The mexican heartland how communities shaped capitalism, a nation, and world history, 1500 2000

T he M e x ic a n he a rT l a n d The Mexican Heartland how coM MU n i T ies sh a Ped c a Pi Ta l isM, a naT ion, a n d wor l d hisTory, 1500– 2000 John Tutino Pr i nc eT on U n i v e r si T y Pr e ss Pr i nc eT on & ox for d Copyright © 2018 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR press.princeton.edu Jacket design by Kathleen Lynch/Black Kat Design Jacket art: Diego Rivera, Friday of Sorrows on the Canal of Santa Anita, in the Court of the Fiestas, 1924 © 2017 Banco de México Diego Rivera & Frida Kahlo Museums Trust Av de Mayo No 2, Col Centro, Del Cuauhtémoc, C.P 06059, Mexico City All Rights Reserved ISBN 978-0-691-17436-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017936621 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available This book has been composed in Miller Printed on acid-free paper ∞ Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For the people of Mexico’s diverse communities, who have taught me so much about history and life and for my grandparents, Anna María and Biaggio Tutino and Lewis and Lillian Paquin who showed me the importance of  land, food, and family in a world ruled by factories T e n Ts inTrodUcTion Capitalism and Community, Autonomy and Patriarchy PA RT I SILV ER CA PITA LISM, 1500–1820 29 chaPTer Empire, Capitalism, and the Silver Economies of Spanish America 31 chaPTer Silver Capitalism and Indigenous Republics: Rebuilding Communities, 1500–1700 57 chaPTer Communities Carrying Capitalism: Symbiotic Exploitations, 1700–1810 91 chaPTer Communities Challenging Capitalism: Insurgency in the Mezquital, 1800–1815 119 chaPTer Insurgencies and Empires: The Fall of Silver Capitalism, 1808–21 146 PA RT II IN DUSTR I A L CA PITA LISM, 1820–1920 171 chaPTer Mexico in the Age of Industrial Capitalism, 1810–1910 173 chaPTer Anáhuac Upside Down: Chalco and Iztacalco, 1820–45 211 chaPTer Commercial Revival, Liberal Reform, and Community Resistance: Chalco, 1845–70 237 chaPTer Carrying Capitalism into Revolution: Making Zapatista Communities, 1870–1920 261 [ viii ] con T e n Ts chaPTer 10 Capitalism Constraining Revolution: Mexico in a World at War, 1910–20 294 PA RT III NATIONA L CA PITA LISM A N D GLOBA LIZ ATION, 1920–2000 319 chaPTer 11 Mexico and the Struggle for National Capitalism, 1920–80 321 chaPTer 12 After Zapata: Communities Carrying National Capitalism, 1920–80 349 chaPTer 13 Building the Metropolis: Mexico City, 1940–2000 375 ePiloGUe After the Fall (of Autonomies): Globalization without Revolution Acknowledgments · 419 Appendix · 423 Abbreviations used in Citations and Bibliography · 433 Notes · 434 Bibliography · 469 Index · 491 402 T he M e x ic a n he a rT l a n d BiBlioGr a Ph y [ 487 ] Tortolero Villaseñor, Alejandro De la coa a la máquina de vapor: Actividad agrícola e innovación tecnológica en las haciendas mexicanas, 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History Berkeley: UCP, 1982 ——— Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century New York: Harper and Row, 1968 Womack, John, Jr “The Mexican Economy during the Revolution, 1910–1920.” Marxist Perspectives 1, no (1978): 80–123 ——— Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader New York: New Press, 1999 ——— Zapata and the Mexican Revolution New York: Knopf, 1968 Wood, Stephanie “Corporate Adjustment in Colonial Mexican Indigenous Towns: The Toluca Region, 1550–1810.” PhD diss., UCLA, 1984 ——— “La evolución de la corporación indígena en la region del Valle de Toluca, 1550– 1810.” In Miño Grijalva, Haciendas, pueblos y comunidades, 117–42 ——— Transcending Conquest: Nahua Views of Spanish Colonial Mexico Norman: UOP, 2003 Wright, Angus The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma Rev ed Austin: UTP, 2005 Wyllie, Robert Crichton México: Noticia sobre su hacienda pública bajo el gobierno español y después de la independencia Mexico City: Ignacio Cumplido, 1845 Reprinted in Documentos para el estudio, 243–352 Cited: RWM Yannakakis, Yanna The Art of Being In Between: Native Intermediaries and Local Rule in Colonial Oaxaca Durham, NC: DUP, 2008 [ 490 ] BiBlioGr a Ph y Zamudio, Guadalupe, and Gloria Camacho Pichardo Estado de México: Experiencias de investigación histórica Toluca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, 2002 Zavala, María Eugenia “La transición demográfica de 1895–2010.” In Rabell Romero, Mexicanos, 87–114 Zavala, Silvio La encomienda Indiana Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1935 Zubieta, José Sentencia definitiva por el despojo del Monte de las Haciendas de S Pedro Martír y S Antonio Abad Mexico City: Imprenta Literaria, 1865 Zulawski, Ann They Eat from Their Labor: Work and Social Change in Colonial Bolivia Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995 i n de x Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations Actopan, 132; harvests, 130; insurgents in, 135–37, 139, 140–41; markets, 121, 122; parish elections, 162 Acuautla, San Francisco, 101, 241–43, 255, 255–56 Aculco, 132, 135, 139, 151 Aguascalientes, 10, 308 Ajusco, Sierra de, 267, 396 Alamán, Lucas, 182–85, 187, 188–91, 193, 198–99, 213–14, 219, 313 Alemán, Miguel, 338–39 Alfajayucan, 134–36, 141 Allende, Ignacio, 131, 149–51, 153, 159 Altamirano y Velasco, Juan Lorenzo Gutiérrez, Conde de Santiago Calimaya, 115, 120 altepetl (head towns), 15, 60, 64, 78, 97–99, 104, 162 Álvarez, Juan, 198, 239, 245 Amecameca, 118, 216, 252–54, 253 American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO), 205–6 Anáhuac, 12–13, 14, 15, 69–70, 211, 235–36 Anaya, Viviano, 254 Anenecuilco, 284 Ángeles, Felipe, 306, 312, 314 anticlericalism, 166, 211, 304, 311, 312, 313, 326–27 Apan, 119, 130, 145, 163–64 Apatzingán, 162 Atengo estates, 79, 86, 102–3, 116, 118, 129, 151, 179, 213 Atitalaquía, 126, 140 Atlantic Revolutions (1770s–1820s), 6, 24, 54, 102 Atlixco, 206, 287 Atzcapotzalco, 61, 382 autonomies: capitalist regimes, 18–20; carrying of capitalism by, 7–10, 57; consolidated, 45; corrosions of, 20–21, 24, 25, 49, 53, 174, 287, 365–72, 407–8, 414; cultural, 14–15; ecological, 13–15, 26; land as basis of, 1–2, 38, 43, 44, 45, 179–81; land reform and, 16, 25, 295, 307, 311, 326–27, 329–33, 351–55; national capitalism and, 342, 358, 366; political, 15; popular, 165–69; reclamation of, 24, 27, 48, 138, 290, 295, 325, 349; renewal of, 25; resistance by, 9, 21, 23; revolutionary challenges, 20–21; silver capitalism and, 1, 24, 32, 45, 47; urbanization and, 20–21, 374, 408, 416–17; Zapatistas on, 314 Ávila Camacho, Miguel, 334–35, 338 Axalco (estate), 218–20 Aztecs See Mexica (Aztecs) Bajío, 1, 12; commercial economies in, 47; exploitations in, 24, 31; insurgencies in, 1–2, 19, 20, 47, 49, 52, 53, 56, 92, 143, 185, 295; as leading silver region, 46, 54; resistance in, 9, 20; rise of capitalism in, 5, 9, 22, 23; social relations in, 38 Banco de Avío, 184, 188, 190–91 Bauman, Zygmunt, 411–12 Beckert, Sven, Bobadilla, Félix, 291 Borlaug, Norman, 342 Bourbon regime, 18–19, 33, 49–50, 51, 54–55, 129, 146, 147, 167 Braudel, Fernand, 3–5, 7–8, 13, 26, 408 Brazil, plantation economy, 32–33, 41 Bustamante, Anastasio, 182, 184, 187–88, 190, 214, 219, 325 Caballero, José Antonio, 215, 217 Cabañas, Lucio, 345 caciques, 42, 51, 77, 268, 285, 352, 361 See also kurakas Cádiz (port), 149, 155, 165 Cádiz constitution, 152–53, 159, 160–62, 163, 165–66, 168, 177, 199, 212, 244–45 [ 491 ] [ 492 ] index Calderón, Felipe, 406 Calderón de la Barca, Frances Inglis (Fanny), 231–34 Calleja, Félix, 131–35, 151–52, 161–62 Calles, Plutarco Elías, 324, 326–30, 353, 372 Calpulalpan, 103, 107 Camacho González, Gloria, 282 Cananea copper mine, 206, 210 capitalism: commercialization and, 408; communities carrying, 7–10; emerging vision of, 3–7; exploitations by, 16–18; Mexican heartland experience of, 10–13; regimes on communities, 7–10; revolution and, 20–21, 307–13 See also commercial capitalism; global capitalism; industrial capitalism; national capitalism; silver capitalism Cárdenas, Cuauhtémoc, 394, 404, 406 Cárdenas, Lázaro: on land distribution, 330, 331–32, 334, 381; on patriarchal land/labor rights, 19; presidency of, 324 Carranza, Venustiano: campaign strategy of, 303–11; Chalco resistance of, 289; Convention and, 306, 309, 311, 314; goals of, 325; Huerta and, 299, 303; labor unions and, 310, 315, 380; on land reform, 310, 311, 314, 315, 331; Mexico City and, 305–7, 309–11, 314; on nationalism, 322; on Plan de Guadalupe, 303; presidency of, 316, 322; Tampico oil and, 312–13; United States and, 306, 309; Veracruz and, 307, 309, 316; Villa and, 304, 305, 312; Yucatán and, 311; Zapata and, 314 See also Constitutionalist movement Catholicism, 70, 82, 123, 160, 166–67, 187, 196, 231, 233, 273, 312, 327, 361, 370, 390 Ceballos, Leonardo, 272, 292 Cedillo, Saturnino, 307, 327, 328 Celaya, 47, 313 Chalco: autonomy/patriarchy in, 270–79, 288; estate crisis, 247–50; estates, 212–17, 220, 237, 238–39, 271; granary, 24, 62–63, 104–5, 211, 270, 417; lake, 62, 271, 273, 276; maize crops, 69, 84; open altar, 64; resistance/rebellion in, 24–25, 240–43, 245, 254–60; rural police, 243–44; sharecropping, 250–54; social violence, 279–83, 284, 289; Temple of San Luis Obispo, 78 See also San José de Chalco; Valle de Chalco Chalma, 100, 290, 353, 354, 385, 387 Chapingo (estate), 95, 103, 109, 288, 342, 343 Chiapas, 22, 44, 45, 58, 62, 153 Chichimecas, 43, 46–47, 48, 62, 70, 71 Chiconcuac, 268, 361–65, 363–64, 369, 372 Chihuahua, 48, 54, 303, 304, 314, 316 chile crops, 44, 53, 57, 68, 106, 359–60, 366 chinampas, 12, 58, 61–63, 69, 79, 82–85, 92–93, 107, 211, 221–24, 226–27, 236, 273, 274 Chinese Revolution (1945–1950), Christianity, 36, 37, 57, 64, 67–68, 69, 70, 82–83, 87, 221, 361, 370–71 Civil War, U.S (1861–1865), 6, 206 Comanches, 196, 199, 206 commercial capitalism, 4, 5–6, 20, 31, 37, 40, 42, 49, 58, 169, 294–95 commercial economy, 15, 46, 51, 91, 136, 174, 176, 180, 295, 307, 308, 310 Compía, La See San José de Chalco (La Compía) Constitutionalist movement, 27; contradictions of revolution in, 314–17; fractures in, 305; national capitalism, promotion of, 294, 296, 322, 330; populist coalition, 311–12; revolution of, 307–13; uprising of, 299, 303; US backing of, 300–310; vs Zapatistas, 25, 289, 295–96, 304–5, 310 See also Carranza, Venustiano Cortina, Conde le la, 137, 138, 139, 143–45 Córdoba, 168, 385 Cortés, Hernán, 35, 43, 46, 60, 62–67, 79 cotton trade: British, 182, 183; gender-based work in, 189–90; Indian, 33, 174–75; mechanization in, 183–84, 188–90, 430–32; Mexican, 188–95, 307; slave labor, 5, 6, 175–76, 179, 187, 195–96, 206, 340; in Texas, 173, 182, 186, 191 counterinsurgency, 133–34, 138–43, 151, 158, 161, 163, 165, 167, 176, 192 index [ 493 ] Coyoacán, 221, 231–32, 248, 287 Cuautla, 107, 142, 240, 377 Cuernavaca, 12, 13, 44; industrialization of, 372–74; insurgencies in, 240, 244, 417; as suburb, 373; sugar estates, 45, 66, 67, 79, 96, 237 Culhuacán, 82–84 Cumplido, Ignacio, 191–92 Cuzco, 40, 50 Fernando VII, 139, 147, 151, 153, 162–68 Filomena, 269, 286–87 Findlay, Ronald, 4–5 Flores, Apolonio, 278 Flores Monjardín, Brígida, 290–91 Fox, Vicente, 406 Frank, Andre Gunder, frijol crops, 44, 53, 57, 68, 106, 359–60, 366 Davis, Mike, 411–12 de la Peña, Guillermo, 366–67, 369–73 Depression (1930s), 7, 321, 329–34 desagüe (drainage) project, 45, 84, 127 Díaz, Porfirio: authoritarian liberalism of, 200; heartland support for, 262, 302; on militarization of patriarchy, 278; Noriega and, 271, 277; Payno and, 234; peace, breakdown of, 296–300; peace under, 203, 260, 261, 262–63, 378; presidency of, 182, 203, 284, 296; vs radicals, 262, 294, 302; on tax exemptions, 291; transfer of power to Madero, 287–88, 296 Díaz Soto y Gama, Antonio, 351–53 disease and depopulation, 34–37, 46, 57, 69, 99 See also specific diseases Doheny, Edward, 209, 309 drought, 94, 96, 100, 112–13, 119, 121–22, 128–31, 150, 155, 214, 284, 296 See also famine Durango, 180, 191, 314 gachupines, 131, 151, 152–53, 160, 166, 167, 168 Galicia, Rafael, 354 gañanes, 108, 109–10, 125–28, 130, 133, 137, 157, 251, 265–66, 267 Gaspar, Margarito, 272, 280 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 394, 404 Germán, Juan Antonio de, 216, 221 global capitalism: China’s role in, 7; dependencies on, 2, 418; diverse embodiments of, 22; export capitalism, fall of, 324–29; history of, 1, 4, 7–10, 31, 32–34, 57, 409; popular participation and, 411; rise to power and, 307; role of Andean silver, 5, 31–32, 321; silver capitalism, role of, 5, 23, 31–32, 36, 44 globalization: collapse and, 25, 393–401; industrial capitalism and, 4–5, 17, 20; under NAFTA, 324, 348, 394, 407; national capitalism and, 7, 25, 324, 346, 347, 394–95, 403–7; turn to, 4, 7, 12, 18, 21, 26, 324, 346, 347–48, 350, 377, 394, 403, 413–14; urbanization and, 341, 346, 410 global trade: commercial capitalism in, 42; economic recession in, 48; in Hapsburg empire, 32–34; local economies and, 57 See also cotton trade; silver capitalism; slave labor; sugar trade gold mining, 35–36, 65, 69, 71, 183, 193, 204–6, 307 gold standard, 173, 204, 205, 206, 296, 302, 329 Goldstone, Jack, 410 Gómez Farías, Valentín, 187, 188, 214, 220 Great War (1914–1918), 7, 25, 294, 313, 315–16 green revolution, 341–44, 382, 409 Griega, La (estate), 164–65 Ébano, El, 312–14 Echarte, Joaquín, 137–38 Echeverría, Luis, 345 encomenderos, 35–36, 64–65, 68, 69, 70, 74, 77, 78–79, 80 encomiendas, 35, 36–37, 70, 81 epidemics See disease and depopulation Escobar, Gonzalo, 328–29 Espinosa de los Monteros, Manuel, 221–35, 222, 244 estates, Spanish commercial, 4; exploitation of labor, 106–13; labor on, 24, 42, 47, 49; land for, 37, 44, 77; mechanization on, 25; seasonal labor on, 107–8, 110, 111 famine, 55, 102, 119, 150, 155, 156 Fernández, Vicente, 138–43 [ 494 ] Index Guadalupe, Our Lady of, 1, 88, 90, 229, 231 Guanajuato mines, 23, 46, 47–47, 48, 54 Guatemala, 43, 44, 45, 58, 62 Guerrero (state), 269, 286, 287, 345, 357, 358, 362, 368, 373, 374 Guerrero, Vicente, 166; on British imports, 183; at La Compía, 213–16; Morelos and, 166, 213; on Plan de Iguala, 166, 168; as political rebel, 163, 167; presidency of, 182, 214, 224; slavery and, 186 Guggenheim family, 205–6, 207, 298, 301, 304, 308 heartland communities: alliances, 64–65, 69–70; capitalism carried by, 7–10, 23, 91; capitalist regimes, 18–20; conquest/ invasions, 63–65; consolidation in, 88–90; cultural adaptation by, 34, 38, 41, 45, 48, 49, 57–58, 67; experience of capitalism, 10–13; indigenous lords, 15, 35–36, 37, 40, 45; influence on capitalism, 21–26; land shortages, 23–24; as Mesoamerican crucible, 58–63, 67; power in, 15–16; reconstruction, adaptation to, 81–88; reconstruction of, 76–81; urbanization and, 2, 20–21, 374, 402–3, 416–17; Zapata, backing of, 2, 20, 56, 261–62, 285–86, 291, 294, 300–301, 306, 316 See also autonomies; republics henequen crops, 208–9, 307, 325 Hidalgo, Miguel, 55–56, 118, 131–32, 139, 149–59, 164, 168 Huerta, Adolfo de la, 326, 353, 368 Huerta, Victoriano, 288–90, 298–309 Huexoculco, 217, 255 Hughes, Jennifer Scheper, 370 Huichapan, 131, 133–35, 139, 142, 155, 159, 163 Huitzilopochtli, 61, 69 Iguala, Plan de (1821), 166–69, 213 Illich, Ivan, 370 Inca empire, 23, 34, 35, 40–42, 50 indias/indios: gente de razón and, 241; use of term, 27, 47, 153, 157, 167 indigenous populations: cultural adaptation by, 34, 38, 41, 45, 48, 49, 67; disease and depopulation, 34–37; lords, 15, 35–36, 37, 40, 45; Spanish adaptation to, 41, 47–48 indigenous republics See republics industrial capitalism: acceleration in, 203–10; globalization and, 3, 4–5, 17, 20; Mexico’s participation in, 12, 18, 322; new era of, 174–76; patriarchy and, 17; symbiotic exploitations of, 17 Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), 338, 406, 411 insurgencies: in Bajío, 1–2, 19, 20, 47, 49, 52, 53, 56, 92, 185, 295; capitalism and, 307–13; collapse of silver economy and, 1–2, 5–6, 15, 17, 19, 21–22, 24, 49, 51, 146–47, 165, 176, 178; cost of, 143–45; drought and, 128–31; end of, 162–65; family sustenance and, 20, 22; in Morelos, 287–89; by Otomí, 119, 142, 162; political/popular, 150–53, 159–60, 165–69, 175, 408; in Querétaro, 56; regions of, 297; social wars, 153–59; in Tulancalco, 120–28, 131–43; unforeseen, 147–50; in Yucatán, 22 See also counterinsurgency Iturbide, Agustín, 162, 166–69, 176, 178–79, 182, 184, 213, 416 Iturrigaray, José de, 147 Ixmiquilpan: insurgents in, 132–33, 134, 135–36, 142; maize plots in, 130; parish elections, 162; slaves in, 74 Ixtlahuaca, 89–90, 100 Iztacalco, 24, 221–31, 227, 236 Jalisco, 160, 201, 206, 327 Jalpa (estate), 136, 250–52 Jaramillo, Rubén, 344–45, 357–58, 363 jefe máximo See Calles, Plutarco Elías Jesuits, 79, 86, 89, 95–97, 102, 114 J.G (analyst), 190, 193–95 Juárez, Benito, 25, 198–203, 237, 248, 254, 256, 258, 351; Ley Juárez, 198, 199 judicial mediation, 18–19, 18–20, 21, 38, 81, 85, 114, 134, 148, 208, 247, 256, 259, 340 Katari, Tomás, 50–51 Katari, Tupaj, 51 kurakas, 40, 41–42, 44–45, 48, 51 labor drafts: cuatequil, 44, 81, 85; end of, 85; mit’a, 40–42, 45; Index [ 495 ] repartimientos, 44, 45, 74, 75, 81, 85; required, 41, 48 land: distribution, 25, 326, 328, 330–33, 334, 341, 349, 381; power and inequities on, 102–6; privatization, 25, 244–47, 270–71; reform, 16, 25, 295, 307, 311, 326–27, 329–33, 351–55; rights, 42, 82–84, 86, 226, 244–45, 298, 299, 314, 351–52, 378 Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastián, 202, 246 Lewis, Oscar, 358–61, 372, 383–84 Ley Juárez (Juárez Law), 198, 199 Ley Lerdo (Lerdo Law), 198–200, 245–47, 250, 257 Lomnitz-Adler, Claudio, 374 López, Julio, 254–59 López Escudero, Manuel, 218–21, 219, 228, 231 Lorenzana, Natalio, 271–72, 281, 291–92 Madero, Francisco, 284–89, 296–303, 307, 312, 328 Madero family, 206, 299, 301–2, 312–13 Madrid (City), 32, 57, 71, 94, 147–48, 162–63, 177 Madrid, Miguel de la, 394, 404 Magaña, Gildardo, 316, 352 maguey, 53, 82, 96–97, 106, 108–9, 120, 125 See also pulque industry maize crops, 13, 44, 53, 55, 57, 132, 253, 359–60, 366; city markets, 79–80, 84, 85, 92–94, 97; in community sustenance, 58, 68, 79–80, 106, 409; dar raciones, 133; elotes, 408; on estates, 95–96, 99, 103, 112–13, 131–43, 216; prices, 71–72, 76, 94, 97, 112, 122–28, 181, 202, 217; summer, 129–30; tithes, 144; as tribute goods, 69, 81, 83–84 Martínez, Esperanza, (pseudonym), 269, 286–87, 352–54 Martínez, Pedro (pseudonym), 267–69, 284–87, 353–54 Martínez de Castro, Cristoval, 219–20, 228 Marx, Karl, matlazáhuatl epidemic, 68, 99–100 Maya, 43, 60, 62, 199, 208–10, 239 Medina, Bartolomé de, 44, 72, 74 Medina Garduño, Manuel, 288 Medina Mayo, Francisco, 291 Méndez Arceo, Sergio, 370, 374 Mesoamericans, 35, 36, 46, 48, 63, 65–68, 71, 73, 76–77, 86–87, 90, 155, 409 See also indigenous populations Mexica (Aztecs): devastation of, 12, 34–35, 43, 46, 69; diet of, 359; dikes/causeways, system of, 84; influence on American Hispanic culture, 90; as Mexican heartland, 12–13, 71; military power of, 60–63, 70; population statistics, 102; revival of, 12; written records of, 86 Mexican revolution (1910–1920), 2, 17, 25, 203, 287–88, 291, 305–17, 375 Mexico City: built on Tenochtitlán, 84; as capital, 13, 91; as center of power, 44, 45, 201–2, 375; coup (1808), 18–19; globalization and, 393–401; granaries, 270; industrialization, effects of, 378–82; mills, 189; rebuilding of, 69, 388–93; silver minted, statistics, 427; survival in, 382–88; terrain, 12; urbanization in twentieth century, 376–78 Mezquital, 44, 84, 96, 120, 122; concessions to, 163, 165; desagüe project, 45, 84, 127; estates in, 107, 127–28, 139; insurgencies in, 13, 20, 52, 53, 56, 63, 119, 128–43, 145, 146, 151–53, 157, 162, 240, 407; population growth, 24; pulque in, 107, 118, 121 Michoacán, 150, 159, 180, 326–32 Mier y Trespalacios, Cosme de, 116 migration, 46, 54, 80, 367–68, 382, 394, 399 Milpa Alta, 287 Miraflores (estate and factory), 216, 270, 274 Miranda, Margarita, 292 mit’a, 40–42, 45 Mixtecs, 43, 61, 62 Moctezuma, 63, 65 Molino de Flores (estate), 102, 114, 117, 212 Monte de las Cruces, 132, 139, 151 Monterrey: Comanche raids on, 206; industrialism in, 207, 301–2, 307–8, 312, 322, 330; Villista coalition, 312–13 Moore, Barrington, 9, 410 morelianos, 278–79 [ 496 ] index Morelos (state), 13, 240; autonomies in, 358–59, 365–72; case studies of laborers, 267–70; insurgencies in, 287–93, 299, 307; land reform in, 349–50; maize crops, 352; new ways of life, 372–74; population pressures, 355, 377; rice crops, 358; sugar trade, 263–66, 279, 300, 317–18 Morelos, José María, 118, 142, 152, 159–60, 162, 163 mulattoes, 46–47, 76, 92, 98, 153, 157, 161, 166–67 NAFTA See North American Free Trade Agreement Nahuatl, 60, 70, 86, 88, 94, 100, 104, 221, 267 Napoleon, invasion of Spain, 18–19, 51, 52, 129, 146, 147 national capitalism: crash of, 25, 339–48; GATT and, 394; globalization and, 7, 25, 324, 346, 347, 394–95, 403–7; industrialization and, 3, 329–30, 334, 338, 395; limits of, 334–39; oil nationalization and, 333–34; promotion of, 2, 12, 18, 21, 25, 294, 321–22, 332–33, 345, 390, 403–4; rural autonomies and, 342, 346, 358, 366; urbanization and, 392, 403 National Revolutionary Party (PNR), 328–30, 333 New Mexico, 54, 58–60 Nezahualcóyotl, Ciudad, 390–93, 397, 399 Noriega, Iđigo, 271, 273, 274, 277, 288, 289, 397 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 2, 324, 348, 394, 398, 405–6, 407–9 Nova Carmona, Victoria, 353 O, Genovevo de la, 290, 291, 352 Oaxaca, 22, 45, 58, 153 obrajes (textile workshops), 42, 45, 55, 90 Obregón, Álvaro: allies of, 303, 305, 380; on Bucareli Accords, 325; capitalism and, 302, 325, 328; Huerta and, 30, 299; on land reform, 305–6, 315–16, 325–26, 331, 349; on nationalism, 322; presidency of, 324–25; as strategist, 310, 316, 326; Villa and, 311, 313–14; Zapatistas and, 312, 316, 351 Ojo de Agua (estate), 103 Olguín, Manuel, 120–39, 141, 143, 144; Condes de Santiago and, 120; on insurgencies, 131–38; on labor, 124–28; maize production and, 130–31, 133; on management of Tulancalco, 120–28; Otomí and, 126; pulque sales, 122, 132; recordkeeping by, 125; tithes and, 124–25, 144 Orizaba, 206, 307 O’Rourke, Kevin, 4–5 Ortiz de Ayala, Tadeo, 182, 184–87, 190 Ortiz Rubio, Pascual, 329, 330 Osorno, José Francisco, 159, 160 Otomí: founding of Querétaro, 46–47; insurgencies by, 119, 142, 162; land shortages, 24; rights in Querétaro, 56, 96 Otumba, 79, 103–4, 119, 143, 145, 163–64 Pachuca: insurrections in, 134, 137; silver mines in, 1, 12, 23, 44, 71, 72, 74–75 Paige, Jeffrey, 410 Parian market, 182, 188, 224 Parral, 48, 88–89 Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM), 333, 338 patriarchy: compadrazgo and, 215; corrosions of, 26, 82, 130, 158–59, 169, 174, 210, 261, 269, 270–79, 281–83, 284, 291, 365, 369, 394, 407, 414; gender relations under, 15–16, 17, 70, 82, 85, 95, 117–18, 190, 233, 359, 383–84, 400; hierarchies of, 15–16, 156, 265–66, 372; in labor relations, 19, 47, 55, 97, 110, 113, 115, 126, 158–59, 190; reclamation of, 269, 287, 291, 295; reinforcement of, 118, 128, 158, 159, 164, 168, 189, 208, 261–62; in silver capitalism, 17, 18, 156; in symbiotic exploitations, 18, 113, 118, 156, 158–59, 266; on symbiotic exploitations, 18; vecinos and, 225; violence of, 15, 19, 113–14, 290–91, 399 Payno, Manuel, 234–35 Pearson, Weetman, 209, 298, 309 Peréz, Antonio, 100–101 petroleum industry, 209, 307, 309, 325, 333–34, 345–46, 393 Phelps Dodge (mining company), 206 Piketty, Thomas, 411–13 index [ 497 ] Pilares (estate), 108, 110–13 pipiltín, 15, 70, 77 Pizarro, Francisco, 35, 40 Plan de Ayala (Zapata), 287, 298, 306 Plan de Iguala (1821), 166–69, 213 PNR (National Revolutionary Party), 328–30, 333 Pomeranz, Kenneth, population growth, 2, 7, 20–21, 25, 49, 51, 53, 92, 102, 341, 375 See also disease and depopulation Portes Gil, Emilio, 328, 329 Potosí silver mines, 32, 36, 39–48, 50, 71 PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), 338, 406, 411 PRM (Party of the Mexican Revolution), 333, 338 Puebla, 45, 47, 180, 188, 189, 190, 310 Puebla-Tlaxcala basin, 310, 315 Pueblito, Our Lady of, 158 Puerto de Nieto (estate), 164 pulque industry, 44, 53, 57, 82, 94; estate production of, 96–97, 102–3, 108–9, 119, 128, 157; gender-based work in, 95, 103, 106, 125; market sales, 130–31, 135, 136–38; symbiotic exploitations in, 106–8; tax collections, 144; tithes, 144; in Tulancalco, 120, 121–23, 125, 132 See also maguey Querétaro: founding of, 46–47; insurgency in, 56; movement, 149, 151; Otomí estates, 157–59, 169; Otomí residents in, 56, 96, 157–58; tobacco factory, 54–5 railroads: expansion, 205, 207, 248; transport to city markets, 25 Real del Monte, 12, 48, 52, 91, 121, 122 Redfield, Robert, 360 Regla, Condes de Santa María de, 101, 102, 103, 114, 135, 250 repartimientos, 44, 45, 74, 75, 81, 85 republics: adaptations by, 38, 81–88; autonomies of, 1, 14, 18, 44–45, 47–48, 53, 57, 94, 161, 164, 199, 295; commercial estates near, 52–53, 81, 91, 92, 96; elimination of, 212, 224; head towns, 15, 60, 64, 78, 97–99, 98–99, 104, 162; landholding by, 83, 92, 98, 103–4, 161, 212, 225, 244–45, 351, 404; municipal rights for, 163–64; reconstruction of, 76–81; silver capitalism and, 23, 38, 44, 57–90, 146, 263, 313; symbiotic exploitations as stabilizing, 23–24, 52, 53, 56, 92, 102, 113, 117–18, 129, 138 See also autonomies; specific republics Reyes, Bernardo, 298, 301 Reyes, Juana, 355 Reyes Lara, María Trinidad, 355 Reynoso, Dolores, 271–72 Rhodakanaty, Plotino, 254 Riva Palacio, Mariano: Guerrero and, 217–18; on irrigation, 240–41, 250; La Compía estate, 217, 221, 426; on Lerdo Law, 247; on rural police, 244; sale of estates, 249, 259–60 Rivera, Diego, 362, 364, 372, 421 Roa, Antonio de, 67, 87 Rockefeller Foundation, 335, 341, 342 Rodríguez, Abelardo, 330 Rodríguez de Pedroso, Manuel, 96–97 Rojas, Rosendo, 266, 267, 269 Romanucci, Lola, 361, 363–65, 369 Romero de Terreros, Pedro See Conde de Regla Ruiz de Alarcón, Hernando, 87–88 Russian Revolution (1917), 7, 294 Sálazar, Teodora, 353–54 Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 394, 404–5 Saltillo, 198, 395 Salvatierra, Marqués de, 120, 133 San Ángel, 232, 248, 378 Sánchez, Atilano, 214–15, 249–50 Sánchez family, Jesús, Manuel, Consuelo, Roberto, Marta (pseudonyms), 383–88 San Gregorio Cuautzingo, 104–5, 106, 216–17, 245, 257–58, 416, 426 San Javier (estate), 135, 137, 232 San José de Chalco (La Compía, estate), 95, 95–96, 103–5, 213–21, 245, 255–58, 271, 273, 416, 416 San Juan del Río, 109, 131, 135 San Luis Potosí, 47, 54 San Rafael (paper mill), 270, 274, 274–75, 276, 279, 416–17, 417 Santa Ana, Antonio López de, 182 Santa Lucía (estates), 79, 86, 89, 96, 102–3, 114, 118, 232 Santiago Calimaya, Condes de, 79, 86, 95, 102, 103, 114–16, 115, 120 Santiago Tianguistengo, 129, 278 [ 498 ] index Santo Domingo, 399–400 Scott, James, 10, 410 Sierra Gorda, 155, 198–99, 239 silver capitalism: autonomies and, 1, 24, 32, 45, 47; challenges to, 99–101; Chinese demand, 36–37, 41, 48, 54; collapse of, 1–2, 5–6, 15, 17, 19, 21–22, 24, 49, 51, 88–89, 146–47, 165, 176, 178; commercial adaptation and, 92–99; diverging economies, 39–48; estates, 57; global capitalism, role in, 5, 23, 31–32, 36, 44, 57, 65, 71–76, 91–92, 177–78; global demand, 36; kurakas and, 41–42; minted, production statistics, 427–28; ore shares, 46, 55, 101, 201; origins of, 23; patriarchy in, 17, 18, 156; power and inequities in, 102–6; production/labor statistics, 423; refining, 36, 65–66, 71, 75, 205, 308; rise of, 1, 6, 18, 21, 23, 32, 65, 76, 87, 102, 117, 200–201, 203–10, 307; slave labor, 41, 46, 66, 71, 73, 74; stealing, 73, 74; stimulus of, 71–76 See also specific mining areas Skocpol, Theda, 410 slave labor: in cotton trade, 5, 6, 33, 175–76, 179, 187, 193, 195–96, 206, 340; in industrial revolution, 5–6; in shipbuilding, 42; in silver economy, 41, 46, 66, 71, 73, 74; in sugar trade, 6, 32–33, 41, 75, 79; Texas secession and, 194–95 smallpox epidemic, 12, 35, 40, 43, 46, 63–64, 99 Sonora, 193, 301–3, 306, 316, 324, 326 Spanish Hapsburg sovereignty, 32–33, 47, 90, 94 sugar trade, 5; estate crops, 53, 79, 85, 95–96; slave labor, 6, 32–33, 41, 74, 79; sugar capitalism, 418 symbiotic exploitations, 16–18; collapse of, 24, 119, 158, 210, 250, 252, 266; insurgencies and, 56, 129; labor as, 106–13; negotiations for, 113–17; new facsimile of, 264–66; patriarchy and, 18, 113, 118, 156, 158–59, 266; as stabilizing, 23–24, 52, 53, 56, 92, 102, 113, 117–18, 129, 138 Tacuba, 61, 79 Tacubaya, 248, 272, 378 Tampico, 209, 210, 309, 312 Tarascans, 34, 43, 46, 62, 69–70, 155, 180 Taxco, 52, 72, 415; silver mines in, 1, 12, 23, 36, 39, 44, 48, 52, 65–67, 71, 74–75, 91, 415 Tehuacán, 408 Tehuantepec, 62, 239 Temamatla, 216, 218, 218–21, 219, 228, 240 Tenancingo, 289–91, 293, 353, 371 Tenango del Valle, 270, 273, 278–80, 284, 289, 293 Tenochtitlán, 1, 12, 60–62; fall of, 62–65, 86; Mexico City built on, 84 Teotihuacán, 43, 58, 103 Tepito, 379, 381, 383, 387, 390, 391, 399 Tepoztlán/Tepoztecos, 221, 285–86, 359–61, 373, 418 Terrazas family, 302, 303, 304 Tetepango: harvests in, 130; markets in, 121, 122; parish elections in, 162 Texcoco, 61; alliances of, 63; lake, 84, 97, 103, 390–91; land rents in, 104 textile industry, 47, 54, 55, 194, 201, 202, 206, 432 Tixtla, 213–14 tlachique/tlachiqueros, 97, 108, 109, 125, 128 tlacolol/tlacololeros, 285, 286, 351, 354, 358–61, 365, 366 Tlahuelilpan (estate), 131–33, 135–37, 138–43, 163 Tlalmanalco, 64, 78, 216, 417 Tlalteguacán (estate), 110–11 Tlaxcala/Tlaxcalans, 35, 43, 45, 62, 64, 69, 301, 307, 310 Tlayacapan, 367–71, 373, 418 tobacco industry, 54, 178 Toluca, 13, 129, 278 See also Valley of Toluca Tonantzin, 88 Totolapan, 67, 68, 82, 87, 100, 370 Tula, 43; as center of power, 58–60; fall of, 60, 63, 82; harvests in, 129–30; insurgencies in, 131–44; rise of, 58 Tulancalco (estate), 102, 130; granary, 132, 417; insurgencies in, 119, 120–28, 131–43; maize on, 131–33 See also Olguín, Manuel Tupac Amaru, 50 index [ 499 ] Turner, John Kenneth, 208 typhus epidemic, 68, 99–100 urbanization: end of revolutions and, 410–15; globalization and, 341, 346, 410; heartland communities and, 2, 20–21, 374, 402–3, 416–17; industrialization and, 373; middle class growth with, 345; national capitalism and, 392, 403; population growth and, 2, 20–21, 25, 341, 375; in twentieth century, 376–78 Valle de Chalco, 396–400, 398 Valley of Mexico, 12, 13, 43, 61, 76; desagüe project, 45, 84, 127; indigenous tributaries, 424; Jesuit properties, 86, 95, 114; land disputes, 425; Mexico City sprawl in, 377; population concentrations, 107, 424; power and production in, 45, 58, 61 Valley of Toluca, 12, 44, 66, 79; adaptations in, 89, 371; insurgencies in, 118, 131, 150–51, 153–55, 289, 293, 300, 353; land disputes, 62, 92, 179, 240, 425; Nahuatl testaments, 94, 97, 103 See also Atengo estates Vázquez, Genaro, 345 vecinos, 222–28, 225, 235, 246 Vega, Regino, 291–92 Velasco, Luis de, 71, 79 Velasco y Ovando, María Isabel, Condesa de Santiago Calimaya, 116 Velasco y Ovando, María Josefa, 116, 120–27, 131, 133–34, 137–38 Veracruz: port, 200, 205, 299, 309; US occupation of, 299, 305–6 Victoria, Guadalupe, 176, 181 Villa, Pancho (villistas): 27, 305–6, 308, 311–12, 380; armies of, 210; Convention and, 306, 309, 311, 314; Zapata and, 295–96, 304–5, 306, 311, 314 Villagrán, Julián, 132, 134–35, 139–40, 142, 159 Villaseca, Alonso de, 74, 79 Villaurrutía family, 241, 249 Wallace, Henry, 334–35, 341, 342 Wallerstein, Immanuel, Wall Street Crash (1929), 25, 321, 329 Walmart, 2, 416, 418 War for North America (1846–1848), 195–96, 206, 238, 239, 301 Warman, Arturo, 352, 354, 365–67, 370 War of Reform (1858–1860), 199–200, 247, 252 wheat crops: on estates, 53, 85, 95, 129–30, 216, 289–90; irrigation for, 55, 79, 84; mechanization, 25, 238; prices, 191; Spanish preference for, 68 Wilson, Henry Lane, 298 Wilson, Woodrow, 298, 299, 309 Wolf, Eric, 4, 9, 20, 410 World War I (1914–1918), 7, 25, 294, 313, 315–16 World War II (1939–1945), 7, 25, 321, 335, 342, 355, 406 Wyllie, Robert, 191–94 Xalatlaco, 270 272–73, 280–82, 290–93, 353–55, 371 Xico (estate), 273–74, 288–89, 397 Xilotepec, 131, 132, 135 Xochimilco, 84, 222, 248 Yucatán, 22, 45, 58, 60, 62, 153, 208 Zacarías, Gorgonio, 290 Zacatecas: mines, 23, 32, 36, 46, 47, 48, 54, 71, 178–79; mine workers, 46–47 Zacatepec, 356, 356–58, 361–65, 368–69, 372–73, 417 Zapata, Emiliano: assassination of, 293, 314, 316, 349; on community rights, 284, 287–88, 290, 298, 302, 306–7, 311; Convention and, 306, 309, 311, 314; heartland backing of, 2, 20, 56, 261–62, 285–86, 291, 294, 300–301, 306, 316; P Villa and, 295–96, 304–5, 306, 311, 314; statue, 356; W Wilson on, 309 See also Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) Zapatistas: on autonomies, 25, 27, 313, 314, 349, 380; mobilization of, 300–305; on patriarchies, 287; Villistas and, 306, 311–12; women as, 292 See also specific individuals Zapotecs, 43, 61, 62, 239 Zavala, Lorenzo de, 212, 224 Zedillo, Ernesto, 405, 406 Zoquiapan (estate), 101, 239, 241, 243, 249, 254, 256, 258 a no T e on T he T y Pe This BooK has been composed in Miller, a Scotch Roman typeface designed by Matthew Carter and first released by Font Bureau in 1997 It resembles Monticello, the typeface developed for The Papers of Thomas Jefferson in the 1940s by C H Griffith and P J Conkwright and reinterpreted in digital form by Carter in 2003 Pleasant Jefferson (“P J.”) Conkwright (1905–1986) was Typographer at Princeton University Press from 1939 to 1970 He was an acclaimed book designer and aiGa Medalist The ornament used throughout this book was designed by Pierre Simon Fournier (1712–1768) and was a favorite of Conkwright’s, used in his design of the Princeton University Library Chronicle ... have taught me so much about history and life and for my grandparents, Anna Mar a and Biaggio Tutino and Lewis and Lillian Paquin who showed me the importance of  land, food, and family in a world. .. communities, and the negotiations that tied them to capitalists and managers, magistrates and merchants Heartland capitalism thrived when it sustained patriarchal families and the communities that grounded... Zacatecas EN DE Durango GULF OF MEXICO Querétaro Mérida Heartland YUCATÁN Veracruz Mexico City Puebla SPANISH MESOAMERICA Acapulco Oaxaca Guatemala PACIFIC OCEAN N Tegucigalpa San Salvador Managua