Technology, Modernity, and Democracy Reinventing Critical Theory Series Editors: Gabriel Rockhill, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Villanova University Yannik Thiem, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Villanova University The Reinventing Critical Theory series publishes cutting edge work that seeks to reinvent critical social theory for the 21st century It serves as a platform for new research in critical philosophy that examines the political, social, historical, anthropological, psychological, technological, religious, aesthetic and/or economic dynamics shaping the contemporary situation Books in the series provide alternative accounts and points of view regarding the development of critical social theory, put critical theory in dialogue with other intellectual traditions around the world and/or advance new, radical forms of pluralist critical theory that contest the current hegemonic order Commercium: Critical Theory from a Cosmopolitan Point of View by Brian Milstein Resistance and Decolonization by Amílcar Cabral, translated by Dan Wood Critical Theories of Crisis in Europe: From Weimar to the Euro edited by Poul F Kjaer and Niklas Olsen Politics of Divination: Neoliberal Endgame and the Religion of Contingency by Joshua Ramey Comparative Metaphysics: Ontology After Anthropology edited by Pierre Charbonnier, Gildas Salmon and Peter Skafish The Invention of the Visible: The Image in Light of the Arts by Patrick Vauday, translated by Jared Bly Metaphors of Invention and Dissension by Rajeshwari S Vallury Technology, Modernity, and Democracy Essays by Andrew Feenberg Edited by Eduardo Beira and Andrew Feenberg London • New York Published by Rowman & Littlefield International Ltd Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB www.rowmaninternational.com Rowman & Littlefield International Ltd.is an affiliate of Rowman & Littlefield 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706, USA With additional offices in Boulder, New York, Toronto (Canada), and Plymouth (UK) www.rowman.com Selection and editorial matter © Eduardo Beira and Andrew Feenberg, 2018 Copyright in individual chapters is held by the respective chapter authors All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: HB 978-1-7866-0719-5 PB 978-1-7866-0721-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Is Available ISBN 978-1-78660-719-5 (cloth: alk paper) ISBN 978-1-78660-721-8 (pbk: alk paper) ISBN 978-1-78660-720-1 (electronic) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 Printed in the United States of America Contents Preface vii Eduardo Beira Introduction 1 Andrew Feenberg PART I: PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY 1 Encountering Technology 13 2 Ten Paradoxes of Technology 37 3 What Is Philosophy of Technology? 55 PART II: TECHNICAL CITIZENSHIP 4 Technoscience and Democracy 67 5 Agency and Citizenship in a Technological Society 81 6 Function and Meaning: The Double Aspects of Technology 95 PART III: HEIDEGGER AND MARCUSE 7 Heidegger and Marcuse: On Reification and Concrete Philosophy 117 8 The Politics of Meaning: Modernity, Technology, and Rationality 127 v vi Contents Notes 147 References 151 Proper Name Index 157 Concept Index 159 Preface Eduardo Beira ABOUT THIS BOOK This book brings together essays by Andrew Feenberg written mostly during the last decade concerning the question of technology The book is divided into three parts Part I, Philosophy of Technology, includes three essays introducing critical theory of technology and comparing it with other approaches Part II, Technical Citizenship, consists of three essays that offer a deeper analysis of the issues of modernity and discuss the opportunities for human agency in a modern society where technology is ubiquitous Part III, Heidegger and Marcuse, includes articles on the relation of these two classic critics of technology My original motivation for editing this book arose from the need for a modern book about philosophy of technology (in Portuguese language) suitable for graduate courses, especially in schools of engineering This idea drove my previous translation of these essays into Portuguese for the first edition of this book Andrew Feenberg has collaborated on the English edition of this book, which first appeared in Portuguese, and has written a new introductory essay Confusion between science and technology and the trend of the “methodological scientization” of technology has harmful effects on the culture of engineering, and not only there, biasing academic scholarship and distorting the understanding of design and development The emergence of the “technosciences” has further obscured the scene This “scientization” is a kind of second wave of the technocracy movement that began in the twenties and continued until the sixties of the last century In the first version of technocracy, only specialized technicians (especially engineers) could manage a society based on machinery, applying technical management methods vii viii Preface to society itself and eliminating traditional politics In this second wave, it is not engineers and technicians who are supposed to dominate society, but “scientists” (in a broad sense) applying their research methods for the validation and diffusion of knowledge But this new conception of technocracy ignores the fact that technology has completely different foundations, functions, and users from science, and so requires different methods from those of scientific research The English philosopher Mary Midgley made a strong criticism of this “omnicompetent” science as a “naive academic imperialism” willing to transform “science” into a comprehensive ideology ensuring inevitable progress.1 But technology is neither scientific nor a direct product of science It is essentially a social product that, of course, employs some scientific knowledge It is obvious that these frameworks have very different implications for design, development, diffusion, and change Future engineers and technologists must have experience with views of technology that go beyond the narrow horizon of pure technical knowledge This selection of texts by Feenberg intends to serve that purpose: to offer a philosophical view of social and technical rationality that opens doors to a democratic agency and integrates social actors into the discussion and the project of technology This allows us to hope for a progressive humanization of technology in a society that balances its demands with those of the natural environment And it justifies the hope that we can overcome catastrophic and anti-human views of technology that lead to the design and deployment of potentially dangerous technologies Understanding the paradoxes of technology can help us distinguish its useful functions from its dangerous risks THE CONTEXT: CONTEMPORARY TECHNOLOGY The last decades saw important changes in technologies: devices became smaller (miniaturization), more flexible and intelligent (digitalization), and more affordable and personal (democratization) Technology changed from the mechanical/chemical paradigm to the electronic/biological one Throughout most of the world until a few decades ago, a normal citizen owned few modern technological devices During the 1910s cars began the process of democratization of ownership with Henry Ford’s mass production on the assembly line After the Second World War, the “white revolution” of home appliances began, but it took decades for ownership of technological devices to become a mass phenomenon rather than an exclusive privilege Preface ix of elite classes Technologies of mass transportation and communication networks, as well as utilities and factories are owned by elites, and common citizens “rent” access to them or buy their products Nowadays these products have themselves become sophisticated technological devices incorporating a high level of advanced technology that promises more and more networking capabilities and higher levels of interdependence Their owners can now influence the technology itself due to their power as a mass able to protest and choose various configurations and options in the technologies that surround them Feedback from new more or less anonymous users can now influence the evolution of technology, as well as corporate interests, in consumer electronics, in some medical technologies, food, energy, and so on “Smartphones” may well be the paradigm of advanced and ubiquitous personal technology, a node in complex telecom and information systems, fruit of digital technologies with variable geometries of functions, values, and meanings The increasing ease of personalization of devices, especially of their interfaces with the social world, creates room for embedding more values and meanings into technical devices The public image of technology has changed a lot It may be interesting to recall here an illustration by Walter Murch (1907–1967) for a book by Stuart Chase, published in 1929, about men and machines.2 Feenberg cites and reproduces Murch’s work in chapter of this book The cover of one of Feenberg’s books (Questioning Technology, 1999) is a painting by Murch (Carburetor, 1957) In figure 0.1 below, the small man in the middle of giant mechanical gears powered by cosmic energies suggests an equivocal restlessness about the position of man in a world dominated by technology But it is obvious that the mechanical image of technology and energy represented here is outdated by contemporary paradigms Murch produced this image during his early years, when he was still an art student in New York In turn, Stuart Chase (1888–1985), the author of the book Murch illustrated, was an ambivalent technological enthusiast: on the one hand, he was a believer in technocracy (the main issue of the book Murch illustrated), and, on the other hand, he was a precursor of public policies of consumer protection opposed to false advertising and other abuses Nowadays social actors have access to the technical mediations they need to find solutions to the social pathologies associated with technologies They can inform advanced technologies with daily experiences Public acceptance of this symbiosis of user experiences with specialized technical knowledge is something new that begins to balance the previous trend for the total autonomy and dominant power of the specialist in the design of technological solutions Notes PREFACE 1. M Midgley, The Myths We Live By (New York: Routledge, 2004), 19 See also M Midgley, Science as Salvation: A Modern Myth and Its Meaning (New York: Routledge, 1992) 2. S Chase, Men and Machines, illustrations by W T Murch (1929; repr New York: The MacMillan Company, 1937) 3. A Feenberg, Transforming Technology: A Critical Theory Revisited (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), v 4. A Feenberg, Questioning Technology (New York: Routledge, 1999), ix 5. A Feenberg, Between Reason and Experience: Essays in Technology and Modernity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010) CHAPTER ONE 1. This chapter is based on a talk for the WTMC Summer School, Soeterbeeck, Holland, August 25–29, 2008 2. See The May Events Archive / Événements de mai 1968, http://edocs.lib.sfu.ca/ projects/mai68/ I also coauthored a book on the May Events containing many translated documents: Feenberg and Freedman (2001) 3. This is an argument made with particular force by Bruno Latour See, for example, Latour (1992) 4. The Center for Neurologic Study web page is located at http://www.cnsonline org An article I wrote for CNS is available at http://www.cnsonline.org/www/docs/ dublin.html 5. One of several plausible hypotheses held that ALS was caused by a slow virus, the action of which might be blocked by interferon 147 148 Notes 6. See Feenberg (1995, chap 5) 7. The WBSI website is located at: http://www.wbsi.org/wbsi/index.htm See also, Feenberg (1993, 185–97) 8. For example, Rowan (1983) 9. See Feenberg (2002, chap 5) 10. The latest version of the software is described at http://www.geof.net/code/ annotation/ 11. One can still get an idea of the Minitel system at http://www.minitel.fr 12. See, for example, Pinch and Bijker (1984) 13. See Feenberg (1995, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2010) CHAPTER TWO 1. Originally published as “Ten Paradoxes of Technology,” Technē 14, no (2010): 3–15 CHAPTER THREE 1. Originally published as “What Is Philosophy of Technology,” in Defining Technological Literacy, ed J Dakers (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 5–16 2. This short chapter can give only a hint of the richness of the field For a thorough account, see Mitcham (1994) 3. This is a summary of ideas developed in Habermas (1984) While the usual contrast of premodern dogmatism with modern reflexivity is no doubt overdrawn, this is hardly the moment to drop it entirely For a critique of this position, see Latour (1993) 4. The discussion in this section is loosely derived from Heidegger’s (1973) history of being 5. This chart is drawn from Feenberg (1999, 9) 6. For a comparison of Heidegger and Critical Theory, see Feenberg (2005) CHAPTER FOUR 1. Originally published as “Technoscience at the Fork,” in Building Bridges: Connecting Science, Technology and Philosophy, ed Henk de Regt and Chunglin Kwa (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 2014), 139–52 2. For a review of debates on this issue, see Radder (2010) CHAPTER FIVE 1. Previously published as “Technique and Agency,” in Spaces for the Future: A Companion to Philosophy of Technology, ed J Pitt and A Shew (New York: Routledge, 2017), 98–107 Notes 149 2. For examples of user agency, see Grimes and Feenberg (2012) and Hamilton and Feenberg (2012) CHAPTER SIX 1. Originally published as “Funktion och menung: Teknikens dubbla aspekter” in Fenomenologi och teknik, ed L Dahlberg and H Ruin (Stockholm: Södertörn Philosophical Studies, 2011), 161–84 2. Recent philosophical writing on function points out that it has a hermeneutic dimension To recognize a function is already an interpretive act This seems to confute the claim that modern societies are hostile to meaning But this is to confuse two different definitions of the word “meaning.” Anticipating my conclusion, I will argue that a bare minimum of meaning necessary to use a tool is always an abstraction from a broader range of connotations and connections possessed by any object in its social context The abstraction is of course a useful one, but it is not the whole story A society that attempts to restrict the understanding of meaning to the bare minimum is different from one that admits the relevance of its whole range CHAPTER SEVEN 1. Originally published as “Heidegger and Marcuse: On Reification and Concrete Philosophy,” in The Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger, ed F Raffoul and E Nelson (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013), 171–76 2. For a full account of these transformations, see Feenberg (2005) 3. Quoted in Marcuse (1964, 153–54) CHAPTER EIGHT 1. Originally published as “Beyond One-Dimensionality,” in The Great Refusal: Herbert Marcuse and Contemporary Social Movements, ed P Funke, A Lamas, and T Wolfson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2016), 229-40 2. The passivity of the experimenter to which Lukács refers is only apparent The experimenter actively constructs the observed object but, at least in Lukács’s view, is not aware of having done so and interprets the experiment as the voice of nature While Lukács does not criticize the epistemological consequences of this illusion in natural science, in the social arena it is defining for reification Lukács ([1923] 1971, 131) 3. This point needs emphasis Concepts are not necessarily sullied by their practical realization, although we may learn something about their limits from how they are realized Heidegger responded to “the call of conscience” by accepting the rectorship, but surely “conscience” is not simply a category of Nazi ideology At most, his case teaches us to mistrust conscience as a guide to action Similarly, when Heidegger denounced the “rootlessness” of modern man he was thinking of the Jews, but whether 150 Notes viewed as a “Jewish problem” or as a consequence of the mobility technology makes possible, rootlessness certainly describes an important aspect of modern experience The concepts transcend Heidegger’s interpretation of them 4. Marcuse (1964, 158, 159); emphasis in original 5. 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1965 A Peril and a Hope Cambridge, MA: MIT Press References 155 Ure, Andrew 1835 The Philosophy of Manufactures London: Charles Knight Wagner, Peter 1998 “Sociological Reflections: The Technology Question during the First Crisis of Modernity.” In The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, edited by Michael Hård and Andrew Jamison, 225–52 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Weber, Max 1958 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Translated by T Parsons New York: Scribners Winner, Langdon 1992 “Citizen Virtues in a Technological Order.” Inquiry 35 (3–4): 341–61 Wolin, Richard The Heidegger Controversy Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993 Wynne, Brian 2011 Rationality and Ritual: Participation and Exclusion in Nuclear Decision-Making London: Earthscan Zhao, Yandong, Camilo Fautz, Leonhard Hennen, Krishna Ravi Srivivas, and Qiang Li 2015 “Public Engagement in the Governance of Science and Technology.” In Science and Technology Governance and Ethics: A Global Perspective from Europe, India and China, edited by Miltos Ladikas, Sachin Chaturvedi, Yandong Zhao, and Dirk Stemerding New York: Springer Open Access Proper Name Index Adorno, 136 An Essay on Liberation, 123 Aristotle, 103, 122, 137 Bach, 13 Bacon, Francis, 58, 84 Being and Time, 117, 119, 124, 125, 132 Bijker, Wiebe, 36, 91 Borgmann, Albert, 7, 95, 105, 108–109 Brave New World, 104 Braverman, Harry, 29 Bridgman, P.W., 69, 71 Chinese Cultural Revolution, 49 Commoner, Barry, 44 Le Corbusier, 130 Critical Theory of Technology, 29, 31 Dasein, 101, 120, 124, 134 Derrida, Jacques, 14 Descartes, Rene, 58 Determinism, 59–60, 61 Digital Equipment Corporation, 110 Earth Day, 85 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, 118 Enlightenment, 55, 58, 87, 136 Escher, M.C., 50–51, 53 Facebook, 112 Fitzgerald, F Scott, 53 Fleischman, Martin, 67, 68 Foucault, Michel, 127 Franck, James, 73 Frankfurt School, 4, 16, 22, 87, 136 Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, 117 Gita, Baghavad, 45 Girard, René, 14 Godel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, 50 Goldmann, Lucien, 14, 135 Greek Philosophy, 56–58, 61, 104, 122, 127, 134, 136–137 Habermas, Jürgen, 88, 127, 130 Haraway, Donna, 20 Heidegger, Martin, 4–8, 14, 22, 24, 38, 40, 61, 62–63, 95, 101–107, 117–126, 127, 131–135, 137–138, 140–142, 145 Heideggerian theory, 136 Hegel, 85 Hegel’s Ontology and the Theory of Historicity, 117 History and Class Consciousness, 128 Hofstadter, Douglas, 50–52 157 158 Proper Name Index Horkheimer, 127, 136 Husserl, Edmund, 7, 14, 117, 128 van Kammen, Jessika, 71 Kantianism, 108 Latour, Bruno, 17, 34, 130 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 14 Love Canal, 75 Lukács, 15–17, 29, 35, 118–119, 127– 131, 133, 135–136 Lyotard, Jean-Francois, 24 Marcuse, Herbert, 8, 14, 22, 62, 89, 109, 117–126, 127, 131, 135–137, 139–142, 145 Marcel, Gabriel, 14 Marx, Karl, 35, 61, 76, 85, 97, 118, 128–131 Marxism, 15, 16, 30–32, 118, 124, 128 McCarthyism, 14 McLuhan, Marshall, 25, 61 Michelangelo, 103 Manhattan Project, 73 Mumford, Lewis, 109, 127 Murch, Walter, ix–x, 39–40 Nazism, 117–118, 133, 135, 143 New Atlantis, 84 Newton, 43–44 Noble, David, 23, 29 Olafson, Frederick, 117 One-Dimensional Man, 121, 122, 128, 133, 135–137 Oppenheimer, Robert, 45 Parsons, Talcott, 18 Plato, 24, 34, 57 Pons, Stanley, 67, 68 Questioning Technology, ix, xi, 40 Rip, Arie, 91 Russia, 118 Saint-Just, Louis Antoine de, 52 Schmitt, Carl, 118 Sharp, Lauriston, 100 Simmel, Georg, 128 Simondon, Gilbert, 5, 30 Simpson, Lorenzo, 95, 105–107 Smith, Richard, 17 Szilard, Leo, 73 Transforming Technology, xi Ure, Andrew, 32 Weber, Max, 87–89, 97, 127–129, 133 World War I, 118 World War II, 13, 73, 77, 85, 92, 134 Concept Index Acute Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), 19, 21, 31, 75, 86, 143 Agency, 81–81, 84 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), 17, 19 American New Left, 85 Artificial Intelligence, 25 Australian Aboriginal Community, 100 Authenticity, 124–125 Automation, 24 Autonomous market rationality, 98 Autonomy, 35, 69 Computer Aided Instruction (CAI), 25 Capitalist enterprise, 45 Citizen intervention, 88, 92 Co-construction of technology & society, 50–51 Communicative rationality, 88 Computer hacking, 110–111 Concretization, 30 Constructivist technology studies, 91 Critical theory of technology, 62–64 Cultural assumptions, 98 De-differentiation, 77, 144 Democratic intervention, 17, 20, 21, 26, 28, 63, 69, 73, 78, 89–90 Democratization of technological society, 29 Dialogic pedagogy, 23 Differentiation, 76, 97, 99–100, 133 Direction Générale des Télécommunications (DGT), 26–27 Dystopia, 14, 85, 95 Enframing, 104, 124, 134 Environmentalism, 31, 75, 85, 142–144 Epistemē, 57 Essence, 56–57, 58, 102, 137, 144 Europe, 88 Existentialism, 118–119, 124 Experimental Medicine, 18 Exploitation of nature, 59 Formal bias, 30, 36 Functionality, 132 Heideggerian concept of things, 109 History of technical objects, 42–43 Holocaust, 118 Illusion of technology, 44–45, 52 Instant Messaging, 27, 28 Instrumentalism, 60, 113, 122 Instrumental rationality, 87 159 160 Concept Index Janus face, 130 Kantian reflective judgment, 108 Marx’s critique of capitalism, 31, 128, 135 May Events of 1968, 14–15, 16, 85 Mechanization, 33 Medical ethics, 21, 142–143 Micropolitical activism, 90 Minitel, 26–29, 31, 110 Modernity, 55, 92, 98, 127 Nature of technology, 47, 78 New Left, 125, 128 Newtonian law, 44 One-dimensionality, 106 Online communication, 26 Online education, 22–24 Online group communication, 111 Participant interests, 20–21, 35, 92 Patient’s rights, 18 Poiēsis, 56–57 Political, 81 Public sphere, 86 Quantification, 127 Rationality, 15, 35, 55 Reification, 15, 29, 119, 128, 129–130, 131 Rationalization, 28, 87 Reciprocities of technical action, 44 Relation of worker to machine, 15 Science and Technology Studies (STS), 16, 28, 30, 34–35, 68, 78 Science-society relationship, 72 Scientific rationality, 19, 55 Substantivism, 61 Technē, 56–57, 61, 122, 127, 137, 139 Technical citizenship, 82 Technical code, 21, 35, 90, 91 Technical knowledge, 48 Technical politics, 22, 83 Technocratic ideology, 85, 87 Technocratic paternalism, 73–74 Technological determinism, 60–61 Technological efficiency, Technological Rationality (Marcuse), 136, 139 Technoscience, 68 Telos of technology, 122 Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident, 75 Underdetermination, 36 Value freedom, neutrality, 99, 138–139 Values, 49 Weberian approach, 97 Western Behavioral Science Institute (WBSI), 22, 23, 25 Western Philosophy, 56, 58 Working class potential, 16 ... Jared Bly Metaphors of Invention and Dissension by Rajeshwari S Vallury Technology, Modernity, and Democracy Essays by Andrew Feenberg Edited by Eduardo Beira and Andrew Feenberg London • New York... Technoscience and Democracy 67 5 Agency and Citizenship in a Technological Society 81 6 Function and Meaning: The Double Aspects of Technology 95 PART III: HEIDEGGER AND MARCUSE 7 Heidegger and Marcuse:... 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706, USA With additional offices in Boulder, New York, Toronto (Canada), and Plymouth (UK) www.rowman.com Selection and editorial matter © Eduardo Beira and Andrew Feenberg,