Understanding global poverty

www.ebook3000.com Understanding Global Poverty Understanding Global Poverty introduces students to the study and analysis of poverty, helping them to understand why it is pervasive across human societies, and how it can be reduced through proven policy solutions Using the capabilities and human development approach, the book foregrounds the human aspects of poverty, keeping the voices, experiences and needs of the world’s poor in the centre of the analysis Drawing on decades of teaching, research and fieldwork, this interdisciplinary volume is unique in its rigorous application of the multiple disciplines of anthropology, sociology, political science, public health and economics to the phenomenon of global poverty Starting with definitions and measurement, the book goes on to explore causes of poverty and policy responses, aiming to give a realistic account of what poverty reduction programmes actually look like Finally, the book draws together the ethics of why we should work to reduce poverty and what actions readers themselves can take to reduce poverty This book is an accessible and engaging introduction to the key issues surrounding poverty, with key questions, case studies, discussion questions and further reading suggestions to support learning Perfect as an introductory textbook for postgraduates and upper-level undergraduates, Understanding Global Poverty will also be a valuable resource to policy makers and development practitioners looking for a comprehensive guide to the theoretical frameworks of poverty through the lens of human development Serena Cosgrove is an Assistant Professor of International Studies at Seattle University, USA Benjamin Curtis is a Senior Advisor at The Behavioural Insights Team, UK ‘Serena Cosgrove and Benjamin Curtis have produced a compelling and, at times, moving guide that comprehensively rehearses the major challenges of poverty facing our unequal world, addressing these both conceptually and with empirical evidence and examples Their book requires that we all pay careful attention to lives lacking human dignity and access to a threshold of basic human capabilities for well-being and agency, and to who is responsible for the current deplorable state of affairs globally in which too many people – men, women and children – are deprived unnecessarily and avoidably of human freedoms The book should be required reading for practitioners and policy makers involved in development, as well as scholars working in the field of development, all grappling with the formidable – and yet feasible – challenge of multi-dimensional poverty and its significant reduction As the authors make clear, this is a matter of ethics and global justice – a moral imperative towards which each of us should strive individually and in solidarity with others across levels of communities and governance structures As the authors explain, people reading this book should aspire to think more deeply about both their obligations to reduce poverty and the actions they can take to that end.’ – Melanie Walker, National Research Foundation Chair and Director of the Centre for Research on Higher Education and Development at University of the Free State, South Africa www.ebook3000.com Understanding Global Poverty Causes, Capabilities and Human Development Serena Cosgrove and Benjamin Curtis First published 2018 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Serena Cosgrove and Benjamin Curtis The right of Serena Cosgrove and Benjamin Curtis to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-23076-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-23077-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-31684-0 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK www.ebook3000.com Contents List of figures List of tables Preface Acknowledgements Building a framework for understanding poverty Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove vii viii ix xii Development and its debates Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove 25 Multidimensional poverty measurements Benjamin Curtis 47 Health and poverty Paula E Brentlinger 72 Geographical and spatial poverty Benjamin Curtis 100 Gender and poverty Serena Cosgrove 125 State institutions, governance and poverty Benjamin Curtis 143 Conflict and poverty Serena Cosgrove 172 Education as poverty reduction Benjamin Curtis 201 10 The environment and poverty reduction Benjamin Curtis 222 vi Contents 11 Financial services for the poor Serena Cosgrove 12 Conclusion: ethics and action – what should you about global poverty? Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove Index 242 267 285 www.ebook3000.com Figures 3.1 3.2 3.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 10.1 11.1 Countries by percentage of population living under USD 3.10 PPP per day Countries by Gender Inequality Index score Components of the Multidimensional Poverty Index Countries by GDP per capita Countries by Human Development Index score World malaria risk Map of Guatemala Map of Democratic Republic of the Congo Map of Nicaragua Map of El Salvador Map of Bosnia-Herzegovina Map of Indonesia Map of Costa Rica Map of Ghana 54 59 61 101 101 103 126 136 173 183 194 216 223 251 Tables 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 11.1 List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita List of highest and lowest countries by Gini Coefficient Examples of human development indicators List of countries by Human Development Index Score Top ten countries by highest Multidimensional Poverty Index score Countries ranked according to Voice and Accountability score Countries ranked according to Government Effectiveness score Countries ranked according to Rule of Law score Forms of democratic deficits Elements of human security protection and human development protection Types of microfinance and associated services www.ebook3000.com 54 55 58 59 61 148 148 148 154 189 247 Preface This book has three main objectives First, it presents an interdisciplinary perspective on the problem of global poverty Despite common rhetoric about the benefits of interdisciplinary approaches, research and teaching often remain firmly siloed within individual disciplines The authors of this book are an anthropologist/sociologist and a political scientist, with one chapter written by a medical doctor who is a public health specialist Some vignettes or text boxes were prepared by former students of ours whose majors were interdisciplinary as well: Humanities and International Studies The primary authors have decades of experience in global health, international humanitarian assistance, sustainable development and working with governments The endeavour to harmonize disciplinary perspectives within this book has not been easy, but we believe it was both necessary and rewarding It was necessary because poverty’s multidimensional nature requires an interdisciplinary approach; no single academic discipline can provide an adequate understanding of such a complex phenomenon It was rewarding because it forced us to think outside our own narrow academic specializations, which should help readers think outside narrow bounds too The book thereby presents a more holistic and insightful understanding of poverty than if it were written from the perspective of a single academic discipline The chapters that follow draw on academic literature from philosophy, economics, anthropology, sociology, women’s studies, political science and public health We also draw on research written by international and national practitioners about what does and doesn’t work on the ground for poverty reduction policies And we draw on our own fieldwork For this book, we have carried out research in Latin America (Chile, Argentina, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Brazil), Asia (Indonesia, India and Kyrgyzstan), Africa (Zambia, Ghana, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and several former communist countries in Europe (BosniaHerzegovina, Croatia, Hungary and Slovakia) The second main objective of the book is to introduce undergraduate and graduate students to the capabilities approach: what capabilities or opportunities people need to lead a life that they value? Though there is a considerable literature on this approach to poverty and development, there are few introductory survey texts Those that exist we have found too specialized, or more philosophical than empirical, or otherwise not written in an accessible way to students new to the topic We aimed to write a book that would present readers with some of the key concepts of the capabilities approach, then apply those concepts to a number of causes of and solutions to poverty Because this book is a survey, we emphasize breadth rather than depth in our coverage of capabilities; there are certainly subtleties and specificities that we neglect We 276 Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove defines a human life But one powerful idea is that humanity depends in part on dignity Dignity is something inherent to all human beings, something we all want for ourselves, something that makes our life precious (Bernardini 2010) It is a worth we all have simply by virtue of being human For Nussbaum, dignity means ‘being endowed with capacities for activity and striving’ (2008) It means being able to enjoy certain fundamental freedoms of action, key opportunities to shape one’s own life To be a human living in poverty, then, means that you are denied basic capabilities to which every human being is entitled Living in poverty often means a denial of your dignity, since dignity is predicated on having agency and freedom And when your dignity is denied, so too is your humanity, since being human means having dignity In this way, poverty is an affront to the very definition of being human This is not to imply that people in poverty are in any way ‘less human’ Quite the contrary: the poor are human beings just like the rest of us, they are our brothers and sisters, but they are deprived of the opportunities to realize a fully flourishing human life that everyone should enjoy Every human’s life is equal, it is predicated on a fundamental dignity, which means having the basic capabilities to live a valued life Poverty deprives us of those capabilities, of that dignity, and therefore robs us of an important aspect of our humanity giving circle and/or motivate other people in your network to give A giving circle is typically a group of people who agree to donate to a common cause Giving circles help to raise larger donations for an organization, and they also can strengthen the donors’ commitment both to the cause and to making regular donations You can also encourage other people to give just by talking about the organizations you believe in and why you think it’s important to donate You don’t have to be aggressive: people are often swayed by example, so if you donate regularly and generously and are open about it, you can influence other people to be more generous as well How can you find a good organization to give to? We recommend that you first identify an issue that you really care about Perhaps from reading this book you have latched on to the issue of global health, or women’s rights, or education Whatever the issue might be, think about what you are most committed to, and then identify the organizations that work on that issue We have mentioned many commendable organizations in this book, from Pratham to Catholic Relief Services to PATH You should research any organization you’re interested in to find out more about its activities That research can be as in-depth as you want it to be, such as exploring the details of the organization’s website including its annual reports, or it can be relatively easy A simple way of evaluating an organization is to check out its listing at sites such as www.charity navigator.org, www.givewell.org, or www.guidestar.org These sites offer ratings systems that are partly inspired by the trend of ‘effective altruism’, which seeks to create evidencebased strategies to evaluate the most impactful ways of improving the world (Singer 2015) You should be aware of critics’ claims that such ratings systems overemphasize how much organizations spend for programmes versus administrative or fundraising costs Nonetheless, the three sites listed above are all reputable and useful Finally, if you have no strong preference as to an issue or organization, then consult the list of recommended organizations at www.thelifeyoucansave.org and www.givewell.org www.ebook3000.com Conclusion: ethics and action 277 Volunteer While giving money is something nearly everyone can do, giving time involves a deeper commitment Active work to reduce poverty and promote social justice has the power to make more visible change – not just for the poor, but for you too Volunteering for an organization can help it reach its goals of improving people’s lives Volunteering can also give you skills, and the transformative experience of working for the benefit of others For this reason, we believe that if you possibly can, you should always volunteer As with many of our recommendations, you can strive to make this a lifelong habit The admonition to ‘think globally, act locally’ fits in here You might not be able to work to reduce poverty in some far-off country on a regular basis However, you can routinely give your time and energy to an organization with projects abroad Or you can give your time and energy to an organization that works to fight poverty in your own community Volunteering can be relatively uncomplicated, such as working an hour or two a week at a local soup kitchen, or tutoring kids at a high-needs school a few times a month Your commitment can go much deeper, too, such as by helping an organization with whatever basic, unglamorous tasks it consistently needs like cleaning or maintenance; by contributing specialized skills you might have, such as accounting, marketing or social media; or by contributing expertise (and usually fundraising assistance) through serving on an organization’s advisory board How you find worthy volunteer opportunities? Often a university will have a community service office to partner with organizations that need volunteers Alternatively, United Way is a community network operating throughout North America; consult your local branch’s website for its list of local organizations with volunteer opportunities Idealist.org is another site with many searchable, localized volunteer opportunities Or if you’re interested in volunteering abroad, www.volunteerinternational.org is a good place to start Make different choices You can also help fight poverty by making different choices in your daily life about how you consume Remember that people in the rich world consume planetary resources at a drastically more intensive rate than people in lower-income countries We thereby contribute to the radical inequities in the distribution of those resources Thus we need to change how we consume To begin with, pollution from humans’ carbon consumption is partially responsible for climate change; therefore, drive less, if possible Take public transportation more Also, make sure that you recycle and re-use Many communities now have respectable recycling programmes Encourage your friends, family, school and/or workplace to participate in those programmes Better yet, work to expand those programmes Does your community separate yard waste and food scraps from other trash for use as compost? Doing so is another way of reducing the amount of garbage that goes to landfills, and hopefully consuming more sustainably Consuming more sustainably also means making other choices, such as eating less meat The huge industrial cattle, pig and chicken farms in North America are often responsible for heavy water use and pollution, not to mention cruel conditions for the animals If everyone in the world ate as much beef as North Americans do, the strain on the planet’s resources would be unsupportable You can consider working in other ways, too, for a more just and sustainable food system Get involved with a community garden, for instance, to help support more local agriculture and food sources 278 Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove When you shop, seek out fair trade products Fair trade is a standard promoting greater equity in international trade by improving conditions for marginalized producers and workers in the global south particularly Look for products that are labelled fair trade, whether coffee, bananas, chocolate, flowers, or many others Ten Thousand Villages is a fair trade retailer with shops throughout North America, as well as an online portal where you can buy many different fair trade-certified items such as jewellery, clothes and furniture You may also consider buying from companies that operate on a ‘buy one, give one’ business model The idea behind this model – whose most famous exponents include Toms Shoes and Warby Parker eyewear – is that for every purchase you make, the company donates a product to a needy person or community While this strategy can be beneficial, it has also drawn much criticism, so you should research the particular company you’re buying from and its donation practices Finally, consider consuming less by doing a ‘buy nothing’ day (or week), once a year or even more often Encourage other people in your social network to consume less It is true that your consumption choices may not immediately better the lives of poor people However, the point is to adopt practices that make you a more considerate global citizen, aware of and committed to acting in the interests of the poor at home and around the world Working for a more just society really can start with something as simple as eating less meat Study programmes If you are reading this book, you may already be embarked upon a study programme connected to poverty or international development Regardless, we hope that this book is only a beginning for your engagement with these issues Keep learning about poverty, what causes it and how to reduce it Consider pursuing a major relevant to international development, or social work or sociology for poverty domestically Besides a formal course of study, keep learning by reading the best newspapers such as the New York Times or the Guardian – follow the news outside of your home country, pay attention to events in the global south, read articles that deal with poverty and injustice Follow a good blog or Twitter feed of organizations such as CARE, Oxfam or the Center for Global Development Look at the ‘Further reading’ suggestions in the chapters throughout this book and continue to explore the topics that most interest you Go to lectures at your local university or sponsored by other organizations in your community Many cities in the United States have a World Affairs Council, for instance, which routinely bring interesting speakers knowledgeable about global development topics It is also extremely important to study global poverty by spending time in a developing country, if you can There is no substitute for talking with poor people, and learning first-hand about their lives, troubles, successes and aspirations Particularly if you want to pursue a career in international development, you must gain international experience You should study abroad, whether in formal university courses or by doing an international internship Generally speaking, the more time you spend abroad, the more you’ll learn However, there are also shorter-term opportunities Global Brigades is the largest student-led sustainable development organization in the United States, offering a number of valuable study and service-learning programmes doing international development work Global Visionaries is an organization with programmes in Central America for high-school and gap-year students, and there are many similar outfits You www.ebook3000.com Conclusion: ethics and action 279 could also consider the ‘reality tours’ offered by Global Exchanges, which are open to a wide age range and focus on specific issues such as human rights in the countries visited Educate If you have devoted real energy to learning about global poverty – by reading this book, by taking various classes, by doing development work abroad or by whatever other means – then another way you can work to combat poverty is by educating others Talk to your family, your friends, your co-workers, any community groups you belong to What you tell them? Explain to them that poverty is best conceived as the deprivation of fundamental freedoms, the denial of basic capabilities to which we are all entitled Explain how poverty is multidimensional and needs to be measured not just by income but by a range of other indicators in health, education and civil rights Talk about what good development looks like, and examples of effective poverty reduction programmes Mention why empowering women and girls is so important for reducing poverty, and how that can be accomplished Give the rationales from this chapter for why we all have a responsibility to reduce poverty – encourage people in your social networks to think about their own ethical obligations in relation to suffering and injustice around the globe Combat the common misunderstandings that one hears so often when uninformed people talk about poverty People aren’t poor just because they’re lazy, assistance doesn’t merely make them dependent, poverty isn’t mainly a result of cultural pathologies, foreign aid doesn’t always go down a rat hole, people can’t just lift themselves up by their own bootstraps to get out of poverty and so on Remind people that there are universal human rights and basic capabilities that are violated not only abroad but at home, too Educating others about poverty doesn’t mean that you have to become a professional teacher, though that would certainly be an admirable career ambition Nor does it mean that you have to be a hectoring nuisance who annoys everyone by bringing up poverty in every conversation Be informed, judicious and strategic If in conversation friends or family are expressing ignorant things about poverty, gently correct them with examples from this book or your own reading and experience Be prepared to provide a compelling argument and evidence for your more informed perspective Suggest an article or book that people might read – or share an article when you come across a good one Every so often, instead of watching an entertaining but shallow popcorn movie with a group, watch something that actually deals with issues related to global poverty, whether it’s a documentary or fiction, and then spark a discussion about those issues Demonstrate leadership and organize a movie or speaker event at your school, workplace or community group The objective is to give other people the chance to learn some of the same things that you have learned about global poverty, and there are many ways to accomplish that goal Advocate If you are ready to push your engagement with poverty issues to a still deeper level, then you need to start talking to people in power Educate public officials about poverty and what you think should be done about it For all the outsize role that rich donors play particularly in American politics, many politicians will actually still listen to you 280 Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove even if you’re not rich, especially if you’re a voter in their district Do a search to determine which politicians represent your local area You can focus on the municipal level, the state/provincial/regional level and/or the national level Call or visit your politicians’ offices, send them an email or a letter Sending a personal email or letter (i.e not a form letter) is most likely to get attention Go to city hall meetings or other public forums where policy that can impact poverty is being discussed Then speak up! It is not hard to make your voice heard, and you truly can make an impact even as one individual What should you tell your politicians? At the most general level, you could urge them to increase funding to support anti-poverty programmes worldwide The United States in particular is a laggard when it comes to foreign aid Polls show that Americans think that 28 per cent of the federal budget goes to foreign aid That belief is utterly deluded; a more accurate number is that the United States spends only 0.19 per cent of its GNI on development assistance The internationally valorized target is 0.7 per cent The United States is shamefully below that figure, and far outdistanced by leaders such as Norway and Sweden, which give over 0.9 per cent of their GNI Beyond increasing funding, you can get more specific with your advocacy Tell politicians to decrease subsidies for agribusiness, which are often grossly unfair to farmers in the global south As one famous example, it has been estimated that thanks to subsidies the average cow in the European Union earns around USD 2.60 a day, which means that European cows earn more money than the approximately two billion human beings who live on less than two dollars a day Similarly outrageous stories could be told about agricultural policies throughout most high-income countries Advocate not just for more funding for health and education programmes abroad, but remember the needs of people in your own country Push for equitable education funding for children in disadvantaged areas, mental health programmes and shelters for the homeless, vocational training to help those who are unemployed Oxfam is an organization that often does excellent advocacy work – pay attention to its campaigns and get involved when you can Agitate If you are willing to educate and advocate for global justice, then you may be willing to agitate for it as well Agitating means not just learning, not just caring, not just speaking up It means working actively to make a positive change It means taking some risks, challenging entrenched and complacent power structures It means making a deeper, lasting commitment to change It means taking on leadership roles and building coalitions to make a collective impact Agitating means fighting against forms of injustice whether in your own backyard or far away You might participate in a march for human rights, or stage a rally against unethical corporations You might launch a campaign to encourage your university to divest from fossil fuel industries You might lead protests against income inequality or for immigration reform You might join an existing organization such as Oxfam, RESULTS, One.org or InterAction and work in their campaigns You might create a new group that focuses on a specific poverty issue that you care deeply about You might start a social enterprise that can respond to a carefully determined community need You might spend a period of time living in solidarity with people marginalized by poverty or discrimination Doing this kind of work to promote justice means that you must think deeply about what really matters to you, and what kind of life you want to live There are many different ways www.ebook3000.com Conclusion: ethics and action 281 you can be a ‘changemaker’, and though none of them may be easy, probably nothing else in life is more rewarding than when you give yourself and your energies to help other people What you agitate for? Besides whatever specific issue(s) to which you might dedicate your activism, we urge you to remember that reducing poverty ultimately depends on securing people their freedoms These are the fundamental freedoms of the basic capabilities, all of which support the most important freedom, which is the freedom to live a life that one has reason to value Because we are human beings, we are all entitled to basic rights such as minimum standards of housing, health, education, control over our own bodies, and political agency These capabilities are basic because they make all sorts of other valuable choices possible Take just one example: girls’ education Education, remember, promotes better health outcomes It helps people have more secure economic livelihoods It leads to greater support for democracy and tolerance for diversity Education combats ignorance, which is a form of poverty Education empowers – it helps support a girl’s freedom to choose a life for herself Conceiving of anti-poverty work in this way requires changes in both the discourse about poverty and in practical policy approaches These changes are happening in some places For example, about half of the countries in the world have a right to health care in their constitutions Some, such as South Africa, even have constitutional rights regarding basic shelter The United States Constitution recognizes neither of these rights Among many politicians as well as the general public, this change in discourse and policy practice has yet to occur It would be a worthy effort not just to think about how American society might be different if citizens had a basic right to housing – but also to work towards that right Again, an adequate standard of global justice insists that whatever basic rights we want for ourselves we must guarantee to everyone around the world, and vice versa The objective must be that no one anywhere lives in the absolute poverty defined by the deprivation of those basic rights and capabilities Conclusion Studying global poverty, it is possibly unavoidable and probably essential to consider global justice Any sincere effort to think about how to reduce poverty requires an ethical framework That ethical framework can provide the fundamental motivation for poverty reduction, even if there are different and not always congruent ethical perspectives on this issue As we have seen, some writers argue from the assistance ethic: in effect, people around the world who are suffering from poverty are part of our human family and as such, we should for them what we would for a family member who is suffering Other writers emphasize the restitution ethic The former colonial powers and the leading countries of the global north have benefited so much from the global south – through cheap primary commodities, cheap labour and cheap products – that they have structured the international system to preserve their own advantages, which actually creates poverty There is also the legal and moral framework of human rights treaties which commit our governments (and urge us as individuals) to prevent violations to those rights posed by poverty and suffering Finally, the selfinterest argument holds that if you live comfortably in a high-income country, and you want to continue to enjoy that life, then you must work to reduce global poverty Otherwise, conflict, terrorism, disease outbreaks, and mass migrations from poorer countries will put your lifestyle at risk 282 Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove These are all big, broad arguments for why we should work to reduce poverty, but they actually give us relatively little ethical guidance for how to reduce it For that guidance, we must rely on the principles of solidarity, non-elite participation and decent sufficiency for all These principles underlie ethically responsible development, which in turn must be based on standards of equity, empowerment, cultural freedom, environmental sustainability and human wellbeing Even with all these ideas in mind, we should always remember that doing poverty reduction and development work is hard This is one reason why some writers insist that intervention will only prolong suffering, especially because northern countries so often get it wrong It is important to acknowledge this perspective too Well-intentioned but naïve meddling in people’s lives, helping people to eat for one day while failing to address long-term structural causes of poverty, really can more harm than good Nonetheless, we prefer to err on the side of action rather than inaction All human lives are equal, and the ethos of humanist egalitarianism demands that we try to prevent avoidable suffering Where human rights are being violated, where people are being denied basic capabilities to lead lives that they value, then we have a responsibility to act You of course must make your own choices, even if it is to nothing, to remain complacent What you should not is not decide You should ask yourself: what am I going to do? Given the massive injustices in the world, at home and abroad, what are you going to about them? Whatever you decide, you should make a commitment Write down what you’re going to Don’t be vague – be specific as to exactly what you will Plan for how you will accomplish whatever you’ve written down If you write it down, you are more likely to commit, and more likely to follow through After you’ve written it down, then tell someone else about your commitment Make your commitment public Decide to take action, and then take it Fanciful as it may seem, it is true that one person can make a difference You don’t have to change the world; perhaps all you have to is change yourself Ultimately, we can all be part of a solution to global poverty, and if we are good global citizens, we all have an obligation to so Discussion questions What are some ethical, moral and political reasons for fighting poverty? What arguments would you use to persuade someone about the importance of this goal? What are some different potential meanings of ‘global justice’ that you take from this chapter? What would you in Hardin’s lifeboat scenario? What is your reaction to this line of argument? What is your evaluation of Pogge’s perspective? Would you agree with his critics that a failure to reduce poverty is not morally equivalent to actively causing poverty, and therefore entails different obligations? If you were given a billion dollars to end global poverty, what specifically would you and why? Would your answer change if you only had a thousand dollars to spend? If so, what does that difference tell you about strategies for poverty reduction? Go to this site: www.globalrichlist.com/ Enter your or your parents’ annual income What are the results? What else can you learn from the facts on this page, and how they impact your understanding of yourself and your obligations in relation to global poverty? www.ebook3000.com Conclusion: ethics and action 283 Go to this site: www.givingwhatwecan.org/ How are charities evaluated, what recommendations are there for donors, and what you think about the suggestions for getting involved? Note Famines rarely happen because of a lack of food, and more typically because of a lack of democratic political structures (Sen 1981) Further reading Daley-Harris, Shannon, Jeffrey Keenan and Karen Speerstra 2007 Our Day to End Poverty: 24 ways you can make a difference San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Deneulin, Séverine 2014 Wellbeing, Justice and Development Ethics New York, NY: Routledge Illich, Ivan ‘To hell with good intentions.’ An Address to the Conference on InterAmerican Student Projects (CIASP) in Cuernavaca, Mexico, on 20 April 1968 Pogge, Thomas ‘World poverty and human rights.’ Ethics & International Affairs 19.1 (2005): 1–7 Satz, Debra ‘What we owe the global poor?’ Ethics & International Affairs vol 19.1 (2005): 47–54 Unger, Peter K 1996 Living High and Letting Die: Our illusion of innocence New York NY: Oxford University Press Works cited Barry, Christian, and Gerhard Øverland ‘Responding to global poverty: review essay of Peter Singer, The Life you can Save.’ Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 6.2 (2009): 239–247 Bernardini, Paola ‘Human dignity and human capabilities in Martha C Nussbaum.’ Iustum Aequum Salutare, (2010): 45–51 Chatterjee, Deen K., ed 2004 The Ethics of Assistance: Morality and the distant needy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Collier, Paul 2007 The Bottom Billion: Why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it Oxford: Oxford University Press Crocker, David A 2008 Ethics of Global Development: Agency, capability, and deliberative democracy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gasper, Des 2004 The Ethics of Development: From economism to human development Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press Gasper, Des, and Asuncion St Clair, eds 2010 Development Ethics Farnham, UK: Ashgate Gilabert, Pablo 2012 From Global Poverty to Global Equality: A philosophical exploration Oxford: Oxford University Press Goulet, Denis 2006 Development Ethics at Work: Explorations 1960–2002 London: Routledge Hardin, Garrett ‘Lifeboat ethics: the case against helping the poor.’ Psychology Today, September 1974 Available at: www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_lifeboat_ethics_case_against_helping_poor html, accessed May 2015 Jaggar, Alison, ed 2010 Thomas Pogge and His Critics Cambridge, UK: Polity Press McNeill, Desmond, and Asunción Lera St Clair 2009 Global Poverty, Ethics and Human Rights: The role of multilateral organisations London: Routledge Nagel, Thomas ‘The problem of global justice.’ Philosophy & Public Affairs, 33.2 (2005): 113–147 Nickel, James W 2007 Making Sense of Human Rights, 2nd edn Malden, MA: Blackwell Nussbaum, Martha 2008 ‘Human Dignity and Political Entitlements.’ Chapter 14 in Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays commissioned by the President’s Council on Bioethics Washington, DC Available at: https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/pcbe/reports/human_dignity/chapter14.html, accessed August 2015 284 Benjamin Curtis and Serena Cosgrove Penz, Peter, Jay Drydyk and Pablo S Bose 2011 Displacement by Development: Ethics, rights and responsibilities Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Pogge, Thomas 2008 World Poverty and Human Rights: Cosmopolitan responsibilities and reforms, 2nd edn Cambridge: Polity Press Pogge, Thomas 2007 ‘Severe poverty as a human rights violation.’ In Thomas Pogge, ed Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right: Who owes what to the very poor Paris: UNESCO 11–53 Pogge, Thomas ‘World poverty and human rights.’ Ethics & International Affairs, 19.1 (2005a): 1–7 Pogge, Thomas ‘Severe poverty as a violation of negative duties.’ Ethics & International Affairs, 19.1 (2005b): 55–83 Qizilbash, Mozaffar 1998 ‘Poverty: Concept and Measurement.’ Research Report Series #12 Sustainable Development Policy Institute Rawls, John 1999 A Theory of Justice Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Schweickart, David ‘Global poverty: alternative perspectives on what we should – and why.’ Journal of Social Philosophy, 39.4 (2008): 471–491 Sen, Amartya 1981 Poverty and Famines: An essay on entitlement and deprivation Oxford: Oxford University Press Singer, Peter 2015 The Most Good You Can Do: How effective altruism is changing ideas about living ethically New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Singer, Peter 2009 The Life You Can Save: How to your part to end world poverty New York, NY: Random House Vizard, Polly ‘Pogge vs Sen on global poverty and human rights.’ Éthique et économique/Ethics and Economics, 3.2 (2006): 1–22 www.ebook3000.com Index Locators in italics refer to figures and those in bold to tables abortion, gender-selective 127–128, 130, 134 absolute poverty: capabilities approach 16; ethics 267–268; poverty lines 48–49 access, education 202–204, 209–210 accountability 146, 147, 148 activism: ethical considerations 280–281 actors of development 35–38 adaptive preference 10 advocacy: ethical considerations 279–280 Africa: conflict 175–177; education 202–205, 210, 211–212; environmental issues 229; malaria 91; spatial poverty 110; see also individually named countries African Americans: gender equality 135 agency: capabilities approach 13, 20, 86 agitation (political) 280–281 agriculture: environmental case study 235; spatial poverty 104–105, 106–107, 117; technology 115–116 aid 36, 38–44; see also development Alkire, Sabina 28, 60, 187 armed conflict see conflict Bangladesh: financial services for the poor 242–243, 247, 256, 258; population 273–274 Baran, Paul 26 basic needs 3–4, 6–10, 275–276 bicycle: capabilities approach 6, 13 Bosnia-Herzegovina war 192–193, 194 Brundtland Commission 27 Cambodia 108–109 capabilities approach 5–17; conflict 186, 187; development 28, 29–31; education 208; environmental issues 229–231; financial services for the poor 252–254; gender equality 130–131; Hepatitis C case study 86; malaria case study 92–94; maternal mortality case study 77, 78; measuring poverty 57–60; spatial poverty 112–116; state institutions 151–155, 160; study principles 19–20 central capabilities 6–7 Chile: education 212–214 civil rights: state institutions 152, 153–154 civil society: development 36; state institutions 162 climate: disease 102–104, 103; global warming 96, 227; see also spatial poverty collective action: capabilities approach 17; spatial poverty 114 collective capabilities 113, 114, 117 Collier, Paul 39, 41, 109–110, 118, 196, 274 colonialism: global development 34 Commitment to Development Index 43–44 conditional cash transfers (CCTs) 209–210 conflict 174–176, 195–196; poverty as cause of 176–179; poverty as effect of 180–186; protection of people 186–195, 189; vignette 172–174, 173 The Congo see Democratic Republic of the Congo 286 Index consumption: ethical choices 277–278; vs income 50–51 corruption: political development 39; state institutions 146–147, 149 Costa Rica: environmental issues 222–224, 223, 231–237 credit see financial services for the poor credit-only loans 247, 254–255 Crocker, David 38 Dahl, Robert 153–154 ‘decent sufficiency’ 269–282 decentralization 161–162 deforestation 226 democracy 40, 153–155, 154, 161–162 Democratic Republic of the Congo: conflict 178–179; gender equality 135–137, 136; state institutions 143–144 dependency theory 26 deprivation: capabilities approach 5, 15–16; meaning of poverty 2–3, 21; measuring poverty 48–51; spatial poverty 114 desertification 105, 226 development 25–26; actors of 35–38; aid debate 38–44; capabilities approach 28, 29–31; critiquing 33–35; education 205–209; gender equality 135–139; human 26–29; meaning of 26–27; policy 29–31; and poverty reduction 25, 31–33; state institutions 147–151 development assistance 36, 40, 42 discrimination: spatial poverty 117–118; see also gender equality disease: aid 40; Hepatitis C vignette 82–89; malaria vignette 89–95; spatial poverty 102–104, 117; state institutions 156 distribution of income: and conflict 176–177; definitions of poverty 4; measuring poverty 53–56, 54 ‘Dutch disease’ 39, 41 early childhood development (ECD) programmes 210–211 Easterly, William 39 eclampsia vignette 73–84, 95 economic development: financial services for the poor 261–262; as perspective 28–29 economic issues: gender 133; state institutions 149–151, 152, 159, 160; see also money economic opportunities: role of state institutions 163 ecosystem services 225–226, 229–230 ecotourism 236 education: access 202–204, 209–210; conflict 184–185; as a development strategy 205–209; ethics of helping others 279; financial services for the poor 260–261; improving 209–214; learning outcomes 204–205; measuring poverty 57, 58; as poverty reduction 201–202, 214–217; Sustainable Development Goals 66; universities’ role in development 37 El Salvador: conflict 175, 182, 183, 186, 189, 190–191; microfinance 245–246 empowerment: ethics 269–270; financial services for the poor 257–259 entitlements: capabilities approach 9–10 entrepreneurship: aid 42; microfinance 242–243; see also financial services for the poor environmental issues 224–225, 237–238; assets case studies 231–237; capabilities approach 229–231; disease 102–104, 103; key concepts 225–226; poverty relationship 226–229; vignette 222–224; see also spatial poverty equality: capabilities approach 9, 14; conflict 176–177; development 28; distribution of income 4, 53–56, 54; see also gender equality ethically responsible development 268 ethics 267–268, 281–282; of charity 274–277; obligations 270–274; personal actions 274–281; principles 268–270; understanding poverty 21 Ethiopia: state institutions 166 Europe see Western countries farming see agriculture Fellerman, Julian 248 female genital mutilation (FGM) 134 financial services for the poor 242–243, 262–263; capabilities approach 249–253; impact of 259–262; limitations of microfinance 253–259; microfinance 244–249; types 247 food: aid 41; definition of poverty 2; environmental issues 230; measuring poverty 53; Sustainable Development Goals 66 www.ebook3000.com Index foreign aid 36, 38–44 Foster, James 60 Frank, André Gunder 26 free choice: capabilities approach 10, 13–15, 17; democracy 153–155; development 29; health 72; measuring poverty 57; state institutions 146; wellbeing 19 Friedman, Milton 26 functionings 5–6, 13–14; see also capabilities approach Galtung, Johan 187 GDP per capita: and conflict 176; definitions of poverty 3, 4; measuring poverty 52–53; spatial poverty 100, 101 gender-based violence 133–134, 185 gender equality 127–128, 139–140; conflict 185; development 135–139; education 203–204; financial services for the poor 256, 258–259; index measures 58; measuring poverty 47–48; poverty 128–135; Sustainable Development Goals 66; vignette 125–127 Gender Inequality Index (GII) 58, 59 Gender-related Development Index (GDI) 58 Geneva Conventions 78, 188 geographical poverty 102; see also spatial poverty Ghana: education 201–202, 204; financial services for the poor 249–250, 251 Gini coefficient 53–55, 55 giving circles 276 Global Brigades 278 global development: goal of 31–33; paternalism 33, 34–35 Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) 58 global south: education 202–205, 209–214; state institutions 160, 165 global trends: distribution of income 53–56, 54; spatial poverty 100–102, 101, 119–120 Global Visionaries 278–279 global warming 227 Goulet, Dennis 269–270 Gorvetzian, Andrew 106 governance 165–167; critiquing 159–160; improving 160–165; institutions 145–147, 148; reform programmes 166; vignette 143–144 government: role in development 29–31, 37 287 Grameen Bank, Bangladesh 249 grassroots level: participatory poverty assessments 62 Green Revolution 41 grievances 177 Grindle, Merilee 160 Guatemala 125–127, 126 Hardin, Garrett 273–274 Hayek, Friedrich 26 health 72–73; aid 40; conflict 184; education 206; environmental issues 227, 228, 230; ethics 268–269; financial services for the poor 260; Hepatitis C vignette 82–89; malaria vignette 89–95; maternal mortality vignette 73–82; measuring poverty 57, 58; poverty reduction 95–96; spatial poverty 102–104, 113–114; Sustainable Development Goals 66; unpaid care work 131; see also disease Hepatitis C vignette 82–89, 96 HIV/AIDS 31, 37, 40, 58, 89, 91, 92, 93, 96, 275 households: measuring poverty 50 human development 26–29, 58–59, 206–207 Human Development Index (HDI) 58–9, 100, 101 human-focused approach 18–19, 28 humanist egalitarianism 269 humanitarian aid 36, 38–44 human rights: capabilities approach 9–13; conflict 187–188; ethics 270; healthcare 78, 82, 94; minimum standards of living 275 human wellbeing: measuring poverty 19, 57 income see distribution of income; money independent judiciaries 164 index measures 58–60, 59 India: education 211–212; ‘missing women’ 134 indigenous peoples, environmental issues 222–224, 223 individuals: capabilities approach 5, 14–15, 17; conflict causing poverty 183–186, 189–190; ethics of helping others 274–281; measuring poverty 49–50 Indonesia: education 215–216, 216; state institutions 166 288 Index industrialization: development 33; state institutions 157 inequality see distribution of income; equality information: state institutions 154 infrastructure: conflict 191; remote areas 107–108; spatial poverty 116–117, 118 INGOs (international non-governmental organizations) 36, 37, 42, 137–138 institutions: conflict 180–182; definitions 145–147; ethics 271–273; gender equality 137–138; international nongovernmental organizations 36, 37, 42, 137–138; non-governmental organizations 37; spatial poverty 111–112; see also state institutions insurance 80, 83, 87, 88, 163, 242–244, 246, 247, 248–249, 252, 253, 254, 258 interest rates, financial services for the poor 256 International Covenant on Social, Economic, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) 78–81, 87–88 international development, meaning of 26 international law, conflict 188 International Monetary Fund 34 international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) 36, 37, 42, 137–138 intersectionality 135 irrigation: spatial poverty 104–105 Latin America: environmental issues case studies 222–224, 223, 231–237; spatial poverty 111; see also individually named countries learning outcomes 204–205 legal issues: conflict 181, 178–187, 190–193; environment 235; rule of law 146–147, 148; state institutions 162–163, 164 loans see financial services for the poor Lumana, financial services for the poor 249–250 mainstreaming, gender equality 138–139 Maksudova, Nargiza 261 malaria risk areas 102–104, 103 malaria vignette 89–95 Maleku, Costa Rica 222–224 marginal lands 226 Marshall Plan 39 maternal mortality vignette 73–82, 95 measuring poverty 47–48, 64–65; aid 43–44; capabilities approach 17, 57–60; deprivation 48–51; monetary 52–56; overlap in 63–64; participatory assessments 60–63 medicine: environmental issues 230 Mexico: education 210; maternal mortality 81; Multidimensional Poverty Index 60; state institutions 166 Microcredit see financial services for the poor microfinance see financial services for the poor micro-politics 18 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): healthcare 81; minimum standards of living 275; multidimensionality 65 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 225 ‘missing women’ 134 mobility: spatial poverty 114 modernization theory 26, 33 money: consumption 50–51, 277–278; definition of poverty 2, 3–4; ethics of giving 274–275; measuring poverty 52–56; see also financial services for the poor moral considerations see ethics moral legitimacy: capabilities approach 9–10 Moyo, Dambisa 39 multidimensionality, poverty 21 Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 60, 61, 65, 229 multidisciplinary approach 17–18, 20 multilateral institutions 36 national accounts method 51, 56 national poverty: conflict 180–182; financial services for the poor 259–262; measuring 50, 51, 52–56; see also global trends natural disasters 230 natural resource endowments: degradation 226–229; ecosystem services 225–226; environmental assets case studies 231–237; resource curse 39, 158–159, 272; spatial poverty 104–105 neo-liberalism 26, 32–33, 256 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 37; see also international nongovernmental organizations www.ebook3000.com Index Nicaragua: conflict vignette 172–174, 173; education 210; financial services for the poor 248; measuring poverty 64 Nigeria: state institutions 149 ‘non-elite participation’ 269, 282 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 37; see also international nongovernmental organizations North America: state institutions 156–157; see also individually named countries North, Douglass 145 Nussbaum, Martha: capabilities approach 6–9, 17, 78, 86; conflict 184; development 29, 30; spatial poverty 113, 114 official development assistance (ODA) 36 oppression: capabilities approach 10 Ozkan, Alexander 164 participation see political participation participatory assessments 60–63 participatory poverty assessments (PPAs) 61–62 paternalism, global development 33, 34–35 pay-for-performance, teachers 211–212 peacebuilding: following conflict 189–195 Peru: state institutions 166 Philippines: education 211 Pogge, Thomas 271–273 policy: and development 29–31; spatial poverty 116–120 political development 39 political participation: capabilities approach 5–6; conflict 185, 186; democracy 153–155; education 205–206; ethical considerations 280–281; spatial poverty 112; state institutions 162; see also state institutions politics: environmental issues 227; financial services for the poor 255–256 pollution 227, 228, 230 population 273–274 poverty: capabilities approach 5–17; definition 2–3, 21; gender equality 128–135; health 77–78, 87, 94; income definitions 3–4; principles for study 17–21; see also spatial poverty poverty alleviation 32 poverty eradication 31 poverty gap method 49 poverty lines 48–50, 53–56 289 poverty reduction: and development 25, 31–33; healthcare 95–96; programmes 35–38; see also ethics poverty relief 32 PPP (purchasing power parity) see purchasing power parity Prebitsch, Raúl 26 preferences: capabilities approach 10 private foundations 37, 42 programmes, poverty reduction 35–38 public foundations 37 public goods: conflict 180–182; financial services for the poor 256; measuring poverty 50–51; remote areas 108; spatial poverty 116–117; state institutions 151–153 public health: Hepatitis C case study 84–86; malaria case study 90–91; maternal mortality case study 75–77 purchasing power parity 52, 54, 55–56 race: intersectionality 135 Rawls, John 267 Reasonable Standard of Giving (RSG) 271 reconciliation of conflict 189–195 reconstruction following conflict 189–195 relative geography 102, 109–110, 112; see also spatial poverty relative poverty 16, 32, 48–49 remoteness, spatial poverty 105–110, 118 resource curse 39, 158–159, 272 rights: capabilities approach 9–13; conflict 187–188; education 205; ethics 270; state institutions 152, 153–154 Robeyns, Ingrid 30 Rostow, Walt 26 Rwanda: conflict 191; state institutions 143–144 Sachs, Jeffrey 115–116 Sandersm Sophia 178 security: protection against conflict 186–195, 189; state institutions 151, 163 Sen, Amartya: capabilities approach 5, 13, 15, 17, 86; development 29; education 207; gender equality 130; spatial poverty 114, 116 sexual violence 133–134, 185, 193 shame: capabilities approach 16 Singapore: state institutions 161 Singer, Peter 271, 273, 274 290 Index Smith, Adam 16, 118 social capital: conflict 181; financial services for the poor 257–258 social norms, conflict 191–193 solidarity 269 South Africa: measuring poverty 64 spatial poverty 100–102, 120–121; agriculture 104–105, 106–107, 117; capabilities approach 112–116; disease burden 102–104, 117; institutions 111–112; integration 109–110; policy solutions 116–120; remoteness 105–110, 118–119 state institutions 144–145; capabilities approach 151–155; conflict 190–191; critiquing 159–160; definitions 145–147; development 147–151; governance 156–159; improving 160–165; vignette 143–144 study programmes 278–279 supranational institutions 36 sustainability: development 28; environmental issues 230–231, 235–237; financial services for the poor 254 sustainable development 27 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): education 207–208; measuring poverty 65; minimum standards of living 275; overview 66–69 Tajikistan: conflict 185; state institutions 166 teachers: inadequacy in developing world 205, 211–214 technical assistance 40, 43 technology: geographical poverty 115–116 think tanks: development 37 thresholds: meaning of poverty 3; poverty lines 48–49 trade: spatial poverty 112, 118 trade-offs: development 31–32 transgender 127, 129, 130, 140 ul Haq, Mahbub 27–28 union approach 64 United States (USA): malaria 91; state institutions 156–157 universal capabilities 6–7 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 9–13, 187 universities: development 37 unpaid care work 131–132 urban areas: environmental issues 233–235 ‘veil of ignorance’ 267–268 violent conflict see conflict voice 146, 147, 148, 155, 270, 280 volunteering 277 vulnerability: conflict 186; environmental issues 227–278, 231 Wallerstein, Immanuel 26 war see conflict Washington consensus 26 waste issues 227, 233–235 water availability: environmental issues 227, 230, 231–233; spatial poverty 104–105, 117 welfare, financial services for the poor 256 wellbeing 19, 57 Western countries: aid contributions 43–44; ethical considerations 267–268; malaria 91; paternalism 33, 34–35; state institutions 156–157, 159–160 Women in Development 137–139 World Bank: capabilities approach 5; conflict 175; development 34; measuring poverty 56; participatory poverty assessments 61–62; worldwide governance indicators 147 World Development Report 31, 100, 121 World Health Organization (WHO): aid 40; health definition 72 World Trade Organization: ethics 272 Worldwide Governance Indicators 148, 149–150 www.ebook3000.com .. .Understanding Global Poverty Understanding Global Poverty introduces students to the study and analysis of poverty, helping them to understand why it... phenomenon of global poverty Starting with definitions and measurement, the book goes on to explore causes of poverty and policy responses, aiming to give a realistic account of what poverty reduction... undergraduates, Understanding Global Poverty will also be a valuable resource to policy makers and development practitioners looking for a comprehensive guide to the theoretical frameworks of poverty