Development challenges in bhutan perspectives on inequality and gross national happiness (contemporary south asian studies)

Contemporary South Asian Studies Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt Editor Development Challenges in Bhutan Perspectives on Inequality and Gross National Happiness www.ebook3000.com Contemporary South Asian Studies Series editor Paulo Casaca Brussels, Belgium This book series features scientific and scholarly studies focusing on politics, economics and changing societies in South Asia Utilizing recent theoretical and empirical advances, this series aims at providing a critical and in-depth analysis of contemporary affairs and future developments and challenges in the region Relevant topics include, but are not limited to, democratization processes, human rights concerns, security issues, terrorism, EU-South Asia relations, regional and economic cooperation and questions related to the use of natural resources Contemporary South Asian Studies (CSAS) welcomes monographs and edited volumes from a variety of disciplines and approaches, such as political and social sciences, economics and cultural studies, which are accessible to both academics and interested general readers The series is published on behalf of the South Asian Democratic Forum (Brussels), which is one of the most well-known think tanks in Europe focusing on South Asia More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15344 www.ebook3000.com Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt Editor Development Challenges in Bhutan Perspectives on Inequality and Gross National Happiness Editor Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt Department of Political Science Aalborg University Aalborg, Denmark ISSN 2509-4173 ISSN 2509-4181 (electronic) Contemporary South Asian Studies ISBN 978-3-319-47924-8 ISBN 978-3-319-47925-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47925-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017934481 # Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland www.ebook3000.com Preface The ideology of Gross National Happiness reflects the aspirations and hopes of the people and the elite in Bhutan and has become the modus vivendi in this small landlocked country squeezed between India and China GNH as it is called is a blueprint and social experiment for development and has been presented as an alternative to mainstream strategies It is also a challenge for those responsible for implementing economic policies since it may collide with traditional remedies of the state and its bureaucracy in its endeavours to establish a coherent society and economic growth This is a daunting task as the problems related with the implementation of GNH in some cases may contradict policies intended to create individual creativity, equity and streamlining culture and tradition at the societal level This book represents an attempt to dig into some of the problems inherent in Bhutan’s development trajectory and explore a range of historical and contemporary issues related to the challenges facing the country The key question is how the ruling elite has managed to escape the poverty trap and the chaos seen in some of the neighbouring countries Other questions relate to the existing literature which has a tendency of celebrating GNH at the ideological level but without exploring the details, problems and contradictions involved Little is known from independent scholarship about the status of the implementation of this overarching strategy and how well it plays out with other sectoral policies, institutions and actors in Bhutanese society The essays contained in this volume provide an opportunity to study nationbuilding and state-building in Bhutan from a critical and interdisciplinary perspective All contributors have conducted extensive fieldwork in the country, and a few utilize a comparative theoretical edifice in order to provide a more contextual approach and understanding of society The book grew out of an academic collaboration between researchers from Denmark and Bhutan which was generously funded by the governments of each country DANIDA, the Danish development agency, provided the bulk of the funding, and I would like to show my gratitude and sincere appreciation for this grant Later on, more high-quality researchers were invited to give contributions to a workshop where some of the papers have been discussed, and others joined upon invitation Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily reflect those of either the funding agencies or the editor v Map of Bhutan Map Map of Bhutan http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/bhutan_map.htm vii www.ebook3000.com Contents Development Challenges in Bhutan: Perspectives on Inequality and Gross National Happiness Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt Part I Comparing Bhutan’s Development Trajectories Sociocultural and Political Change in Bhutan Since the 1980s: Reflections from a Distance Michael Hutt Donor-Assisted Ethno-nationalism and Education Policy in Bhutan Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt Part II 19 29 GNH, Equality and Inclusion/Exclusion Gross National Happiness and Inequality Winnie Bothe 49 Distress Migration and Individual Happiness in Bhutan Mahmood Ansari 69 Part III Culture, Legal Issues and the Politics of Change A Form of “Democratization Project” in Contemporary Bhutan: Being Apolitical and Being Religious Mari Miyamoto 95 Law, “Tradition” and Legitimacy: Contesting Driglam Namzha 115 Richard W Whitecross Part IV Governance and Integration Between Hopeful Intentions and Disenchanting Constraints: Lessons Learned in Bhutan’s Nationwide E-Governance Initiative 137 Norbert Wildermuth and Devi Bhakta Suberi ix x Contents Disaster Governance, Inequality and Poverty Alleviation in Bhutan: Towards Integrated and Preventive Policies 171 Caroline Brassard Part V Health, Food and Disparities Regional Disparities and Food Problems in Bhutan 205 Mahmood Ansari Policy Synergies in Health-Promoting Education in Bhutan 235 Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt and Line Kikkenborg Christensen Index 257 www.ebook3000.com Editor and Contributors About the Editor Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt is Associate Professor at Aalborg University, Denmark He is Senior Expert at Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS), Copenhagen University, Denmark He has held visiting research fellowships in Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Poland and was recently a Visiting Professor at the Institute for Political Economy, Carleton University, Canada He has a broad spectrum of research interests, varying from globalization and international division of labor to social and welfare policy and state regulations with a focus on Asia His most recent publications: Schmidt, J D & Rasiah (2011) The New Political Economy of Southeast Asia, London and New York, Edward Elgar Publishing, and Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt and Jacques Hersh (2002) Globalization and Social Change, London and New York Routledge Contributors Mahmood Ansari Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India Winnie Bothe Lund University, Lund, Sweden Caroline Brassard Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Tanglin, Singapore Line Kikkenborg Christensen Department of Political Science, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark xi Policy Synergies in Health-Promoting Education in Bhutan 249 Such incidences will be reduced if we are practicing mindful walking (Informant 2013, October) One of the problems with teaching GNH is the unclear objective of such an endeavor and especially the fact that it is supposed to be incorporated into the curriculum One reply from a principal in Thimphu illuminates this: “We are learning to be happy with what we have and not to be unhappy with what we don’t have We are not teaching anything new, we are just telling them to live and be happy with what we have” (Informant 2013, October) According to our observations, many teachers and principals noted that it is difficult to incorporate GNH into the curriculum, and an interview with the GNHC shows that “Implementation of GNH values started only in 2010 but we also plan to infuse GNH values in the curriculum in next year plan” (Informant 2013, October) It is furthermore a real challenge since most teaching is still conducted through root learning with high-stake exams and high drop-out rates At the extracurricular level, GNH is functioning well Our observation was that most schools, but not all, had very well-organized activities in sports, green gardens, scouting activities, teaching in Driglam Namzha, and uprooting of cannabis plants in the surrounding environment, and many schools organized social activities in the village or towns like collecting garbage, cleaning streets, and even visits to the elderly and handicapped At this level, education for GNH appears to be successful Corporal punishment was made illegal under Article 109 of the Penal Code of Bhutan (2004) However, it appears that corporal punishment is still being practiced in some schools, and there is substantial disagreement among school practitioners whether the abolishment is beneficial to the students As one principal notes, it is “a sensitive issue” although the ministry has issued zero tolerance, and it is in fact prohibited by law On the question how GNH and corporal punishment are combined, one education officer in Thimphu noted that “It does not go with GNH but sometimes it is necessary I used corporal punishment twice in a year One in beginning and one in the end of the academic session Before we used corporate punishment, now we counsel them; we give two to three chances and also call parents” (Informant 2013, October) This frustration is further extrapolated by the fact that corporal punishment is practiced in families, and it is not against the law at the private household level An interview with a principal from Gelephu illustrates the problem: “Therefore, in order to ban corporal punishment in the school, I feel it should first start from the home I feel it will take time to change because of our culture” (Informant 16 2013, October) That there is mismatch between the policies of GNH and corporal punishment is quite obvious As long as it is practiced in the household by the parents, it is difficult to change the culture and tradition in the education sector In 2009 the government initiated a policy of the “education for GNH” scheme The purpose of this scheme is to install the pupils’ internalization of values and conduct through transformative practices intended to promote the emergence of the desired subject which in this case is the “GNH citizen” (Ravn-Hoejgaard 2013) The scheme has had a very slow start In 2012 Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley www.ebook3000.com 250 J.D Schmidt and L.K Christensen stated that “The educating for GNH programme is an approach adopted to ensure the integration of the desired qualities into the Education System so as to produce GNH graduates In order to achieve the desired goals of education, the quality of teaching learning in our schools and the supporting environment for that to happen are of paramount importance” (MoE 2012: 17) GNH should be infused into the education system, and the idea was seen in context with the parallel attempt to promote GNH abroad as an alternative to mainstream development models There have been workshops and teacher training in the scheme; however, the results are unclear In reality, the introduction of GNH in to the schools has not really materialized, as illustrated by a representative from GNHC who noted that “We have just begun and the impact of study will be conducted soon” (Informant 2013, October) The GHNC representative also noted that “The education policy is still in the draft stage It is not yet presented to commission” (Informant 2013, October), and “Implementation of GNH values started only in 2010, but we also plan to infuse GNH values in the curriculum in next year plan” (Informant 2013, October) The main point is that “Firstly to make understand about GNH to teachers is the biggest challenge because if teachers know well it will get down well to students So far, we have trained 12 district teachers; still we have some more teachers to be trained” (Informant 2013, October) The message from the GHNC representative was quite clear that there remain many challenges ahead and that the infusion of GNH into the education sector has just begun It was also clear from this interview and many other interviews conducted that teachers are overburdened and that there are far too many demands coming from the central level These observations leave the impression that there is no agreement at the central level about how much emphasis should be put on the GNH infusion into the school system There may be inter-elite contestation about the strategy as our observations show some are great supporters, while others are more reluctant One very interesting comment comes from the Minister of Education himself who stresses: “We cannot educate anybody for GNH, la, we can only put in place all those factors in the education system which would help you to become well a balanced and happy person Ultimately happiness cannot be given by teachers you have to realize yourself from within” (Mingbo Drukpa 2013, October) Nevertheless a huge majority of respondent teachers said yes they use GNH actively in their teaching in the classroom Advocacy and International Actors Whereas the interviewees at dzongkhag level tended to speak of collaboration between the health and education sectors as unproblematic, the principals and teachers of primary schools saw health promotion in schools to be successful only to a limited degree A principal at a primary school expressed that the problem had to with “clashes of timing”: the schools’ plan for the whole semester early on and health activities may not be introduced until later and at times where the schools have breaks or exams This problem seemed to relate mostly to advocacy Policy Synergies in Health-Promoting Education in Bhutan 251 activities The success regarding implementing health services and doing advocacy work could differ because the health sector is involved to a certain degree when it comes to the provision of health services Advocacy is largely the schools’ own responsibility, although encouragement to observe such days as global health days is coming from the central level According to an informant at dzongkhag level, the “district office” provides schools with information and materials from the ministry—but it is up to the schools how to use these Staff at the schools expressed frustration regarding the number of topics for advocacy; the schools are asked to cover a range of issues, among them handwashing, HIV/AIDS, drugs, alcohol, reproductive health, teenage pregnancy, and night hunting.28 In addition to this, NGOs such as RENEW29 also attempt to use schools as access point for their specific health agenda concerning domestic violence and reproductive rights, by recruiting teachers and students for their volunteer groups and encouraging activities and campaigns based on their policies Advocacy for health-related topics in schools is less evenly implemented on micro-level than the provision of health services However, part of the advocacy work is building into the curriculums, and hence all advocacy work does not rely on the individual schools For advocacy, there is more possibility for “ownership” although the schools seem overwhelmed by the number of topics they are expected to cover The health sector and certain NGOs appear willing to assist the schools in the advocacy work, but collaboration is not initiated The intention from central level is that advocacy in schools educates both children and the local community on various health topics This can unquestionably be found to be the outcome in some schools in Bhutan However, in many, this outcome is not attained This can be very closely connected to the level of support from local health centers and other stakeholders but is also a matter of allocation of resources The process of planning healthrelated advocacy activities is decentralized, and each school is allowed to prioritize to a certain degree, but their lack of resources allocated to this type of health promotion may complicate this process The school health coordinators are teachers, whose main responsibility is still in the field of education Another “bottleneck” thus presents itself; for the intended advocacy work to be carried out evenly in all schools, the advocacy work needs to be prioritized in the form of resources One UN Country report notes that duty bearers often lack human, technical, and financial resources in order to fulfill their obligations (UNDAF 2012: 6)—capacity building and training is considered as one of the most important determining factors for the success of schools’ health program Thus, since 1990, the National School Health Committee (NSHC) has been responsible for offering training to the principals, 28 Night hunting is the culture of nightly courtship practiced in eastern and central rural Bhutan It is a practice where young men sneak into girls’ houses to engage in sexual activities during the night The practice does lead to that young girls are sexually exploited 29 Local NGO working with domestic violence www.ebook3000.com 252 J.D Schmidt and L.K Christensen teachers, local health workers, children, parents, and community leaders NSHC trains at least one or two teachers from each school where they are expected to organize training for other teachers involved in health activities and also promote health activities in their own school (MoE and MoH 2007: 83) One of the schools assistant health coordinator says “I have had this position since 2000 where I attended a short workshop on health Usually the health coordinator will go for the training” (Informant C 2012, November) A majority of health coordinators are trained but it seems, due to multi-roles of teachers in general, that health activities are not proceeding in accordance with the intention of the health coordinator and the policy itself The assistant health coordinator clearly saw the problem: “we feel like we need to focus on health—it is important But when we get back to the schools we cannot cope with all this responsibility Sometimes we are not able to follow the directives due to lack of resources and time” (Informant C 2012, November) Bottlenecks and Overload in Policy-Making One of the main problems in the Bhutanese policy-making context is the number of actors and institutions involved They all have their own agendas, and some like the international and bilateral donors have conditionality and are heavily involved in the formulation and planning of policies as well Looking at the policy flow from the center, mediated at the district toward the gewog level, it is quite clear that there is a lack of coordination between GNH and decentralization both at gewog level and in schools There is also a bottleneck at the district level since staff capacity is very small, and hence monitoring and implementation appear to be rather random There is no real autonomy at the local level in villages and in schools, and no substantial financial allocation is taking place from central to local levels Health in education policies look very comprehensive on paper, but there are problems with overload among teachers Too many uncoordinated vertical flows and demands coming from the central level overwhelm teachers, principals, and pupils One officer in Thimphu notes that “Why principals or health coordinators are overloaded is because other agencies are also pouring down and district seems to accept all this” (Informant 2013, October) A DEO in Thimphu explained that: “Yes, exactly I feel there is over demand School is one place where various programmes of various ministries and departments are carried out School itself has its regular programme of teaching the curriculum So many important programmes are coming in the school Sometimes we are overburdened in the school that’s why as a principal I use to tell to my teachers that we have to prioritize the activities” (Informant 11 2013, October) One principal comments that “There are so many demands and so many unplanned programs are coming in school Recently I talked to ‘TO’ [thromdey office]; he said if the programme comes from MoE we have to accept it and if it comes from outside the ministry then they have to think whether to accept or not” (Informant 14 2013, October) Policy Synergies in Health-Promoting Education in Bhutan 253 The problem in Bhutan is the heavy involvement of donors in articulating new ideas sometimes coming from headquarters and many domestic demands from politicians and the UN system This makes the local level in schools feel overburdened and in the words of UNFPA’s representative in Bhutan: “The response we get is the same as you mentioned They say that they are overburdened with so many donors coming in with different names with same issue like hand washing UNICEF talks about many skills and one is hand washing UNFPA talks of life skills which are related to reproductive health issues So, same issues come in different packages” (Informant 20 2013, October) Conclusion This contribution has attempted to give some answers to two questions: (1) what are the discrepancies between policies’ intention at central level and the implementation on “the ground” and (2) are there relevant synergies in the policy flow from center to local levels in terms of delivering efficient health through educational policies? From central level, the intention is to use educational institutions for health education When it comes to providing health services to students, this intention can be seen as realized; however, advocacy work for health lifestyle choices and promotion of GNH for mental and spiritual health is a different matter Both advocacy work and “educating for GNH” are left to teachers who may not receive much training Health issues are considered as an important program in the schools; therefore, the school health coordinator’s workload and training need to be reconsidered to enhance health activities in the schools The adequate training to handle health issues is the major concern raised by the school health coordinators Therefore, knowledge and skills upgrading would be a critical challenge for the success of school health programs However, part of the problem is also connected to a lack of relevant synergies in the policy flow from center to local levels This paper has identified several bottlenecks and problems with regard to both planning and implementation The variety of health problems schools are in charge of create an overload because decentralization policies have not given principals and teachers enough ownership Implementation is thus on one hand not entrusted to actors on the micro-level and on the other hand not planned and coordinated well enough on the meso-level We find an illustration of this lack of synergies in the fact that the District Health Office and District Education Office are both interested in having health programs initiated in the schools, but they cannot identify their distinctive role to conduct health activities Health promotion in schools in Bhutan has become a top-down process with little ownership This has wide ramifications since it may point to lack of participation and ownership of development in Bhutan in general The bottlenecks identified point to that there simultaneously are too many and too few involved in formulation, planning, and implementation: there are too many different agencies and www.ebook3000.com 254 J.D Schmidt and L.K Christensen stakeholders with agendas from above and too little participation and feedback from below A way to eliminate some of the discrepancies between intention at central level and the implementation on “the ground” could be securing relevant feedback from principals and teachers while also limiting the sources of policy flow to said actors References Acharya J (2011) Bhutanese refugees: the struggle in exile In: Hoffman R, Carusu U (eds) Minority Rights in South Asia Peter Lang, GmbH, Frankfurt am Main ADB (2012) Bhutan living standards survey 2012, Manila Bisht M (2012) The rupee crunch and India-Bhutan economic engagement IDSA Issue Brief, New Delhi Deschesnes M, Martin C, Hill AJ (2003) Comprehensive approaches to school health promotion: how to achieve broader implementation? Health Promot Int 18(4):387–396 Duba S, Gurung TR and Ghimiray M (2006) Project for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Mountain Regions (SARD-M) Assessment of SARD-M Policies in the Hindu Kush – Himalayas: the case of Land Use Policies in Bhutan RNRRC Bajo, December 2006 Frame B (2005) Bhutan: a review of its approach to sustainable development Dev Pract 15(2): 216–221 Frexler M (2013) The road to health and well-being Harvard School of Public Health, Winther http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/magazine/the-road-to-health-and-wellbeing/ GNHC (2009) Royal Government of Bhutan, Gross National Happiness Commission Local development planning manual standards for annual planning at Dzongkhag and Gewog level GNHC (2012) Guidelines for preparation of the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2013–2018) Gross National Happiness Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan, 15th March 2012 Hutt M (2005) The Bhutanese refugees: between verification, repatriation and royal realpolitik J Peace Democr South Asia 1(1):44–55 Hutt M (2003) Unbecoming Citizens Culture, nationhood, and the flight of refugees from Bhutan Oxford University Press, New Delhi Local Government Act (2007) http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Eng30.pdf Ministry of Education (2012) Education policy 2012, Thimphu Ministry of Finance (MoF) (2012) National budget financial year 2012–13 Thimphu, Bhutan Ministry of Health (2004) Guide book for management of minor ailments in schools Comprehensive School Health Program Department of Public Health, Thimphu http://www.health.gov.bt/ publications/ComprehensiveSchool/Guide%20Book%20for%20Minor%20Ailments%20for %20Teacher.pdf Ministry of Health and Ministry of Education (2007) Comprehensive school health promotion – a guidebook for school health coordinators Comprehensive School Health Programme Ministry of Health (ND) National health policy http://www.health.gov.bt/healthPolicy/ nationalHpolicy.pdf Ministry of Health http://www.health.gov.bt/publications/ComprehensiveSchool/Wash_Manual pdf Mkandawire T (2001) Social policy in a development context, social policy and development programme Paper number 7, June UNRISD, Geneva Prilleltensky I (2005) Promoting well-being: time for a paradigm shift in health and human services Scand J Public Health 33(53) RGoB (2011) Protocol for policy formulation http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/ 05/GNH-Policy-Protocol-revised-Feb-20121.pdf Policy Synergies in Health-Promoting Education in Bhutan 255 RGoB (2012) Statistical yearbook of Bhutan 2012 Royal Government of Bhutan, Statistics Bureau Rowling L, Jeffreys V (2006) Capturing complexity: integrating health and education research to inform health-promoting schools policy and practice Health Educ Res 21(5):705–718 Ravn-Hoejgaard S (2013) Educating towards happiness Unpublished Master Thesis Copenhagen University, Copenhagen Statistics Bureau, RGOB (2012) Statistical yearbook of Bhutan 2012 Thimphu, Bhutan Ugyel L (2013) Dynamics of public sector reforms in Bhutan: interaction of values within a Hybrid Administration Crawford School Working Paper no 13-01, January Crawford School of Public Policy, ANU, Canberra UNDP (2012) Where we are? www.bt.undp.org/content/bhutan/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/ mdg2/ Accessed 20 Oct 2014 UNDP (2013) Human development report UNDAF (2012) United Nations Development Assistance Framework, Bhutan One Programme 2014–2018, UNDP http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/Executive% 20Board/2013/Annual-session/English/BTN_One%20Programme%202014-2018%20MAS TER%2003-12-2012%20-%20CV.pdf Walt G et al (2008) ‘Doing’ health policy analysis: methodological and conceptual reflections and challenges J Health Policy Plan 23:308–317 Wood P (2007) Priming the printing press: the growing print media in Bhutan, S.I.T Tibetan and Himalayan Studies, Spring World Health Organization (WHO) (2013) http://www.who.int/topics/health_education/en/ World Health Organization (WHO) (2005) Bangkok charter for health promotion in a globalized world, Geneva Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt is Associate Professor at Aalborg University, Denmark He is Senior Expert at Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS), Copenhagen University, Denmark He has held visiting research fellowships in Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Poland and was recently a Visiting Professor at the Institute for Political Economy, Carleton University, Canada He has a broad spectrum of research interests, varying from globalization and international division of labor to social and welfare policy and state regulations with a focus on Asia His most recent publications: Schmidt, J D & Rasiah (2011) The New Political Economy of Southeast Asia, London and New York: Edward Elgar Publishing, Johannes Dragsbaek Schmidt and Jacques Hersh (2002) Globalization and Social Change, London and New York Routledge www.ebook3000.com 256 J.D Schmidt and L.K Christensen Line Kikkenborg Christensen is PhD Fellow at Department of Political Science, Aalborg University, Denmark Her working title is “Navigating Within Frozen Conflicts.” Index A Absolute monarch, 2, 53, 70, 95, 97, 100, 110, 231 Absolutism, 50, 52, 53, 57, 59, 70, 73, 110, 130 Accountability, 34, 85, 141, 142, 185, 196 Administration, 3, 60, 69, 97, 103, 104, 108, 111, 117, 146, 149, 162, 165, 179, 189, 207, 209, 213–215, 240, 242, 243 Advocacy, 13, 76, 85, 152, 153, 156, 162, 173, 188, 194, 195, 197, 237, 247, 250–253 Aid darling, 34 Alternative, 3, 6, 12, 30, 49–51, 55, 102, 108–110, 112, 183, 184, 190, 221, 240, 250 Annexation, 4, 30, 33 Anti-Corruption Commission, 105, 108, 215 Asia, 2, 30, 55, 57, 81, 85, 172, 174, 178, 186, 191, 194, 198 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 4, 10, 73, 184, 190, 228 Assimilation, 3, 7, 8, 37, 38 Association, 76, 88, 112, 195, 222 Asymmetry, 7, 71, 81, 87, 90, 210, 217, 229, 231, 239 Awareness, 7, 9, 52, 100, 108, 122, 129, 148, 152, 153, 156–158, 160–164, 173, 180, 181, 185, 187–189, 193, 195–197, 248 B Bangladesh, 70, 77, 81, 87, 194, 218, 220 Bank of Bhutan (BoB), 164 Basic health unit (BHU), 89, 248 Belonging, 11, 21, 81, 89, 98, 102, 111, 130, 219, 222 Benevolence, 29, 60 Bhutan, 1, 19, 29, 49, 69, 95, 115, 137, 171, 205, 235 Bhutan Broadcasting Service (BBC), 98, 109 Bhutan Development Bank, 146, 160, 164, 168 Bhutanization, 7, 8, 11, 31, 37–39, 42 Bhutan Post, 85, 146, 157–161, 163, 164, 167, 168 Bottom-up-process, 240 British, 8, 69, 221 Buddhism, 4–6, 8, 23, 37, 40, 53, 54, 60, 61, 66, 86, 87, 104, 105, 116, 118, 122, 236 Buddhist state, 6, 23 Bureaucracy, 34, 37, 43, 74–76, 81, 85, 89, 96, 98, 100, 111, 142, 150, 167, 208, 214, 216–218, 235, 237, 240 C Cabinet, 97, 98, 103, 111, 215, 243, 244 Capacity building, 50, 51, 137, 186, 189, 193, 197, 248, 251 Census, 3, 7, 20, 24, 53, 59, 70, 79–84, 88, 90, 124, 132, 156, 158, 179, 196, 209, 212, 230 Central Monk Body, 24 Centre for Bhutan Studies, 4, 83, 195 Ceremony, 38, 60, 95, 109, 117–120, 123, 130 Check and balances, Citizenship, 2, 4, 7, 20, 32, 37, 40, 75, 102, 112, 124, 156, 236, 245 Citizenship legislation, 20 Civil society, 3, 5, 12, 72, 75–77, 111, 126, 138, 142, 147, 149, 150, 153, 164, 173, 189, 195, 197, 229, 231, 237 Civil Society Act, 75, 77, 229 Civil Society Organization Authority (CSOA), 77 Class divisions, 208 Climate change, 9, 13, 171–174, 176, 177, 181, 183–186, 188, 190, 193, 196, 198 Climate hazard, 176 Code of discipline, 12, 115 # Springer International Publishing AG 2017 J.D Schmidt (ed.), Development Challenges in Bhutan, Contemporary South Asian Studies, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47925-5 www.ebook3000.com 257 258 Community information centres (CICs), 145, 149, 150 Comprehensive school health program, 241, 248 Constitution, 3, 8, 9, 21–23, 37, 44, 49, 56, 60–63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 84, 95, 97, 100–103, 105, 108, 110, 111, 118, 127, 131, 143, 228, 236, 241, 245 Consumption, 30, 35, 50, 79, 82, 86, 87, 207, 220–224, 230 Cooperative, 13, 40, 76, 171, 197 Coping strategy, 13, 171 Corporal punishment, 238, 249 Corruption, 9, 22, 141, 149, 191 Council of Ministers, 96 Critical, 105, 107, 109, 137, 139, 141, 146, 148, 153, 155, 157, 172, 180, 189, 236, 239, 240, 253 Crop, 69, 72, 74, 81, 175, 177, 180, 192, 205, 207, 210, 212, 213, 216–220, 223, 229, 230 Cultivation, 24, 42, 77, 179, 210, 217–220 Cultivator, 80 Cultural capital, 66 Cultural heritage, 7, 8, 40, 52, 55, 66, 124, 130, 139 Cultural identity, 12, 116, 119–121, 132 Cultural rights, 53 Culture, 3, 20, 29, 49, 69, 106, 115, 147, 188, 239 D Dalai Lama, 53 Dantak, 77 Decentralization, 31, 38, 41, 77, 87, 103, 111, 141, 143, 185, 187, 192, 197, 214–216, 238, 241–245, 252, 253 Democracy, 2, 3, 8, 11, 12, 21, 22, 24, 31, 43, 53, 55, 63, 64, 70, 95, 101, 104, 108–112, 131, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 147, 148, 165, 196, 228, 231, 235 Democratization, 3, 9–12, 39, 63, 95–112, 185 Demography, 9, 12, 39, 69, 70, 75, 76, 80, 176, 198, 207, 209 Department of Culture, 106, 107 Deprivation, 13, 56, 57, 71, 74, 89, 90, 180, 205, 206, 215, 216, 223 Development, 1, 19, 30, 49, 72, 97, 116, 137, 171, 206, 235 Developmental state, Devolution, 38, 137, 143, 197, 242 Diaspora, 77 Index Digital divide, 143–145 Digitalization, 12 Dirigiste state, 13, 213–218 Disaster, 9, 11, 13, 82, 171–198, 216, 217 Disaster governance, 13, 171–176, 183–198, 216 Disaster management, 11, 173, 175, 181, 186–190, 193, 194, 196 Disaster risk reduction (DRR), 171–174, 185–189, 194 Disparities, 13, 140, 143, 205–213, 216, 217, 223 Distress migration, 12, 69, 81, 82, 90 Distribution of land, 13, 87, 213, 231 District Development Committee, 103, 121 Donors, 9–11, 29–43, 49, 56, 59, 60, 66, 72–74, 84, 150, 167, 173, 180, 214, 223, 226, 235–238, 240, 243, 246, 252, 253 Driglam Namzha, 6, 7, 11, 12, 20, 38–40, 53, 55, 60, 62, 65, 115–132, 249 Druk Gyalpo, 23, 101, 103 Drukpa, 3, 5–7, 31, 37, 38, 52–55, 66, 71, 104, 116–118, 120, 206, 212, 230, 231, 236, 242, 250 Drukpa nationalism, 6, 37 Dzong, 29, 54, 60, 117, 118, 131, 132, 207–209, 221 Dzongkha, 2, 3, 5, 6, 23, 37, 38, 40, 98, 99, 107, 115, 117, 121–124, 132, 159, 188, 236 Dzongkhag, 38, 61, 97, 103, 107, 140, 145, 152, 157, 158, 161, 162, 209, 224, 236, 238, 241–244, 246, 247, 250, 251 E Education, 2–4, 6–11, 13, 19, 23, 31, 53, 63, 65, 66, 72, 75, 77, 79, 82, 83, 89, 115, 120, 129, 139, 150, 173, 187, 189–192, 195, 222, 235–243, 245–253 Education for GNH, 249 E-governance, 12, 137–168 Election, 12, 22, 24, 69, 70, 82, 84, 95, 97–100, 103–112, 130, 149, 163, 192, 198, 228 Election Commission, 107, 109, 215 Elite, 3–7, 22, 24, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37–41, 43, 53, 55, 61, 62, 66, 89, 98, 117, 127, 128, 205 Emigration, 70, 80, 81 Employment, 71, 73, 77–79, 82, 87, 123, 126, 152, 160, 167 Empowerment, 13, 30, 50–52, 147–149, 238, 240 English, 3, 23, 89, 99, 122 Index 259 Enlightened, 10, 25, 30, 37, 67, 228, 241 Environment, 2, 4, 9, 11, 20, 21, 25, 26, 34, 49, 84, 85, 139, 141, 142, 151, 165, 171, 172, 174, 176, 177, 179–188, 190–192, 194, 196–198, 241, 246, 249 Equality, 3, 11, 14, 50–52, 56, 59, 60, 63–67, 111, 112, 151 Equity, 3, 9, 11, 14, 50, 60, 62, 185, 228, 231, 245 Essentialism, 30, 37, 39, 40, 51, 53, 56, 77, 131, 141, 144, 165, 168, 175, 192, 236 Essentialist, 38, 53, 213 Ethical state, Ethnic, 2–4, 6–11, 13, 20, 21, 23, 25, 29–31, 37–39, 43, 58, 60, 67, 70, 77, 80–82, 110, 123, 125, 126, 206, 212, 227, 230, 232 Ethnic nationalism, 2, 31 Ethnic purity, Ethnographic, 116, 122, 130, 139, 165 Ethno-nationalism, 5, 11, 29–43 Etiquette, 11, 12, 38, 117, 119, 121–123, 132 F Facilitator state, 51 Feudal, 5, 30, 38, 52, 53, 70, 73, 74, 77, 87, 96, 208, 214 Five-year plan, 8, 9, 33, 41, 49, 55, 62, 72, 82, 120, 121, 139, 141, 187, 213, 235, 241, 243–245 Food, 13, 32, 56, 69–72, 79, 81, 87, 118, 121, 173, 175, 180, 205 Food insecurity, 13, 70, 73, 87, 89, 90, 207, 218, 223, 227–229 Food self-sufficiency, 219 Food welfare, 79 Foreign aid, 30, 33, 73, 198, 223, 226 Formulation, 24, 38, 42, 43, 61, 123, 128, 141, 237–239, 241, 244, 245, 252, 253 Fortress, 60, 69, 75, 208, 209, 214 G Gender, 10, 63–65, 95, 142–144, 151, 184, 192, 237 Gender gap, 192 Geopolitical, 4, 11, 33, 235 Geostrategic, 53 Gewog, 29, 38, 97, 98, 100, 103, 107, 145, 146, 152, 160–165, 179, 189, 209, 236, 238, 241–244, 252 Gho, 38, 60, 62, 63, 115, 121, 124, 125, 130 Gini income, Gini index, 59, 87 Glacial lakes, 174, 181, 186 Global South, 148, 150 Globalization, 7, 30, 39, 40 GNH citizen, 11, 248, 249 GNH Commission, 7, 83, 84, 90, 215, 248 GNH ideology, 9, 35, 84, 87 GNH miracle, 14 GNH state, 84–87 Good governance, 31, 34, 41, 51, 52, 70, 83, 85, 137, 139–142, 148, 155, 190–193 Google generation, 10 Government, 2, 19, 30, 49, 95, 115, 137, 171, 207, 235 Government-to-citizen (G2C), 12, 13, 137, 139, 140, 145–148, 151–168 Gross National Happiness (GNH), 1, 25, 30, 49, 83, 137, 215, 236 Gross national product (GNP), 1, 34, 49, 55, 85, 86 Growth, 1, 4, 9, 30, 31, 33, 41, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 73–75, 82, 84–86, 140, 142, 143, 180, 196, 198, 206, 212, 213, 227, 228, 232, 246 Guided democracy, 3, 24, 31 Guru Rinpoche, 54 H Happiness, 1, 21, 24–26, 34, 35, 40–42, 49–66, 69, 71, 73, 82–88, 90, 137, 141, 171, 176, 188, 190, 196 Happy, 7, 66, 71, 73, 83–85, 87–90, 159, 193, 245, 249, 250 Harmony, 2, 6, 8, 35, 39, 213, 228 Hazard, 9, 172–174, 176, 177, 180–183, 185–188, 190, 194, 216 Health, 2, 30, 56, 72, 139, 175, 235 Health coordinator, 246, 251–253 Health-promoting schools, 240, 241 Health promotion, 13, 41, 194, 237, 240, 241, 245–247, 250, 251, 253 Hegemony, 2, 5–7, 26, 33, 38, 53, 116, 119, 126 Hierarchy, 11, 60, 62, 65, 66, 95, 116, 130, 166, 240 High Court of Justice, 115 Himalaya, 1, 5, 20, 33, 73–75, 77, 82, 87, 140, 167, 182, 184, 206, 227, 229, 230 Hindu, 23, 24, 53, 55 Hinduism, 9, 23, 236 Historiography, www.ebook3000.com 260 Holistic, 30, 40–42, 49, 139, 142, 176, 177, 190, 236, 239, 245 Holistic health education, 245 Homogeneity, Household, 13, 71, 74, 75, 79–83, 87–90, 97, 99, 100, 144, 151, 162, 166, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180, 183, 184, 209, 212, 219, 222, 228, 229, 231, 249 Human development, 1, 40, 49, 151 Human dignity, 50 Human rights, 31, 51, 112, 229 Hydroelectricity, 73, 77, 79, 87, 191, 206, 214, 226 Hydropower, 36, 216, 226 I Iconography, 29, 115 Ideology, 2–4, 9, 14, 26, 29, 31, 34, 35, 43, 51, 53, 55, 58, 66, 83, 84, 87, 229, 238 Illiteracy, 12, 74, 205, 236, 237 Imagined community, 37, 127 Immigration, 3, 4, 53, 77, 184 Implementation, 11–13, 34, 39, 43, 97, 103, 104, 125, 130, 137, 141, 145, 146, 148, 151–153, 155, 164, 167, 186, 187, 196, 197, 208, 215, 235, 237–241, 243, 245–247, 252, 253 Income, 3, 4, 10, 39, 49, 57, 58, 66, 70, 72–74, 85–87, 89, 144, 152, 167, 172, 184, 207, 212, 222, 228 Income poverty, 57, 228 India, 1, 5, 6, 10, 20, 23, 31–34, 36, 43, 53, 54, 59, 61, 69, 70, 72, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82, 151, 198, 206, 207, 218, 220, 221, 224–226, 230, 235, 237 Inequality, 1–14, 49–66, 87, 89, 171–180, 184, 190, 196 Information, 10, 36, 71–73, 78, 81, 112, 137, 138, 141–143, 145, 147–150, 152, 154, 155, 159, 160, 162–166, 186–189, 194, 196, 197, 208–210, 212, 225, 251 Information and communication technologies (ICT), 9–12, 138–145, 147–151, 154–156 Information society, 141, 142, 147, 155 Infrastructure, 9, 70, 72, 74, 82, 137, 141–143, 146, 148, 150, 154, 156, 157, 173–175, 180, 184, 185, 205, 206, 208, 214, 216, 236, 246 Innovation, 42, 127, 142, 154, 164, 167 Interdisciplinary, 13, 137, 138, 239 Index Internet, 143–145, 148, 156, 157, 166, 196 Irrigation, 108, 174, 180, 191, 210, 212, 215, 216, 230, 231 J Judiciary, 116, 127–129, 132, 243 Justice, 41, 115, 122, 127, 128, 228, 229 K Karma, 5, 20, 60, 65, 121–123, 221 Kidu, 11, 58, 59, 102, 105, 195, 245 Kidu Foundation, 102 King, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 19, 21–24, 29, 31, 33, 37, 51, 53, 55, 58–62, 64, 65, 69, 85, 86, 95–97, 100–104, 109, 119–121, 124, 125, 132, 208, 213, 214, 218, 228, 231, 245 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, 5, 19, 21, 95, 102 Kira, 38, 60, 63, 64, 115, 124, 125, 130 Knowledge, 7, 11, 13, 14, 39–43, 74, 100, 150, 151, 159–161, 167, 184, 186, 187, 195, 198, 218, 235, 238–242, 244, 245, 253 Kuensel, 22, 59, 63, 64, 105, 109, 122, 123, 125, 126, 129, 157, 229, 239 L Labour, 10, 11, 13, 30, 33, 53, 70, 72–80, 82, 178, 188, 205, 208, 210–212, 215, 217, 219, 223, 227 Labour force, 72, 73, 75, 77–79, 178 Labour market, 10, 11, 78, 79 Ladakh, Lahau, Lama, 69, 104, 106 Lamaist state, 77 Land, 1, 24, 58, 69, 96, 120, 158, 174, 205, 245 Land reform, 59, 96, 104 Landholder, 59 Landlocked, 1, 69, 75, 205 Law, 11, 12, 29, 30, 35, 37, 39, 71, 73, 82, 112, 115–132, 173, 175, 180, 187, 188, 208, 229, 245, 249 Lawmaker, 96 Least-developed country (LDC), 72, 74, 181, 227 Legal, 6, 11, 12, 39, 69, 100, 115, 116, 118, 120, 126–132, 158, 172, 173, 187, 231 Legal code, 69, 132, 208 Index 261 Legal institutions, 12, 115, 116, 126, 128, 129 Legitimacy, 11, 12, 50, 55, 95, 101, 109, 115, 116, 126–132 Lhotshampa, 2, 3, 38, 70, 75, 90, 115, 120, 124–125, 206, 230, 236 Lhuntse District, 57 Linguistic, 2, 3, 20, 23, 43, 110, 123, 130 Livelihood, 13, 52, 56, 60, 69, 71, 81, 82, 90, 152, 174, 177, 179, 180, 183, 185, 198, 205, 206, 218, 226, 229 Local government, 103, 106, 107, 111, 183, 188, 189, 194 Local Government Act, 103, 143, 241 Loyalty, 8, 11, 21, 24, 37, 42, 125 M Mahayana, 6, 40, 61, 110, 236 Malnutrition, 74, 205, 207, 222 Marginalization, 2, 50, 52 Marriage Act, 20 Media, 12, 13, 21, 22, 49, 98, 109–110, 129, 139, 141, 142, 147, 150, 152, 153, 165, 166, 185, 188, 196 Meditation, 13, 41, 118 Merit, 119 Middle path, 4, 87 Migration, 9, 11, 12, 69–90, 140, 153, 183, 184 Military, 33, 34, 61, 69, 103, 121 Mindfulness, 13, 41, 248 Ministry of Agriculture, 81, 153, 210, 219 Ministry of Economic Affairs (MoEA), 188, 189 Ministry of Education (MoE), 41, 153, 188, 242, 245, 246, 250, 252 Ministry of Finance (MoF), 188 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA), 153, 188 Ministry of Health (MoH), 188, 245, 246, 252 Minority, 6, 23, 37, 121, 208, 229 Mobile phone, 143, 144, 166 Modernization, 30, 31, 37, 76, 82, 214, 223 Monarchy, 2–5, 11, 12, 21–23, 25, 33, 43, 53, 54, 60, 62–64, 69, 70, 95, 97, 100–104, 110, 111, 115, 116, 119, 165, 231 Monastery, 12, 52, 96, 108, 116 Monastic, 8, 40, 60, 61, 69, 70, 75, 117–120, 122, 205, 208 Monocultural state, 55 Monolingual, 23 Moral, 6–8, 40–42, 119, 123, 128, 129 Mortality, 30, 39, 74–76, 90, 183, 205, 237 Multiethnic, 3, Multiparty system, Mythology, 62 N National Assembly, 39, 63, 96–100, 103–106, 108, 120–122, 126, 129, 131, 163, 192 National Council, 38, 62, 63, 97, 98, 106, 110, 111 National identity, 2, 4, 6, 11, 20, 21, 23, 33, 37, 40, 42, 120–122, 124, 125, 236 Nationalism, 2, 4, 6–8, 11, 29, 131 Nation-building, 2–8, 10, 29, 32, 37, 38, 43, 83 Nation-culture, Nationhood, 23, 123 Nation-state, 2, 6, 23, 31, 37, 66, 123, 126, 131, 218 Neo-liberal, 49–52, 56 Nepal, 2, 5, 20–24, 30, 36, 42, 55, 70, 77, 80, 81, 110, 125, 182 Nepalese Bhutanese, 2, Nepali, 2, 19–25, 37, 70, 80, 81, 124, 159, 206, 219, 236 Newspaper, 70, 98, 105, 106, 109, 130, 216, 239 Ngalong, 3, 6, 236 Ngultrum, 59, 190, 237 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), 147, 173, 189, 195, 196, 251 O Objective, 1, 3, 5–11, 14, 23, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 41–43, 71, 73, 81, 121, 137–140, 143, 146, 149, 151, 153, 167, 172, 190, 213, 214, 235, 243–245, 249 One nation, one people, 2, 20, 38, 120, 121 Online, 25, 64, 144, 146, 147, 149–151, 153–160, 162–164, 166, 168 Organic state, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 37–39 Out-migration, 71, 77, 80, 81 Overseas Development Assistance (ODA), 9, 33, 73, 90, 226–228, 235, 237 P Palace, 3, 22, 29, 96, 102, 228 Panchayat-period, 21, 23 Parliament, 12, 62, 64, 65, 69, 84, 96–99, 101, 103, 109, 111, 150, 189, 216 Paro, 24, 26, 57, 58, 71, 81, 163, 208, 209, 212, 221 Partnership, 51, 56, 146, 150, 161, 167, 172, 173, 185, 195–198 Party politics, 12, 100–101, 104, 105, 111 Paternalism, 29, 243 Paternalist, 5, 240 Patriarchy, 64 www.ebook3000.com 262 Peace, 2, 5, 42, 49, 192, 198 Philosophy, 1, 4, 14, 30, 37, 43, 49, 51, 52, 67, 86, 87, 137, 139, 142, 148, 168, 176, 236, 247 Planning, 30–32, 34, 35, 40, 41, 43, 81, 82, 84, 87, 89, 145, 173, 174, 176, 181, 185–189, 192, 193, 195, 197, 209, 210, 213–215, 227, 237–247, 251–253 Planning Commission, 2, 4, 7, 9, 32, 40, 72, 79, 84, 87, 89, 188, 213, 215, 222, 228, 230 Political party, 22, 84, 97, 98, 100, 105, 107, 109–111, 126, 150, 228, 231 Polyarchy, 111 Population, 1, 20, 34, 51, 69, 110, 124, 140, 178, 206, 236 Poverty, 4, 50, 70, 139, 171, 207, 244 Poverty alleviation, 13, 151, 171–176 Power, 3, 5, 7, 10, 22, 29, 36–38, 43, 51, 54, 59, 61, 65, 69, 76, 89, 96–98, 101–104, 111, 121, 128, 130, 131, 143, 148, 154, 197, 208, 212, 238, 239, 243, 244, 247 Prime minister, 8, 9, 63, 84, 97, 101, 102, 126, 147, 243, 249 Privatization, 51 Production, 14, 20, 30, 74, 79, 82, 86, 116, 173, 175, 179, 183, 205, 206, 208, 212, 213, 218–227 Productive, 7, 73, 74, 82, 206, 212 Pro-poor, 142 Prosperity, 25, 42, 49, 82, 192, 198, 208 Provider state, 51 Public-private partnership (PPP), 146, 161, 168, 178, 195, 197 Public service, 12, 55, 139–141, 143, 146, 147, 149, 151, 152, 154, 158, 160–162, 164, 191 Pull factor, 71, 81 Punakha, 58, 65, 118, 163, 181, 182, 208, 209, 212, 223 Push factor, 81 R Rebellion, 53, 103 Redistribution, 10, 50, 60, 101, 102 Reform, 4, 11, 12, 21, 22, 25, 40, 54, 66, 87, 96, 101, 102, 104, 110, 111, 124, 132, 141, 143, 151, 185, 192, 238–241 Regional, 12, 13, 29, 31, 38, 57, 70, 78, 80, 81, 90, 96, 99, 110, 111, 130, 140, 166, 172, 185, 186, 205–232 Reincarnation, 52, 54, 64, 104 Religion, 6, 10–12, 23–24, 101, 104–108, 110, 112, 116 Religious personality, 104, 105, 107, 110–112 Index Remote areas, 151, 152 Republic, 110, 149 Resettlement, 24–26, 32, 82 Rights, 4, 8, 10–12, 21, 31, 38, 41, 43, 50, 58–60, 62, 63, 97, 99–101, 104, 108, 110, 111, 125, 129, 130, 149, 191, 215, 218, 228, 235, 236, 251 Ritual, 61, 96, 101, 106–109, 119, 130 Royal, 7, 11, 29, 30, 40, 76, 101–103, 105, 106, 115, 117, 120–124, 127, 130, 131, 137, 141, 143, 157, 158, 163, 164, 187, 195, 197, 198, 215, 245 Royal Advisory Council, 62, 96, 97 Royal Audit Authority (RAA), 157, 158 Royal Civil Services Commission, 79 Royal Government, 19, 21, 42, 61, 78, 95, 105, 109, 115, 124, 127, 131, 141, 143, 187, 197, 198 Royal University of Bhutan (RUB), 43, 137, 163, 195 Rupee, 32, 33, 36, 198, 215, 221, 225–227, 237 Rupee crisis, 35, 36 Rural, 3, 22, 57, 69, 99, 139, 178, 210, 236 S Samdrup Jongkhar, 80, 84, 209, 223, 230 School, 6, 23, 32, 54, 81, 98, 121, 151, 182, 220, 236 Secular, 23, 40, 101, 104, 111, 116, 119, 130, 229 Security, 5, 26, 33, 51, 56, 59, 62, 70, 75, 103, 155, 157, 158, 162, 175, 198, 218, 225, 227, 229, 231 Self-reliance, 9, 30–36, 85, 184, 190, 228, 242 Service delivery, 9, 12, 138–143, 146, 149, 151, 152, 155, 158, 161, 236 Sharchop, 3, 5, 38, 159, 236 Sikkim, 4, 5, 30, 33, 39, 53, 61, 77, 119, 182 Social capital, 147, 238 Social engineering, 30 Social justice, 32, 39, 241, 245 Social service, 2, 9, 11, 39, 151, 215, 235–238 South Asia, 2, 57, 140, 176, 178, 186, 198, 218, 235 Spiritual, 5, 23, 29, 40, 41, 49, 54, 111, 118, 130, 132, 248, 253 Spiti, Sri Lanka, 59, 218, 235 State, 2, 20, 29, 49, 71, 98, 115, 137, 172, 213, 236 State-building, 12, 37, 53, 115 State-citizen, 137, 148 Statistical Bureau, 72, 78, 88, 179 Subjective, 35, 41, 71, 128, 141 Index 263 Subsistence poverty, 56 Sultanistic regime, 37 Supreme Law, 118 Sustainability, 41, 139, 148, 151, 168, 180, 190, 191, 194, 197, 240 Sustainable, 9, 26, 32, 34, 82, 85, 139, 141, 151, 155, 172, 173, 176, 177, 183, 186, 187, 197 Symbolic inequality, 12, 49, 52, 60 Synergies, 11, 13, 31, 43, 146, 171, 173, 176, 185, 235–254 Synergy, 39, 186, 189, 197, 218 T Tantric, 60, 66, 67 Tax, 96, 149, 208, 225 Tax reform, 73, 104 Technological, 75, 142, 148, 149, 161, 167, 205, 227 Technology, 10, 42, 72, 74, 141, 145, 154, 155, 165, 182, 188, 196, 231 Telecom, 143, 150, 154, 164 Temple, 60, 104, 106, 196 Terror, Thailand, 30, 110, 173 Theravada Buddhism, 110 Thimphu, 3, 5–7, 29, 36, 38, 57, 66, 70, 81–84, 89, 97, 118, 120–122, 131, 140, 142, 157, 158, 161, 162, 164, 184, 187, 193, 194, 205, 207, 209, 212, 217, 228, 238, 248, 249, 252 Thinley, Jigme, 5–8, 19, 35, 84–86, 124, 147 Tibet, 4, 5, 30, 33, 34, 53, 61, 75, 104, 116–119, 181, 221 Tobgay, Tshering, 9, 40, 147, 163 Top-down process, 216, 241–243, 253 Tradition, 12, 30, 41, 52, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 112, 115, 138, 167, 184, 218, 239, 249 Traditional knowledge, 42 Transparent, 10, 141 U Unemployment, 9, 11, 76, 152, 192, 237 UNESCO, 147 Uneven, 3, 10, 11, 125, 130, 140, 184, 216 United Nation, 1, 40, 74, 75, 149, 154, 174, 176, 227 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 33, 35, 50, 56, 58, 59, 78, 85, 145, 147, 148, 151–153, 156, 159, 162, 167, 181, 185–187, 189, 195, 214, 215, 220, 226, 228, 236 University, 22, 98, 99, 137, 163, 183, 195, 207 Urban, 4, 9, 57, 60, 66, 70, 71, 77, 80, 81, 121, 131, 140, 145, 146, 161, 167, 172, 178, 182, 184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 193, 194, 197, 205, 206, 221, 222, 224, 236, 237, 242 V Value added, 72, 217 Values, 1, 2, 6–8, 11–13, 29–31, 34, 37, 39–43, 54, 56, 64–66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 82–85, 99, 100, 111, 112, 116, 121–123, 125, 127–129, 131, 132, 142, 167, 220, 225, 226, 239, 248–250 Vernacular, 6, 29, 31 Village, 13, 29, 38, 59, 64, 74, 79, 80, 82, 86, 89, 97–100, 103, 106, 107, 121, 140, 180, 194, 195, 205, 206, 209, 213–217, 222, 223, 228, 230, 231, 249, 252 Village headman, 13, 166 Vision 2020, 2, 55, 141 Voter, 22, 99, 105, 106, 108, 110, 216 Voting, 24, 82, 99, 107 Vulnerability, 33, 72, 81, 90, 173, 175–186, 190, 196, 198, 223 Vulnerable, 50, 102, 172, 174, 179, 180, 182, 183, 188, 193, 195, 196, 198, 223 W Wangchuk dynasty, 53 Water and sanitation, 89, 195, 230, 237 Well-being, 1, 7, 35, 41, 42, 50, 55, 75, 83, 85, 141, 176, 180, 190, 193, 235, 241 Wholesome education, 42 Women, 8, 30, 38, 49, 52, 60, 63–65, 84, 90, 139, 145, 151, 159, 174, 184, 188, 192, 195, 223 Worker, 55, 58, 70, 77–81, 89, 111, 151, 183, 194, 220, 224, 252 Work force, 78 World Bank, 22, 56, 58, 59, 63, 65, 177, 179, 191, 228 World Health Organization (WHO), 237, 240, 246 Z Zhabdrung, 52, 54, 61, 101, 104, 115–120, 122, 123, 130, 131 www.ebook3000.com ... Buddhism and education in developing gross national happiness In: Ura K, Galay K (eds) Gross national happiness and development (proceedings of the first international seminar on operationalization... flood Gross National Happiness Gross National Happiness Commission Hyogo Framework for Action International Monetary Fund Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Japan International Cooperation... of gross national happiness) The Centre for Bhutan Studies, Thimphu Mancall M (2004) Gross national happiness and development: an essay In: Ura K, Galay K (eds) Gross national happiness and development