Cover Page i HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & CLIMATE Page ii This page intentionally left blank Page iii HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & CLIMATE Neal M. Ashkanasy Celeste P. M. Wilderom Mark F. Peterson Page iv Copyright © 2000 by Sage Publications, Inc All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher For information: Sage Publications, Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 Email: order@sagepub.com Sage Publications Ltd 6 Bonhill Street London EC2A 4PU United Kingdom Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd M32 Market Greater Kailash I New Delhi 110 048 India Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Main entry under title: Handbook of organizational culture and climate / edited by Neal M Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom, and Mark F. Peterson p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0761916024 (acidfree paper) 1. Organizational behavior. 2. Corporate culture I. Ashkanasy, Neal M., 1945 II. Wilderom, Celeste P. M. III. Peterson, Mark F. IV. Title HD58.7 .H363 2000 658.4–dc21 00008367 Printed on acidfree paper. 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 —————————————————— Acquisition Editor: Marquita Flemming Editorial Assistant: Mary Ann Vail Production Editor: Astrid Virding Editorial Assistant: Nevair Kabakian Typesetters: Marion Warren/Janelle Lemaster/Lynn Miyata Indexer: Will Ragsdale Cover Designer: Candice Harman Page v To Linda, Zac, Shawn, and David —N.M.A. To Usama, Noor, and Senna —C.P.M.W. To June and Eugene, Agnes and Tom —M.F.P. Page vi This page intentionally left blank Page vii Contents Viewpoints From Eminent Scholars of Culture and Climate Foreword xi xiii Andrew M. Pettigrew Commentaries The Psychological Life of Organizations xvii Benjamin Schneider Sense and Nonsense About Culture and Climate xxiii Edgar H. Schein Preface and Acknowledgments xxxi Neal M. Ashkanasy Introduction Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom, and Mark F. Peterson PART I. Culture and Climate 1. The Climate for Service: Evolution of a Construct 19 21 Benjamin Schneider, David E. Bowen, Mark G. Ehrhart, and Karen M. Holcombe 2. Values Lost: Redirecting Research on Values in the Workplace 37 Richard W. Stackman, Craig C. Pinder, and Patrick E. Connor Page viii 3. Rules, Sensemaking, Formative Contexts, and Discourse in the Gendering of Organizational Culture 55 Jean C. Helms Mills and Albert J. Mills 4. Symbols in Organizational Culture 71 Anat Rafaeli and Monica Worline 5. Hunting and Gathering in the Early Silicon Age: Cyberspace, Jobs, and the Reformulation of Organizational Culture 85 Marc W. D. Tyrrell 6. Sources of Meaning, Organizations, and Culture: Making Sense of Organizational Events 101 Mark F. Peterson and Peter B. Smith 7. Time and Organizational Culture 117 Allen C. Bluedorn PART II. Measurement and Outcomes of Organizational Culture and Climate 8. Questionnaire Measures of Organizational Culture 129 131 Neal M. Ashkanasy, Lyndelle E. Broadfoot, and Sarah Falkus 9. Using the Organizational Culture Inventory to Understand the Operating Cultures of Organizations 147 Robert A. Cooke and Janet L. Szumal 10. Climate and Culture: How Close Can They Get? 163 Roy L. Payne 11. The HighPerformance Organizational Climate: How Workers Describe TopPerforming Units 177 Jack W. Wiley and Scott M. Brooks 12. Organizational Culture as a Predictor of Organizational Performance 193 Celeste P. M. Wilderom, Ursula Glunk, and Ralf Maslowski 13. Organizational Culture From a Network Perspective 211 Martin Kilduff and Kevin G. Corley Page ix PART III. The Dynamics of Culture and Climate Change 14. Organizational Culture and Climate in Transformations for Quality and Innovation 223 225 John L. Michela and W. Warner Burke 15. The Cultural Dynamics of Organizing and Change 245 Mary Jo Hatch 16. Managerial Ideologies, Organization Culture, and the Outcomes of Innovation: A Competing Values Perspective 261 Raymond F. Zammuto, Blair Gifford, and Eric A. Goodman 17. Toward a New Conceptualization of Culture Change 279 Vijay Sathe and E. Jane Davidson 18. Twelve Testable Assertions About Cultural Dynamics and the Reproduction of Organizational Culture 297 Keith A. Markus 19. Measuring Cultural Fit in Mergers and Acquisitions 309 Yaakov Weber PART IV. Culture, Climate, Commitment, and Careers 20. Ties That Bind: Culture and Attachments in Organizations 321 323 Janice M. Beyer, David R. Hannah, and Laurie P. Milton 21. Commitment and the Study of Organizational Climate and Culture 339 Turo Virtanen 22. Effective Newcomer Socialization Into HighPerformance Organizational Cultures 355 Debra A. Major 23. Organizational Cultures and Careers 369 Hugh Gunz Page 615 an M.B.A. (1977) and a Ph.D. in business administration (1983) from Michigan State University. His research, teaching, and consulting interests in the area of service management include the development of highperformance customers, strategic human resource management in service firms, and empowerment of service employees. He is coauthor, with Benjamin Schneider, of Winning the Service Game and a coeditor of the book series Advances in Services Marketing and Management. His service research has also been published in Sloan Management Review, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Dynamics, and Organization Science Mary Yoko Brannen is Associate Professor of International Business at San Jose State University and Associate Professor of Executive Education at the University of Michigan Business School. She received her M.B.A. with emphasis in international business and Ph.D. in organizational behavior with a minor in anthropology from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, and a B.A. in comparative literature from the University of California at Berkeley. Her research interests include cultural evolution in multinational work arenas, bicultural alienation in Japaneseowned U.S. companies, and the effects of culture on internationalization. Lyndelle E. Broadfoot is a practitioner in the field of human resource management with an active interest in the field of organizational culture. She holds a bachelor's degree with honors from the University of Queensland and a master's degree from the University of Wollongong. Her research focuses on the development of survey measures for organizational culture. As a human resources professional she has worked for several large multinational corporations in the exploration and mining industry and for Australia's leading scientific research organization Scott M. Brooks is Consultant and Manager of Research and Development for Gantz Wiley Research, a consulting firm specializing in employee opinion and customer satisfaction surveys for international corporate clients. In addition to employee survey consulting, he manages the R&D function, which includes oversight of all projects linking employee surveys to customer or business performance measures. His other work includes developing customized and standard employee and customer survey products based upon these linkages, as well as managing WorkTrends™, Gantz Wiley Research's unique database of employee opinions. He has authored numerous presentations and publications based upon linkage research, surveys in general, and other job attitude and measurement topics. Prior to taking his current position at GWR, he worked for the retailer Mervyn's, a division of Dayton Hudson Corporation. He received his Ph.D. in industrial and organizational psychology from the Ohio State University. He is a member of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and the American Psychological Association. Page 616 W. Warner Burke, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology and Education and Chair of the Department of Organization and Leadership at Teachers College, Columbia University. He is also CEO of W. Warner Burke Associates, Inc., an organizational consulting firm. The author or editor of 13 books, including Organization Development: A Process of Learning and Changing (1994), he has also authored or coauthored more than 100 articles and book chapters. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Management, the American Psychological Society, and the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. He is also a Diplomate in Industrial/Organizational Psychology, American Board of Professional Psychology. He is past editor of the American Management Association's quarterly publication, Organizational Dynamics, and served as initial editor for the Academy of Management Executive. He is the recipient of numerous awards, including the NASA Public Service Medal; the Distinguished Contribution to Human Resource Development Award, presented by the American Society for Training and Development; and the Organization Development Professional Practice Area Award for Excellence, also awarded by ASTD. A former member of the Board of Governors of the Academy of Management and the American Society for Training and Development, he designed and served as faculty director of the Columbia Business School's executive program, "Leading and Managing People," from 1988 to 1995. He recently served on a task force for enhancing organizational performance for the National Research Council of the Academy of Science Jagdeep S. Chhokar is Professor at the Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad. He earned his Ph.D. from Louisiana State University in 1983 and has taught previously in Australia and the United States. He had earlier worked in industry for more than a decade in a variety of managerial and engineering positions. Actively involved in crosscultural research for the past few years, he has eclectic professional interests ranging from organizational behavior and organization theory to international marketing and management, crosscultural management, human resource management, and strategic management. His research has appeared in such journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Columbia Journal of World Business, International Labor Review, Industrial Relations, and Journal of Safety Research. He has also contributed chapters to edited books and has written several teaching cases. He is a charter member and a member of the Coordinating Team of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research Project Patrick E. Connor is Professor of Organization Theory and Behavior at the Atkinson Graduate School of Management, Willamette University, in Salem, Oregon. He received his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Washington, a master's degree in industrial administration from Purdue University, and his Ph.D. in organization theory from the University of Washington Page 617 He has previously served on the faculties of Oregon State University and the University of British Columbia. He teaches graduate courses in organization design, managing organizational change, and managerial value systems. He has published five books on management in 10 editions, and some 50 articles, chapters, and book reviews in professional journals and books. His research has appeared in the Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Journal of Management Inquiry, and Public Administration Review, among others. His principal research interests are focused on managerial value systems, especially as they relate to decision making. He is a member of the Academy of International Business, the Academy of Management, the International Society for the Study of Work and Organizational Values, the Organizational Behavior Teaching Society, and the Western Academy of Management (of which he is a past president) Robert A. Cooke is Director of Human Synergistics/Center for Applied Research and Associate Professor of Managerial Studies at the University of Illinois at Chicago. He previously was an Associate Research Scientist at the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center and a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University. He received his Ph.D. in organizational behavior from the Kellogg Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University, where he was a National Defense and Commonwealth Edison Fellow. He has developed numerous survey instruments used for organizational research and development, including the Human Systems Reliability Survey, the Organizational Culture Inventory, the Organizational Effectiveness Inventory, Leadership/Impact, the Group Styles Inventory, and the AMA DISC Survey. His publications on these surveys have appeared in such journals as Psychological Reports, Journal of Applied Psychology, and the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. His surveybased research has been selected for the William Davis Memorial Award for outstanding scholarly research and the Douglas McGregor Memorial Award for Excellence in the Applied Social Sciences Kevin G. Corley is a doctoral student studying organizational theory and organizational behavior at the Smeal College of Business Administration at Pennsylvania State University. His current research interests include organizational culture, organizational reputation and image manager, and how the sensemaking of organizational members is influenced by actions taken at the organizational level. He has forthcoming pieces in the Academy of Management Review and the Academy of Management Journal, as well as a coauthored paper (with Martin Kilduff) on cultural diaspora in the online journal M@n@gement. E. Jane Davidson has undergraduate degrees in chemistry and psychology and an M.A. in industrial and organizational psychology. She has several years of experience as both an internal and an external consultant in government and private Page 618 sector organizations and runs a small, New Zealandbased consulting business. Her areas of specialization are in the evaluation of organizational change, organizational learning, and personnel evaluation. She is currently completing a Ph.D. in organizational behavior and evaluation at Claremont Graduate University. Marcus W. Dickson is Assistant Professor of Industrial/Organizational Psychology at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. He was a charter member of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research Project and a member of the GLOBE Coordinating Team for 6 years, and he served as CoPrincipal Investigator on that project for 2 years. He received his Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from the University of Maryland in 1997. His current research interests include crosscultural organizational culture analysis, organizational climate (especially ethical climates in organizations and climates for innovation), and computermediated communication in organizations. Mark G. Ehrhart is pursuing a Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from the University of Maryland. His research interests include service quality, leadership, and selection in organizations Sarah Falkus received her master's degree in organizational psychology from the University of Queensland in 1998. Her research interests at that time focused on organizational culture. She currently has publications forthcoming in the areas of ethical behavior, in the Journal of Business Ethics, and leadership, as a part of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research Project team led by Robert House at Wharton College. She works at Blackwell Publishers in Oxford, England Blair Gifford is Assistant Professor of Health Management in the College of Business, University of Colorado at Denver. His research interests include health system reform and consolidation. He is currently conducting research on teen prenatal care, quality of life and cardiac mortality, and antitrust issues for hospital mergers. He has a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Chicago and more than 10 years' experience in health services research prior to his coming to the University of Colorado in 1993 Ursula Glunk is Assistant Professor in the Management Department at the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands. She received her Ph.D. in organization studies at Tilburg University in the Netherlands and holds a master's degree in organizational psychology from the University of Mannheim, Germany. In her Ph.D. research she studied the link between internal resources and stakeholder performance in professional service firms. Her current research interests include organizational cognition and the management of professionals Page 619 Eric A. Goodman received his Ph.D. from the University of Colorado at Boulder and is currently a professor of management at Colorado Technical University. His research interests include burnout, empowerment, turnover, organizational justice, mentoring, and change processes. His work has appeared in several outlets, including Group and Organization Management, Organization Development Journal, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, Academic Emergency Medicine, and Annals of Emergency Medicine Cherlyn Skromme Granrose is Professor of Management and OB at Berry College. She received her Ph.D. from Rutgers University in 1981, and from 1981 to 1999 she taught courses in organizational behavior and human resources at Temple University and Claremont Graduate University. She has had a Fulbright summer seminar award to South Korea and Taiwan, a Fulbright research award to Singapore, and a Fulbright teaching award to the People's Republic of China. Her research publications include articles and books on Asian managers' careers, women's workfamily choices, and participative decision making. She is an active member of the International Division of the Academy of Management and has also served on the executive boards of the Women in Management Division and the Careers Division of the Academy of Management Hugh Gunz trained as a chemist in New Zealand and has Ph.D.s in chemistry and organizational behavior. His career started in the petrochemical industry, and he has taught on the faculties of Manchester Business School and the University of Toronto. He has published papers on the careers of managers, professionals and others, the management of technical professionals, and management education. He is the author of Careers and Corporate Cultures. His research interests include the structure of managerial careers in and between organizations and their impact on firms' strategic management, the application of complexity science to careers, and ethical dilemmas experienced by employed professionals David R. Hannah is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Management at the University of Texas at Austin. His dissertation research is on trade secret protection and misappropriation in organizations. His other research interests include psychological contracts, organizational socialization, deviant behavior, and cultural ties between sport and business. He is coauthor of an article forthcoming in the Journal of Sport Management and has presented several papers at professional meetings Mary Jo Hatch (Ph.D., Stanford University) is Professor of Commerce, McIntire School of Commerce, University of Virginia. Her research interests include organizational culture, identity, and image; managerial and organizational humor, irony, and contradiction; and narrative and metaphoric approaches to the study of organizations and organization theory, with particular interests in jazz and theater as Page 620 metaphors for organizing in the 21st century. She has published articles in the Academy of Management Review, Organization Studies, Organization Science, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Management Inquiry, European Journal of Marketing, and Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies. She is European editor for the Journal of Management Inquiry and sits on the editorial boards of Human Relations, Journal of Organizational Change Management, and Corporate Reputation Review. She is the author of Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and Postmodern Perspectives (1997) Jean C. Helms Mills is Assistant Professor of Organizational Behaviour at Mount Allison University in New Brunswick, Canada. Seventeen years with the airline industry instilled in her the need to make sense of the culture of organizations. Her most recent journal article—in Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies— compares the relationship between culture and strategy in two Canadian airline companies. She is currently involved in a longterm study of culture and discriminatory practices in the airline industry, funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada Geert Hofstede is a native of the Netherlands and an Honorary Professor at the University of Hong Kong. He was the founder and first director of the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, now at Tilburg University. He is Emeritus Professor of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at Maastricht University in the Netherlands and a Fellow of the Center for Economic Research at Tilburg University. He holds a master'slevel degree in mechanical engineering from Delft Technical University and a doctorate in social psychology from the University of Groningen. He worked in Dutch as well as international business companies in roles varying from production worker to director of human resources. After that he researched and taught at IMD (Lausanne, Switzerland), INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France), EIASM (Brussels, Belgium), and IIASA (Laxenburg Castle, Austria). Some of his books are Culture's Consequences (1980) and Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (1991). He is among the top 100 most cited authors in the Social Science Citation Index and, of these, one of few non Americans Karen M. Holcombe is pursuing a Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology at the University of Maryland. Her research interests include service quality, leadership, and crosscultural issues in organizations. Qiang Huang, who is from the People's Republic of China, finished his master's degree in sociology at Oklahoma State University and is working on his MFA at Temple University. In his master's thesis, titled Ideology and Social Construction of Reality: A Case Study on Music Therapy, he concludes that ideology has become Page 621 part of constructed social realities and plays an important role in the process of constructing scientific knowledge. He is a member of Midsouth Sociological Association and has published several sociological articles and poetry in various journals Lynn R. Kahle is James Warsaw Professor and Department Chair of Marketing at the University of Oregon in Eugene. Topics of his research include social adaptation, values, and sports marketing. His articles have appeared in such outlets as the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Public Opinion Quarterly, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Child Development. His books include Social Values and Social Change, Marketing Management, and Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics Martin Kilduff (Ph.D., Cornell University) is Professor of Organizational Behavior at Pennsylvania State University. His recent publications, with a variety of coauthors, include a social distance approach to perceived networks (in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, May 1999), an examination of the role of cognitive diversity in the performance of top management teams (in Organization Science, in press), and a distinctiveness approach to the social identity and social networks of underrepresented groups (in Academy of Management Journal, 1998). His current network research is focused in three areas: networks of ethnic entrepreneurs, personality and social networks, and perceived networks. An ongoing interest in approaches from the humanities and their influence on organizational research continues to provide him with creative new research directions in the areas of organizational culture and ethnography, represented in a recent publication on postmodernism (Academy of Management Review, 1997) and a forthcoming article on resisting the discourse of modernity (Human Relations) Jill Kleinberg is Associate Professor in the University of Kansas School of Business, where she teaches courses on comparative and crosscultural management, crosscultural negotiation, business and society in Japan, and organizational ethnography. She has a Ph.D. in cultural anthropology and an M.A. in Japanese studies from the University of Michigan. Her research and publications to date primarily concern emergent culture in Japaneseowned and managed organizations operating in the United States. She is beginning a research project that is focused on crosscultural management issues and the negotiation of cultural identity in Japanese firms in Mexico Debra A. Major received her doctorate in industrial/organizational psychology from Michigan State University in 1992. She is currently Associate Professor in the Psychology Department at Old Dominion University, where she is responsible for training doctoral students in industrial/organizational psychology. Her research interests include several career development issues, including growthfostering Page 622 relationships in the workplace, organizational socialization, and the integration of work and family life. She also studies team effectiveness topics, such as decision making, situational awareness, and training. Her work has appeared in the Journal of Applied Psychology, Human Resource Development Quarterly, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, and Training Research Journal, as well as in several book chapters. She is actively involved in the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and the Academy of Management Keith A. Markus earned his doctoral degree in industrial and organizational psychology from the City University of New York Graduate School by way of Baruch College. Location continues the narrative: He currently holds the position of Assistant Professor of Psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Activity statements follow: He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in research methods. His methodological and substantive research involves the manner in which discursive practices exceed formal structures, as does this biography Ralf Maslowski is a Research Associate at the Department of Educational Administration, University of Twente, in the Netherlands. His primary research interests are organizational culture and effectiveness. His current Ph.D. research is focused on the development of an instrument for measuring school culture and on investigation of the relationship between organizational culture and performance in secondary schools in the Netherlands. He has published several articles on the nature of organizational culture and its impact on the functioning of schools John L. Michela holds a tenured faculty position in the Department of Psychology at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, and an adjunct appointment in Waterloo's Department of Management Sciences. His research and teaching concern various topics in organizational behavior (e.g., culture, leadership, identification, stress), organization development and change (as for innovation), and research methods and statistics (e.g., hierarchical linear modeling). At Waterloo, he has undertaken research and training program collaborations with the Institute for Improvement of Quality and Productivity and with the Institute for Innovation Research. He also has served as Head of the Doctoral Program in Industrial/Organizational Psychology and is cofounder of the Waterloo Organizational Research and Consulting Group. He was previously a tenured faculty member in Columbia University's Program in Social and Organizational Psychology, and he received his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles. He likes to think of his set of competencies as unusual, involving cuttingedge statistical methods, theoretical analysis, and real world applications involving OB and OD topics and approaches Albert J. Mills is Professor of Management at Saint Mary's University in Nova Scotia, Canada. His research activities center on the impacts of organizational reali Page 623 ties upon people, focusing on organizational change and human liberation. This concern was formulated on the shop floor of British industry and through involvement in the movements for social change that characterized the 1960s. He left school at 15, and his early images of organization—images of frustration, sexually segregated work, power disparities, and conflict—were experienced through a series of unskilled jobs and given broader meaning through campaigns for peace, women's liberation, environmental survival, and social change. His coauthored/coedited books include Organizational Rules (1991), Gendering Organizational Analysis (1992), Reading Organization Theory (second edition, 1998), and Managing the Organizational Melting Pot (1997) Laurie P. Milton, M.Sc., M.B.A., Ph.D., is Visiting Professor in the Faculty of Management at the University of Calgary. Two themes consistently unite her research agenda: cooperation and performance within and between work groups, and corporate governance. She studies identity and identity negotiation, social interaction and relationships within organizations, participation or involvement, diversity, group dynamics, and corporate culture because they inform these two themes. She earned her Ph.D. in management from the University of Texas at Austin, her M.B.A. from the University of Calgary, and her M.Sc. from the University of Alberta. Roy L. Payne, B.A., Ph.D., graduated in psychology at Liverpool University and spent 2 years in postgraduate study in the MRC Unit for Occupational Aspects of Ageing. From there he joined the Aston group at the University of Aston in Birmingham, then followed Derek Pugh to the London Graduate School of Business Studies. Seventeen years after leaving there, he went as Professor of Organizational Behaviour to Manchester Business School, having spent the intervening years at the MRC/ESRC Social and Applied Psychology Unit at Sheffield University. After 5 years at Manchester he returned to Sheffield in 1992 to a chair in Organizational Behaviour at Sheffield University Management School, and since June 1997 has been Professor of Organizational Psychology at Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia. His work at Aston led to publications in major international journals on organizational structure and climate/culture in particular, and he has also published extensively in the occupational stress area. The latter publications include four books coedited with Cary L. Cooper that are widely cited in the occupational stress literature. These remain active interests as well as his more recent work on trust in organizations. He has done research and consulting for major organizations in both the public and private sectors Mark F. Peterson, Ph.D., is Professor of Management and International Business at Florida Atlantic University. His principal interests are in the ways managers make sense of work situations and in the implications of culture and international Page 624 relations for the ways organizations should be managed. He has published more than 60 articles and chapters, a similar number of conference papers, and several books. The articles have appeared in major management and international management journals such as Administrative Science Quarterly, Academy of Management Journal, Journal of International Business Studies, Leadership Quarterly, Human Relations, and Organization Science. He has also contributed international management themes to the basic social science literature through chapters in such leading annual volumes as the Annual Review of Psychology, Communication Yearbook, and Research in the Sociology of Organizations. He has written about the roles different parties play in decision making in organizations throughout the world, the effects that culture has on the role stresses that managers experience, the way immigrant entrepreneur communities operate, and the way that intercultural relationships in multicultural teams and across hierarchical levels should function Andrew M. Pettigrew is Professor of Strategy and Organisation at Warwick Business School in England, where he founded and directed the internationally renowned Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change. He is the author or editor of 16 books and many articles in scholarly journals. His latest books are The Innovating Organisation (edited with Evelyn Fenton) and The Handbook of Strategy and Organisation (edited with Howard Thomas and Richard Whittington). Both books are scheduled to appear in 2000 Craig C. Pinder received his Ph.D. in organizational behavior in 1975 from Cornell University. He is author of two books on work motivation, most recently Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior (1998), and many articles in scholarly periodicals on topics related to work motivation, employee transfers and mobility, and philosophy of administrative science. His current research interests include employee silence behavior, organizational retreats, and injustice in work organizations. He is past president of the Western Academy of Management and is currently a member of the board of directors of the British Columbia Human Resources Management Association. He has recently moved to the Faculty of Business at the University of Victoria, after nearly 25 years at the University of British Columbia. Anat Rafaeli is Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management at the Technion, Israel's Institute of Technology. She is interested in emotional and symbolic selfpresentation in organizations, especially as they occur in service interactions. Elena Reigadas, M.A., is a doctoral student at Claremont Graduate University in the Social Psychology Program; her area of specialization is crosscultural psychology. She is currently Assistant Director of the Center for Learning and Academic Support Services at California State University, Dominguez Hills. She is also a pro Page 625 gram evaluator and an independent consultant, owner of Multicultural Research Links. She provides research support services to ensure that research instruments are culturally equivalent and reliable. As an independent consultant she has worked for various agencies and research organizations, providing consulting services in the areas of culture, education, and community program evaluation Gregory M. Rose is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Mississippi. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Oregon. His research has been published in the Journal of Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Advertising, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, and other journals and proceedings Lilach Sagiv is a Lecturer in the School of Business Administration at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She recently received her Ph.D. in social psychology at the Hebrew University, where she studied the role of personal values in the processes and outcomes of career counseling. Her current research focuses on the impacts of congruency between the values of the person and those emphasized in organizational settings (e.g., organizations, occupations). She is also investigating the mechanisms that link personal values to actual behavior Vijay Sathe is Professor of Management in the Peter F. Drucker Graduate School of Management at the Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, California. He was previously a faculty member at Harvard Business School, at IMD in Switzerland, and at Georgia Institute of Technology. His publications include three books and numerous articles in academic and professional journals. He has taught in a number of M.B.A. and executive education programs in the United States and Europe, and has researched and consulted with organizations of various types around the globe Edgar H. Schein is the Sloan Fellows Professor of Management Emeritus and Senior Lecturer at the MIT Sloan School of Management, where he has taught since 1956. He has written on career development, process consultation, and organizational culture. His most recent books are Process Consultation Revisited (1999) and The Corporate Culture Survival Guide (1999) Benjamin Schneider is Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Industrial and Organizational Psychology Program at the University of Maryland. He has also taught at Michigan State University and Yale University and, for shorter periods of time, at BarIlan University (Israel, on a Fulbright), University of AixMarseille (France), and Peking University (People's Republic of China). He holds a Ph.D. in psychology (University of Maryland, 1967) and also an M.B.A. (City University of New York, 1964). His academic accomplishments include more than 85 journal Page 626 articles and book chapters, six books, and appointments to the editorial review boards of the Journal of Applied Psychology and other journals. His interests concern service quality, organizational climate and culture, staffing issues, and personorganization fit, especially the role of manager personality in organizational effectiveness. His most recent book (with David E. Bowen) is Winning the Service Game (1995). Professional recognition for his accomplishments includes election to Fellowship in the American Psychological Association, the American Psychological Society, and the Academy of Management, as well as election to the post of President of the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy of Management and of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. He is also listed in Who's Who in America and derivative volumes. In addition to his academic work, he is Vice President, Organizational and Personnel Research, Inc. His recent research consultantships have included the state of Alabama, Allstate Research and Planning Center, the state of Pennsylvania, Sotheby's, the Metropolitan Opera, and American Express Shalom H. Schwartz is the Leon and Clara Sznajderman Professor of Psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where he has been for the past 20 years. He earlier taught at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and received a Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Michigan. His major current research interests involve studies of human values. He developed a theory of the structure and content of values whose main postulates have been supported in more than 60 countries in an international project he coordinates. This theory has been the focus of work on antecedents and consequences of individual differences in values. He has also generated a theory of dimensions of culture and used the data from the international project to array more than 60 nations around the world on these dimensions. This theory challenges the wellknown individualism/collectivism approach. He is currently studying implications of national culture for what goes on within nations and trying to untangle the mutual causal influences of national culture, social structure, demography, psychological experience, and individual behavior. Aviv Shoham (Ph.D., University of Oregon, 1993) is Senior Lecturer of Marketing and Marketing Area Coordinator at the William Davidson Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology, Haifa. His research focuses on international marketing and marketing strategy and has appeared in such publications as the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of International Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Advertising Research, International Business Review, and Journal of Global Marketing Peter B. Smith is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Sussex, England. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1962. He is author or Page 627 coauthor of six books, most recently Social Psychology Across Cultures (with M. H. Bond), and more than 90 other publications in the fields of social and organizational psychology. He has spent the past 15 years studying crosscultural aspects of leadership and management. He is editor of the Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology Joseph L. Soeters is Professor of Social Sciences at the Faculty of Military Studies of the Royal Netherlands Military Academy in Breda. In addition, he serves as a Professor of Sociology at Tilburg University. His studies focus on the cultural and international dimensions of organizations, and he has published extensively in such journals as Organization Studies, Policing and Society, Journal of Management Studies, Armed Forces and Society, and Accounting, Organizations, and Society Richard W. Stackman is Assistant Professor of Business Administration at the University of Washington, Tacoma. He earned his doctorate in business administration from the University of British Columbia in 1995, where his studies focused on organizational behavior. He holds an undergraduate degree in business administration from the University of California, Berkeley, where he graduated with honors and was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa. His scholarly interests include personal work networks, personal values, career and jobsearch strategies, and organizational sages. Janet L. Szumal is a Senior Research Associate at Human Synergistics/Center for Applied Research. She received both her B.S. degree (1987) in management and her Ph.D. degree (1995) in human resource management from the University of Illinois at Chicago. She is the author of the Organizational Culture Inventory Interpretation and Development Guide and the Cultural Change Situation (a simulation designed to help people to understand and interpret their OCI results) and has coauthored articles on the reliability and validity of the OCI Marc W. D. Tyrrell is currently completing a Ph.D. in sociology at Carleton University, examining the outplacement industry in Canada. His primary research area is in symbolic and behavioral adaptation to change, and he has done fieldwork with career counselors, cyberspace communities, and modern neopagans. He has an academic background in comparative religion, anthropology, and sociology, and his work tends to be syncretic and to focus on the similarity of adaptations human groups come up with. He has presented papers at the annual meetings of the American Sociological Association and the Canadian Anthropological Society as well as at several regional conferences Turo Virtanen is Professor and Head of the Department of Political Science at the University of Helsinki, Finland. He teaches courses in theories of leadership and Page 628 management, theory of public administration and organizations, international administration, and methodology of social science. His research interests have spanned management and leadership of universities and scientific work, philosophy of administration, information management, competencies of civil servants and human resource management in general, theory of policy implementation, international civil service, theory of social action and power, leadership culture, and public management. He is currently doing research on leadership culture and performance management in Finnish state government. He is the author of seven research monographs (published in Finland) and has also published widely in journals and contributed many chapters to books on new public management and human resource management Yaakov Weber heads the Strategic Management area at the School of Management, BenGurion University of the Negrev in Israel. He has authored numerous articles on mergers and acquisitions that have been published in such journals as Strategic Management Journal, Management Science, Journal of Management, Human Relations, and Information and Management. His primary research interests involve the study of the effects of national and organizational culture on the behavior of top managers and on integration processes following international and domestic mergers and acquisitions Celeste P. M. Wilderom is Full Professor of Organization Studies in the Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics, at Tilburg University in the Netherlands. After she received her master's degree in the social sciences in the Netherlands, she acquired a Ph.D. from the State University of New York at Buffalo. She continued her academic career working for the Department of Business Administration at the Free University of Amsterdam, prior to her current appointment. Her main research work concerns the impact of culture on organizational bottom line and politicking, leadership, and other predictors of organization performance, particularly in (professional) servicetype organizations. Jack W. Wiley, Ph.D., is President of Gantz Wiley Research, a consulting firm specializing in conducting employee and customer satisfaction surveys for international corporate clients. Previously, he was Director of Organizational Research at Control Data Business Advisors. He has also held personnel research positions at National Bank of Detroit and Ford Motor Company. He has internationally recognized expertise in linking employee survey results to measures of customer satisfaction and business performance, and has developed WorkTrends™, a normative database of employee opinions. He has written several articles and book chapters on survey research topics and has made numerous presentations to professional associations. He received his Ph.D. in organizational psychology from the University of Tennessee. He is a licensed consulting psychologist, accredited as a senior Page 629 professional in human resources, and has several years of graduate/business school teaching experience as an adjunct professor. He is a member of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the American Psychological Society, the International Association of Applied Psychology, and the Academy of Management. Monica Worline is a graduate student in organizational psychology at the University of Michigan. She is interested in the social nature of learning and the ways in which narratives and symbols affect learning processes in organizations Raymond F. Zammuto (Ph.D., University of Illinois) is Professor of Management at the University of Colorado at Denver. He has conducted research and taught in the areas of organization design, strategic management, turnaround management, and organizational culture for 15 years. He has published two books, Assessing Organizational Effectiveness: Systems Change, Adaptation, and Strategy and Organizations: Theory and Design (with A. Bedeian), as well as numerous articles. Over the past few years, he has consulted on and conducted workshops about organization culture and organization redesign and reengineering for a variety of organizations. Much of this work has focused on helping managers understand why many organizations attempting to redesign themselves fail to achieve their goals and what they can do to reduce organizational barriers to success. His current research focuses on how different organizational cultures and managerial ideologies affect the ability of organizations to adapt to changing environments. He has served on the board of directors of the Organizational Behavior Teaching Society and as Chair of the Organization and Management Theory Division of the Academy of Management. He has been a member of several editorial boards, including those of the Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, and Organization Science, and is a past associate editor of the Academy of Management Executive, a journal dedicated to translating academic theory and research into practical information for managers ...Page i HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & CLIMATE Page ii This page intentionally left blank Page iii HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & CLIMATE Neal M. Ashkanasy Celeste P. M. Wilderom... Mark F. Peterson and Peter B. Smith 7. Time and Organizational Culture 117 Allen C. Bluedorn PART II. Measurement and Outcomes of Organizational Culture and Climate 8. Questionnaire Measures of Organizational Culture 129 131... Viewpoints From Eminent Scholars of Culture and Climate A few scholars have had particularly long and influential roles in developing the ideas of organizational climate and culture. Among these are Andrew Pettigrew, Edgar