urban-rural gap 26, 27, 36, 46, 48, 51, 344, 354 urban-rural integration 27, 50 urban-rural relationship 27 urban-rural social duality 49–50 urban-vs.-rural dual household registration system 327 urban workforce downsizings 315–318, 328 urban youths 318, 323 Urgent Instructions on Current Policy Issues in Rural People’s Communes See Twelve Instructions usurers 236, 239, 240, 248–249 usurious 242, 250, 251, 262 usury 231, 245, 246, 251, 253 uterine prolapse 157 value-added processing 305 vegetables 32, 33, 144, 149, 150, 166, 179, 180, 347 village assets 215 village-collective-run enterprise 217, 220 village collectives 51, 206, 207, 212–227, 215–219, 222–227 assets 214–219, 222 economic organizations 212–227 economies 213–216, 226 enterprises 206, 218, 226 shares 218 village cooperative economic organizations 212, 224, 225, 261 virgin land 318–319, 325 vocational schools 216, 219n4, 223 vogue of communism 13, 118, 151, 156, 158–160, 167 voluntary lending 241, 242 walking plow 80, 83, 84, 88, 92 war 2, 13, 48, 53, 54n3, 54n4, 82, 325 war against Japan 53, 54 warehousing costs 310 War of Liberation 53–54 wasting disease 157 water and soil conservation 102–107, 109–113 water resources 39–40, 94, 94n27, 221, 293 welfare 5, 14, 139n17, 142, 145, 151, 175, 180, 214, 219–224, 246, 336 enterprises 118, 124, 134, 147–152, 178, 221, 246 levels 217, 219, 220, 222, 223, 225, 226 Wenzhou Model 17, 193, 193n3 wheat 94, 95, 95n30, 95n31, 151, 243, 255, 268, 271, 272, 279, 281, 283, 284, 289, 291–293, 295, 300, 306, 308, 309 wheat flour 295 window on the South 294 women 4, 14, 75n2, 125, 134–141, 145–148, 149n46, 150–152, 157, 221 Women’s Federation 136, 140, 141n24, 145n33, 146, 146n39, 146n40, 148, 150, 150n51 wool 207, 331 work incentives 30, 189, 206, 338–340, 348 workpoints 129, 136, 138, 139, 198, 202, 324 World Trade Organization (WTO) 308, 310 wristwatches 347 Wuyi Mountains 314 Xinjiang 61, 64, 65, 68, 268, 271, 272, 281, 298 Yangtze delta 103, 273 Yangtze River 103, 274, 282, 295, 302, 306 Yangtze River Delta 39, 311, 312 yellow box policy 310 Yellow River 102, 102n5 Yellow River Valley 287 youth league committee 150 youth production brigade 318 Yuan Dynasty 288 Yunnan 37, 61, 103, 268, 273, 274, 295, 298 Yunnan-Guizhou plateau 306 Zhang Wentian 54, 55n6, 123, 124n20 Zhejiang 17, 37, 40, 60, 64, 65, 68, 128, 160, 193n3, 268, 271, 273, 275n4, 278, 281, 282, 295, 298, 310, 311, 339 Zhou Enlai 129, 129n35, 283 Zhu De 129 ... Cataloging -in- Publication Data Names: DuBois, Thomas David, 1969- | Li, Huaiyin Title: Agricultural reform and rural transformation in China since 1949 / edited by Thomas DuBois, Huaiyin Li Description:... Agriculture and state China History 20th century | Social change China History 20th century | Social problems China History 20th century | China Rural conditions | China Social policy | China Politics and. .. Lin, Justin 1992 Rural Reforms and Agricultural Growth in China, ” The American Economic Review, 82.1: 34–51 Lin, Justin Y 1990 “Collectivization and China s Agricultural Crisis in 1959–1961,” Journal