MIDDLE CLASSES IN AFRICA Changing Lives and Conceptual Challenges Edited by LENA KROEKER, DAVID O’KANE AND TABEA SCHARRER Frontiers of Globalization Series editor Jan Nederveen Pieterse University of California Santa Barbara, California, USA With the onset of the twenty-first century, key components of the architecture of twentieth-century globalization have been crumbling American hegemony has weakened politically and economically Laissez-faire capitalism that shaped the neoliberal globalization has proved to be crisis- prone and is giving way to a plurality of ways of organizing and regulating capitalism With the rise of emerging societies the driving forces of the world economy are shifting not merely geographically but structurally; industrializing societies, rather than post-industrial consumer societies, are again propelling the world economy These changes involve major breaks: an era of multipolarity; the affirmation of the plurality of capitalisms; the emergence of new modernities; and the new patterns of East- South and South-South relations, in contrast to the North-South relations These changes unfold on a global scale and cannot be properly understood on a national, regional or even international basis They represent major trends breaks, although actual changes may well take shape through a thousand small steps Understanding these changes requires interdisciplinary and kaleidoscopic approaches that range from global political economy to cultural transformations The series welcomes contributions to global studies that are innovative in topic, approach or theoretical framework Amid the fin-de-regime of the millenium, with globalization in the throes of dramatic changes, the series will cater to the growing interest in educational and study material on contemporary globalization and its ramifications Proposals can be submitted by mail to the series editor: Jan Nederveen Pieterse, Mellichamp Professor of Global Studies and Sociology, Global& International Studies Program, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-7065, USA More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14992 Lena Kroeker • David O’Kane Tabea Scharrer Editors Middle Classes in Africa Changing Lives and Conceptual Challenges Editors Lena Kroeker Bayreuth Academy of Advanced African Studies Bayreuth, Germany David O’Kane Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology Halle, Germany Tabea Scharrer Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology Halle, Germany Frontiers of Globalization ISBN 978-3-319-62147-0 ISBN 978-3-319-62148-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62148-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017952956 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover illustration: © iStockphoto.com Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements This book would not exist without the help and assistance of many people to whom the editors are very grateful The first, and biggest, debt of gratitude goes to the many African people who acted as interview partners to the various empirical investigations which form the basis of several of the chapters in this volume The second debt is to the various participants in the debate over the question of middle classes in Africa, who made this volume both necessary and possible We thank also our contributors, without whom the book would not exist Among the contributors, we particularly thank Dr Florian Stoll for his participation in the early stages of the project Prof James Carrier provided us with invaluable advice, and we thank him very much as well We also gratefully acknowledge the comments by Prof Henning Melber and Prof Roger Southall, as well as those by the anonymous reviewers of our book proposal, whose encouragement and advice proved very helpful to the editorial process At Palgrave, the help of various editorial staff was invaluable At the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, we thank our colleagues in general, and Prof Günther Schlee in particular At the University of Bayreuth, we thank our colleagues at the Bayreuth Academy of Advanced African Studies, namely Prof Dr Erdmute Alber and Prof Dr Dieter Neubert Jennifer Cash and Elisa Herrmann assisted ably in the editing process of this book, and we are very grateful for their assistance in the project v Contents 1 Introduction: Africa’s Middle Classes in Critical Perspective 1 Tabea Scharrer, David O’Kane, and Lena Kroeker Part I Rethinking Concepts of Middle Classes in Africa 33 2 Turning the Poor into Something more Inspiring: The Creation of the African Middle Class Controversy 35 Dominique Darbon 3 The Narrative of ‘the African Middle Class’ and Its Conceptual Limitations 57 Dieter Neubert and Florian Stoll 4 Anthropology and Class in Africa: Challenges of the Past and Present 81 David O’Kane and Tabea Scharrer vii viii Contents Part II The Recurring Rise and Return of Middle Classes in Africa 107 5 The Ghanaian Middle Class, Social Stratification, and Long-Term Dynamics of Upward and Downward Mobility of Lawyers and Teachers109 Jan Budniok and Andrea Noll 6 The Nubians of Kibera ‘Revisited’: Detribalized Natives, Slum Dwellers, Middle Class?135 Johanna Sarre 7 Saving and Serving the Nation: HIV Politics and the Emergence of New Professional Classes in Botswana157 Astrid Bochow Part III The Political Consequences of the Middle Classes 177 8 Propertied Citizenship in a Township and Suburb in Johannesburg179 Barbara Heer 9 Thinking Sierra Leone and Building a New Middle Class: Political Expression and Political Values at the University of Makeni203 David O’Kane 10 African Middle Classes: Formation and Destabilizing Effects223 Jason Musyoka Contents Part IV Formation of Social Interconnections and Interdependencies ix 247 11 Pathways into the Middle: Rites of Passage and Emerging Middle Classes in Namibia249 Julia Pauli 12 Middle-Class Approaches to Social Security in Kenya273 Lena Kroeker 13 Middle Classes and ‘Moderate Prosperity’ in Rural Madagascar293 Tsiry Andrianampiarivo 14 Afterword The (Idea of ) African Middle Classes: Theorizing from Africa311 Rachel Spronk References327 Index365 List of Figures Photograph 6.1 Nubians in Kenya in the 1930s/1940s Fig 10.1 Middle classes in the vertical middle Source: Musyoka (2016) Fig 10.2 Middle classes in the horizontal middle Source: Musyoka (2016) Photograph 11.1 A symbolic key as a 21st birthday gift (Copyright Julia Pauli, 2004) 146 240 240 255 xi 362 References Tuden, A., and L. 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Solga, J. Powell, and P.A. Berger, 85–110 Frankfurt/M.: Campus Yates, D.A 1996 The Rentier State in Africa Trenton: Africa World Press Zacher, H.F 1988 Traditional Solidarity and Modern Social Security: Harmony or Conflict? In Between Kinship and the State: Social Security and Law in Developing Countries, ed F. Benda- Beckmann, K. Benda-Beckmann, E.S. Casino, F. Hirtz, G.R. Woodman, and H.F. Zacher, 21–38 Dordrecht: Foris Publications Zvobgo, C.J.M 1981 African Education in Zimbabwe: The Colonial Inheritance of the New State, 1899–1979 Issue A Journal of Opinion 11 (3/4): 13–16 Index1 A Accumulation, 13, 40, 44, 51, 89, 93, 231, 300, 303, 305–307 African Development Bank (AfDB), 4, 37, 41, 44, 59, 61, 62, 235, 306, 312, 317 Agency, 196, 320, 321 Agriculture, 118, 145, 189, 228, 299 Agriculture based economy, 10, 42, 300 Aid industry, 36, 44, 46–48 See also International aid Algeria, 5, 45, 238 Angola, 231, 238 Apartheid, 22, 66, 88, 180, 182–189, 191–193, 197n1, 197n4, 230, 251–253, 266n3 post-apartheid, 180, 184 Appiah, Kwame A., 313 Arab Spring, 12, 63 Aspirations, 8, 15, 22, 36, 58, 62, 87, 115, 116, 118, 120, 139, 154, 180, 213, 298, 300, 304–306, 316, 320, 321 Associations, 91, 116, 155n9, 165, 187, 197n2 neighborhood associations, 190, 194, 197n2 Savings and Commerce Cooperative (SACCO), 285 B Banerjee, Abhijit, 5, 13, 14, 59, 61 Baptism, see Life-cycle rituals Beck, Ulrich, 127, 131n5 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes 1 © The Author(s) 2018 L Kroeker et al (eds.), Middle Classes in Africa, Frontiers of Globalization, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62148-7 365 366 Index Benda-Beckmann, F and K v., 276, 278, 279, 287, 289n4 Biographies, 110, 159, 163, 167, 322 biographical interviews, 71, 112 biographies of social mobility, 110, 121, 275, 276, 287, 288, 318 life histories, 160, 197n5 Birdsall, Nancy, 62 Boltanski, Luc, 161, 171 Botswana, 4, 7, 131n6, 158–171, 172n5, 172n10, 239, 250, 322 Bottom of the Pyramid (BoP), 46, 47 Boundaries, 166, 256, 261, 263, 264, 278 boundary making, 24, 99–101, 113, 116, 129, 131n10, 146, 163, 170, 171, 181, 193–195, 266n1, 320 social boundaries, 87, 121, 259, 263, 265 symbolic boundaries, 259, 261, 265, 316 Bourdieu, Pierre, 8, 66, 67, 69, 98, 101, 113, 261, 295, 320 capital, 50, 51, 67, 113, 115, 118, 123, 130, 139, 153, 186, 210, 298, 299, 305, 320 Bourgeoisie, 63–66, 82, 95, 184, 194, 229, 233, 242n7, 264, 316 Burkina Faso, 238 Burundi, 84, 238 C Capitalism, 13, 64, 65, 83, 96, 97, 226, 231, 251, 312 Care, 7, 25n7, 126, 162, 169–171, 275, 278 Cattle, 172n6, 193 See also Livestock; Pastoralism Chad, 238 Charity, 276, 277, 290n14 See also Distribution of wealth Chiefs, 114, 121, 122, 162, 230, 231, 236 China, 52n3, 237, 294, 297 Christianity, 19, 71, 118, 122, 140, 162, 163, 167, 168, 208, 219n3, 230, 285, 314, 323 Methodism, 117 Pentecostalism, 286 Presbyterianism, 122 Protestantism, 254 Roman Catholicism, 125, 206, 209, 217 See also Religion Citizenship, 138, 151, 160, 191–195 propertied citizenship, 181, 182, 194–196 Civil society, 71, 114, 122, 165–167, 186, 187, 209, 210, 226, 227, 232, 233, 322 See also Social movements Civil war, 98, 150, 205–207, 209, 214, 216, 220n11, 239 Class conflict, 39, 40, 64, 233 Class consciousness, 63, 64, 87, 93, 113, 147 See also Middle class, self-identification Class formation, 4, 63, 82, 87, 91, 95, 97, 98, 130n3, 226, 231, 237, 254, 257, 300, 318 Colonialism, 18, 20, 23, 82, 86–89, 110, 136–138, 140, 143, Index 147, 149, 151, 162, 208, 219n4, 224, 225, 227–232, 241, 314, 319 Comaroff, Jean and John, 162, 323 Comparability, 6, 46 Consumerism, conspicuous consumption, 7, 10, 13, 20–22, 58, 63, 69, 100, 111, 114, 117, 120, 126, 129, 131n8, 226, 235–237, 241, 250, 254, 261, 274, 281, 284, 288, 303, 321 Consumption, 5, 6, 21, 38, 42, 44, 46, 59, 72, 111, 125, 127, 163, 235, 241, 304, 306, 307, 316, 320 Credit, 47, 192, 211, 237, 306 See also Debt Cross-cutting ties, 68, 93 D Debt, 12, 22, 98, 191 See also Credit Decolonization, 87–89, 91, 94, 140, 151, 153, 208, 224, 227, 232, 233 Democracy, 10–15, 50, 58, 62, 63, 71, 73, 159, 170, 204, 205, 214–216, 218, 224, 226, 233, 238, 316, 321 democratization, 11, 40, 46, 204, 209, 237, 238 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 131n9, 230, 238 Demographic change, 17, 19, 43, 164, 165 Development, 15, 25n2, 40, 46, 49, 58, 59, 71, 88, 92, 119, 367 137, 159, 187, 190, 192, 195–197, 204, 206–208, 211–213, 215, 217, 233–235, 277, 283, 296, 297, 304–307, 316, 319, 321, 323 sustainable development, 193 Differentiation, 8, 74n7, 98–101, 137, 139, 153, 161, 164, 168–170, 172n8, 181, 182, 184, 191, 196, 250, 251, 282, 314 cultural, 69 (see also Distinction) socio-economic, 15, 16, 86, 126 Distinction, 9, 10, 14, 85, 86, 98, 113, 139, 147, 153, 205, 213, 250, 252, 256, 258–260, 263, 282, 298, 299, 316, 320, 321 Distribution of wealth, 20, 40, 89, 93, 159, 171, 196, 238, 240, 297 Diversification, 140, 296, 301, 313 economic, 95, 120 of income (see Income) Duflo, Esther, 5, 13, 14, 59, 61 E Easterly, William, 47, 60, 294 Economic decline, 123, 124, 205, 209 Economic growth, 2, 4, 5, 11, 13, 25n2, 37, 40, 47, 59, 62, 65, 110, 111, 126, 128, 162, 188, 224, 234, 238, 242n9 368 Index Economic structure, 39, 40, 45, 65, 158, 305 transformation, 48, 161, 167, 234, 315, 322 Education, 7, 12, 18–21, 25n6, 51, 59, 62, 63, 86–88, 98, 110–129, 137, 150–152, 160, 184, 186, 204–218, 230–232, 258, 262, 276, 282, 284, 296, 299, 305, 318–320 abroad, 115, 122, 127, 164, 232 higher education, 12, 58, 88, 111, 127, 189, 207, 220n10 investment in, 51, 62, 71, 73, 94, 124, 159, 163, 211 level of education, 8, 21, 38, 40, 49, 62, 301 and social mobility, 62, 87, 115, 118, 120, 123, 124, 128, 137, 159, 162, 276, 277, 318, 319 Egypt, 11, 45, 238 Elites, 8, 10, 11, 49, 51, 58, 86–88, 94, 96, 98, 100, 112–114, 121, 131n7, 137, 151, 159, 172n8, 219n4, 226, 228–231, 234, 236, 241, 242n3, 242n4, 251–254, 256, 257, 260, 264, 278, 286, 316 old, 87, 113, 115, 118, 121, 162 political, 16, 129, 162, 279 trading, 86, 114, 115 Emerging markets, 5, 36, 40 Employment, 12, 14, 49, 58, 62, 71, 73, 87, 116, 119, 127, 136, 147, 151, 161, 162, 167–169, 184–186, 188, 189, 191, 207, 230, 299 See also Occupation Entanglement, 9, 24, 196, 233, 239–241, 242n10, 254 Entrepreneurialism, 10, 12, 13, 58, 66, 73, 118, 121, 122, 145, 158, 185, 186, 189, 191, 207, 216, 219n3, 230, 302, 305, 306, 316, 317 Eritrea, 238 Ethiopia, 39, 51, 84, 238 Ethnicity, 21, 23, 24, 25n4, 68, 71, 72, 83, 86–89, 91, 93, 94, 99, 100, 137–139, 141, 142, 144, 150, 151, 153, 162, 184, 188, 208, 212, 216, 233, 235, 278, 279, 316 Europe, 8, 11, 13, 16, 23, 36, 39, 61, 63, 64, 68, 84, 96, 114, 158, 188, 277, 313, 315, 323 Extractive industry, 16, 121 See also Mining industry F Falola, Toyin, 314 Family, 8, 17, 18, 21, 51, 70–72, 112, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 126, 130, 145, 152, 153, 158, 159, 162–164, 167, 170, 171, 186–188, 192, 230, 256, 257, 259–261, 277–279, 281–285, 287, 288, 303, 305, 316, 319 Index 369 extended, 17, 18, 20, 23, 123, 126, 129, 164, 169, 189 nuclear, 17, 20, 71 structure, 212 Farming, 20, 73, 86, 116–118, 121, 127, 146, 147, 172n6, 184, 188, 193, 209, 230, 283, 297, 301, 302, 304–306 cash-crop farming, 296, 299, 301, 304 polyculture farming, 299, 301 small-scale farming, 283 Feminist movement, 165 Floating class, 7, 37, 41–46, 50, 52n3, 52n4, 61, 237 See also Middle class Foreign investment, 16, 167, 236 Funeral, see Life-cycle rituals 172n9, 215, 216, 224, 238, 252, 318, 319 Global South, 14, 59, 73, 100 Globalization, 21, 23, 86, 115, 238 Goldthorpe, John Harry, 8, 15, 224, 228 Governments, 117, 119, 120, 122, 128, 146, 148–152, 159, 162–170, 187–192, 195, 204, 232, 233, 247, 253, 264, 277, 279, 296, 319 expenditure, 98, 124, 163 politics, 110, 120, 158, 182, 187, 237 Gramsci, Antonio, 158 Guinea, 45 Guinea-Bissau, 231 G H Gabon, 4, 15 GDP, 5, 44, 47, 49, 163, 234, 238 Geiger, Theodor, 67 Gender, 21, 62, 68, 71, 89, 100, 128, 162, 165, 212, 213, 265, 276 housewife, 265 Generation, 20, 68, 88, 94, 110–112, 118, 121–124, 126, 128, 150, 163, 164, 191, 207, 216, 230, 240, 280–282, 287, 319 cohort, 40 intergenerational, 51, 189 German sociology, 8, 59, 67 Ghana, 4, 39, 44, 45, 51, 84, 86, 94, 110–114, 121–125, 127, 128, 130n1, 131n9, 158, Harambee, 278 Healthcare, 59, 98, 124, 150, 159, 162–164, 166, 169, 296 Historical trajectories, 21, 23, 39, 40, 66, 70, 82, 83, 95, 97, 100, 110, 136, 137, 139, 141, 153, 161, 171, 184, 191, 207, 211, 212, 216, 224, 226, 265, 294 HIV/AIDS, 159–161, 164–170, 210, 256, 264, 289n12 Housing, 21, 62, 114, 117, 128, 136, 145, 148, 150, 163, 180, 184, 188, 189, 192, 228, 278, 283, 307 public, 182, 190, 192 370 Index I Income, 3–7, 10, 14, 15, 22, 38, 40–45, 49–51, 58, 60–63, 65, 67–69, 71–73, 74n4, 111–114, 121–123, 127–129, 137, 158, 163, 171n2, 184, 188, 235, 237, 240, 277, 278, 280, 283–285, 294–299, 301, 302, 316–319 disposable, 20, 44, 110, 241, 303, 318 distribution, 7, 40, 60, 297, 318 diversification, 126, 146, 149, 150, 152, 168, 296, 305, 306 national income, per capita/household, 4, 6, 52n1, 297, 299 source of, 15, 17, 18, 42, 136, 147, 151–153, 196, 274, 299, 301, 305, 306 stable, 17, 18, 116, 167, 186, 196, 237, 281 Independence, see Decolonization India, 14, 47, 84, 250, 276 Industrialization, 17, 63, 88, 91, 92, 120, 229, 230, 277 See also Post-industrial economy Inequality, 44, 60, 64, 82, 86, 93, 98, 100, 124, 161, 165, 171, 180, 191, 193, 216, 238, 242n9, 251, 266, 295, 298, 299, 304, 312, 313 Informal settlements, 150 See also Slum; Urban space Informality, 23, 50, 153, 181, 185, 186 Insurance, 172n10, 285, 286, 288, 289n3 See also Social security International aid, 50, 58, 160, 166, 170, 212 See also Aid industry International migration, 114, 121, 130n3, 188, 216, 232 International organizations, 37, 46, 47, 58, 160, 168, 277, 289n6 Investment, 7, 47, 72, 126, 127, 190, 241 investment in the future, 9, 51 See also Foreign investment Islam, 12, 141, 142, 147, 151, 153, 208, 211, 219n7, 219n8, 289n14, 318 Ivory Coast, 4, 45 K Kenya, 4, 5, 14, 19, 25n1, 25n4, 45, 60, 68, 69, 136–140, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153, 206, 231–234, 236, 238, 274, 277, 297, 317–319 Kinship, see Family Kuznets, Simon Smith, 242n9 L Lachenmann, Gudrun, 279, 281, 289n11 Lamont, Michèle, 131n10, 251, 252, 258, 259, 264 Land, 136, 141, 145, 147–150, 152, 153, 172n5, 172n6, 253, Index 285, 295, 299, 301, 304–306, 321 ownership, 84, 88, 93, 136–138, 140, 144, 148, 150–153, 184, 187, 189, 191, 301, 302 reform, 187, 302 rights, 191, 195 tenure, 84, 299, 302, 306, 317, 318 Latin America, 23, 42, 47, 67, 82 Leisure, 8, 69, 70, 72, 121, 125, 194, 230, 320 Lentz, Carola, 58, 87, 88, 113, 225, 226, 317 Leys, Colin, 231–233 Liberia, 238 Libya, 238 Liechty, Mark, 137 Life-cycle rituals, 254 baptism, 254, 256, 265 birth(day), 255, 257 funeral, 254, 256, 262, 265, 281 initiation, 250, 256 wedding, 251, 254, 256, 258, 260–265, 266n2 Lifestyle, 6, 8, 9, 17, 18, 20–23, 36, 38, 45, 49, 59, 62, 63, 66–70, 73, 87, 90, 93, 98, 100, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 119, 121, 124, 125, 137, 139, 142, 145, 147, 151, 153, 162, 163, 180–182, 186, 189–191, 193, 230, 235, 237, 250, 316, 317, 319, 320 Livelihood strategies, 192, 295, 298, 302, 303, 307, 318, 319 371 See also Income Livestock, 7, 253, 299, 301 See also Cattle Living standard, 186, 303 Lloyd, Peter, 87, 101n1, 112, 113, 119, 120 Lower class, 44, 128, 129, 240, 253, 274, 287 See also Poverty M Madagascar, 294, 295, 307, 310 Manufacturing, 16, 25n5, 42, 116, 120, 189, 229, 232 Market, 11, 226, 304, 305, 307 consumer market, 46, 49, 237 economy, 13, 62, 63, 215, 216, 226, 297, 304 Marx, Karl, 8, 59, 64–67, 69, 72, 90, 95, 98, 158, 191, 226, 241, 295, 320 Marxist approaches, 65, 66, 95, 139, 161, 226 Mbembe, Achille, 313, 323 Media, 158, 166, 204, 210, 211, 226, 235 Melber, Henning, 7, 13, 39, 63, 251, 253, 294, 306, 312, 317 Methodology, 6, 101, 111, 112, 159, 181, 182, 295, 306, 315 Middle class, 7, 21, 37, 42, 60, 61, 225, 315 definition, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 38, 39, 44, 45, 59, 60, 62, 67, 72, 113, 131n7, 137, 182, 225, 267n4, 274, 294–297, 299, 300, 306, 312, 319 372 Index Middle class (cont.) imprecise category, 7, 9, 37, 318, 319 quantitative, 10, 21, 42, 60, 61, 225 formation, 4, 23, 36, 63, 86, 89, 95, 98, 100, 110, 114–119, 161, 206, 207, 209, 210, 215, 224, 226, 228, 229, 237, 245, 254, 257, 316, 318 global middle class, 5, 8, 36, 37, 39, 49, 52n1, 60–64, 72, 120, 170, 182, 266n2, 297 middle classes and the state, 2, 11, 15, 25n4, 38, 51, 115, 119, 120, 127, 136–138, 148–151, 158–160, 170, 171, 180, 188, 233, 234, 237 middle-class narrative, 39, 43, 45, 58, 59, 63, 71–73, 79, 164, 228 middle-classness, 3, 6, 9, 23, 139, 147, 154, 181, 182, 320, 322 muddle class, 8, 38 old middle classes, 121, 276, 278, 280, 281, 288, 318 self-identification, 9, 22, 24, 38, 39, 45, 62, 98, 114, 137, 139, 146, 153, 181, 182, 193, 195 Middle-income countries, 36, 50, 158, 171n2, 215 Milieu, 41, 59, 68, 69, 71, 73, 181–183, 186–188, 191, 192, 195, 196 Mining industry, 90, 116, 117, 120, 158, 167, 168, 188 See also Extractive industry Moderate prosperity (Xiaokang), 45, 59, 127, 294, 297, 298, 300, 316 Modernity, 17, 19, 21, 74n6, 92, 95, 120, 147, 250, 314 Modernization theory, 17, 20, 87, 277, 278 Morocco, 45 Mozambique, 231 Mudimbe, Valentin-Yves, 313 Multinational corporations, 167, 206, 207, 211 N Namibia, 7, 158, 193, 239, 250, 272 Neoliberalism, 98, 100, 126, 193, 206, 217, 226, 251, 318 Ngcobo, Selby Bangani, 229 NGOs, 16, 46, 71, 160, 161, 165, 167, 204, 296, 322 NGO-ization, 168, 170 Niger, 39, 45 Nigeria, 45, 85, 121, 212, 231, 236, 238 Nkrumah, Kwame, 94, 120, 122 North America, 11, 13, 39, 63, 89, 276, 282, 320 O Occupation, 20, 66, 91, 98, 111, 113, 116, 124, 129, 138, 147, 153, 167, 170, 186, Index 189, 197n6, 252, 262, 299, 305, 317, 318, 323 artisans, 117, 118, 121, 228, 230 clergy, 115–117, 121, 160, 208 doctors, 116, 118, 121, 127, 159, 160, 208, 286 farmers (see Farming) lawyers, 110, 111, 113, 116–118, 121–123, 127–129, 159, 207, 232 management positions, 117, 160, 207, 219n4, 286 military, 87, 116, 136, 138, 140, 143, 145, 147 public sector employment, 50, 58, 66, 87, 95, 98, 113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 122–125, 127, 146, 147, 158–160, 162, 167, 208, 227, 232, 234, 282, 284, 302, 319 renting property, 136, 153, 181, 185, 191, 196 teachers, 110, 111, 113, 115–119, 121, 124, 125, 127–129, 159, 208, 230, 232, 286, 302 traders, 116, 118, 121, 145, 158, 230, 233 P Pan-Africanism, 314 Pastoralism, 86, 253 See also Cattle; Livestock Patronage, 136–138, 141, 143, 145, 147, 153, 205 Pension, 148 373 See also Social security Political preferences, 8, 10–13, 21, 45, 51, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 68, 70, 73, 87, 120, 159, 162, 164, 170, 181, 187, 192–194, 196, 204, 208, 209, 211–214, 216–218, 224, 234, 241 Post-industrial economy, 16, 19, 25n5 Poverty, 36, 37, 42, 43, 46, 50, 58, 127, 128, 139, 150, 165, 166, 181, 182, 184, 187, 208, 212, 235, 239, 241, 307, 316 See also Lower class Prestige, 20, 83, 90, 91, 96, 121, 128, 139, 230, 320 See also Status Privatization, 126, 190 Property, 11, 181, 194, 301 landlord–tenant relationship, 136, 149, 185 ownership, 18, 93, 114, 145, 181–192, 194–197, 197n5, 299, 317, 318, 321 rental property, 136, 141, 152, 181, 184, 188 rights, 13, 136, 148, 180, 182, 185, 187 Prosperity, 47, 207, 215, 286, 290n15 See also Moderate prosperity (Xiaokang) Purchasing power, 5, 22, 40, 41, 50, 58, 60, 63, 119, 123 374 Index R Race, 25n4, 83, 89, 91, 92, 100, 136, 139, 143, 144, 153, 180, 185, 188, 193, 197n1, 231, 313, 314, 321 Religion, 24, 65, 71, 72, 89–93, 100, 147, 148, 153, 210, 211, 217, 226, 229, 230, 294, 295, 297, 298, 316 Rose, Nikolas, 158 Rural areas, 17, 20, 140, 163–165, 169, 184, 230, 253, 280, 294–296, 298–300, 304, 307, 318 Rwanda, 84, 93, 236, 238 S Savings, 6, 49, 318 Sen, Amartya, 73 Senegal, 230 Shivji, Issa, 95, 233 Sierra Leone, 86, 88, 95, 98, 204, 206–209, 222, 238 Slum, 136–154 See also Urban space Social mobility, 9, 11, 38, 44, 85, 92, 111, 129, 137, 151, 227, 229, 240, 275, 276, 303, 315, 318, 319 downward, 43, 44, 98, 110, 111, 123, 126, 139, 274, 275, 277, 283–285, 288 fear of, 11, 240, 303 fahrstuhleffekt (elevator effect), 124, 127, 129, 131n5 upward, 8, 43, 44, 50, 59, 62, 110, 111, 118, 137, 180, 189, 298, 307, 316, 320, 321 Social movements, 12, 63, 227 See also Civil society Social permeability, 276 Social security, 14, 17, 25n7, 43, 50, 58, 73, 129, 162, 166, 169, 183, 240, 264, 274, 275, 277–279, 281, 283–287, 289n4, 289n6, 292, 303, 317 Social structure, 2, 9, 18, 20, 38, 41, 48, 51, 63, 64, 72, 74, 74n7, 82, 87, 92, 110, 112, 124, 141, 230, 295 pre-colonial, 23, 68, 83, 84, 86, 89, 93, 94, 162 Solidarity, 17, 275, 277, 278, 281, 303–305 Somalia, 85, 238 Sorokin, Pitirim, 276 South Africa, 4, 12, 14, 22, 25n3, 25n4, 39, 45, 51, 52n2, 63, 66, 68, 88, 90, 92, 166, 172n6, 180, 184, 188, 192–196, 197n6, 197n7, 227, 229, 230, 236–238, 242n4, 250–252, 256, 258, 267n11, 321 South Sudan, 238 Southall, Roger, 7, 15, 39, 63, 66, 185, 197n7, 226, 227, 237 State, 11, 12, 14, 15, 25n7, 88, 114, 119, 138, 142, 151, 158–160, 162, 172n5, 185, 188, 190, 226, 228, 230, 232–241, 276–280, 289n7 lion, middle class policies, 45, 95 Index post-colonial, 19, 86, 137, 162, 233, 241 rentier state, 15, 16 services, 16, 58, 98, 124, 126, 150, 158–160 Status, 7–9, 45, 51, 66, 67, 86, 89, 90, 99, 110, 111, 115, 118, 121, 122, 128–130, 137, 139, 143, 144, 146, 154, 161, 169–171, 182, 196, 209, 235, 237, 241, 252–254, 262, 264, 266, 275, 276, 278, 280, 284, 305, 307, 316, 318, 320, 321 marker/symbols, 130, 147, 162, 181, 182, 194, 262 socio-economic, 18, 20, 64, 303 status group, 65, 139, 142, 161, 241 Stigmatization, 259 Stratification, 64–66, 69, 83–91, 99–101, 110–130, 137, 139, 161, 229, 252, 253, 298, 313, 318, 320, 322 Stratum, 22, 38, 49, 50, 59, 62, 67, 69, 70, 87, 93, 140 Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), 19, 22, 98, 111, 123, 124, 139, 206 Subsistence production, 96, 146, 298, 305 Sudan, 86 Sustainability, 224, 316 T Tanzania, 131n9, 232, 233, 236, 289n7 Theory from the South, 24, 323 375 Tunisia, 45, 51, 238 U Uganda, 84, 236 Uncertainty, see Volatility University, 218, 220n10 private, 128, 204–211, 215 public, 114, 122, 159, 163, 168, 205, 218, 290n17 Upper class, 44, 49, 66, 87, 115, 120, 128, 129, 189, 240 Urban space, 17, 119, 140, 181, 190, 303, 318 marginal areas, 18, 136, 138, 149, 150, 152, 184, 197n2 neighbourhood, 181, 194 renewal, 182, 183, 185, 187 segregation, 18, 140, 144, 182, 185, 188, 193 suburb, 136, 180, 185, 188, 190, 192, 197n2 Urbanization, 17, 18, 20, 22, 40, 46, 49, 59, 63, 90, 116, 277 Urban-rural ties, 18, 21, 23, 63, 70, 72, 91, 96, 117, 251 V Values, 10, 62, 63, 65–72, 100, 113, 181, 204–207, 209, 212, 213, 217, 218, 250, 257 Veblen, Thorstein, 131n8, 194, 261 Volatility, 23, 43, 91, 100, 153, 154, 232 Vulnerability, 15, 42, 43, 45, 50, 51, 187, 274, 294, 297, 301–304, 306 376 Index W Wage labour, see Employment Warner, Lloyd, 90, 101 Weber, Max, 8, 13, 59, 64–67, 69, 70, 72, 90, 113, 137, 139, 197n6, 295, 320 Wedding, see Life-cycle rituals Welfare system, 17, 120, 189, 197n8, 247, 264, 274 See also Social security Werbner, Richard, 159, 162 White collar (worker), 58, 66, 91, 113, 116, 119, 125, 145, 152, 186, 188, 230, 253, 276, 277 See also Occupation Wright, Erik Olin, 65, 66 Z Zambia, 88–90, 238, 239 Zimbabwe, 238 Rhodesia, 25n6 ... rather a plurality of middle classes The four sections of this volume (‘Rethinking Concepts of Middle Classes in Africa , ‘the Recurring Rise and Return of Middle Classes in Africa , ‘The Political... starting point to reflect on the state of the middle classes in Africa We believe, first of all, that African middle classes exist, and that these classes have emerged out of various sorts of economic... in Africa 33 2 Turning the Poor into Something more Inspiring: The Creation of the African Middle Class Controversy 35 Dominique Darbon 3 The Narrative of ‘the African Middle Class’ and Its