The rise of the american conservation movement power privilege and environmental protection

THE RISE OF THE AMERICAN CONSERVATION MOVEMENT This page intentionally left blank THE RISE OF THE AMERICAN CONSERVATION MOVEMENT Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection DORCETA E TAYLOR Duke University Press  ◆  Durham and London  ◆ 2016 © 2016 Duke University Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of Amer­i­ca on acid-­free paper ∞ Designed by Courtney Leigh Baker Typeset in Garamond Premier Pro by Westchester Publishing Services Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data Names: Taylor, Dorceta E., author Title: The rise of the American conservation movement : power, privilege, and environmental protection / Dorceta E Taylor Description: Durham : Duke University Press, 2016 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: lccn 2016009769 (print) | lccn 2016011250 (ebook) isbn 9780822361817 (hardcover : alk paper) isbn 9780822361985 (pbk : alk paper) isbn 9780822373971 (e-­book) Subjects: lcsh: Conservation of natu­ral resources—­United States—­History— 19th ­century | Conservation of natu­ral resources—­United States—­History— 20th ­century | Environmental protection—­United States—­History—19th c­ entury | Environmental protection—­United States—­History—20th ­century Classification: lcc s930 t39 2016 (print) | lcc s930 (ebook) | ddc 333.720973–­dc23 lc rec­ord available at http://­lccn​.­loc​.­gov​/­2016009769 Cover art: Carleton E Watkins, North Dome, Yosemite, ca 1865 Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, lc-dig-ppmsca-09988 Duke University Press gratefully acknowledges the support of the School of Natu­ral Resources and Environment and the Office of the Vice Provost for Research at the University of Michigan, which provided funds ­toward the publication of this book Dedicated to my husband, Ian, and ­daughters, Justine and Shaina Siblings Pansy, Seymour, and Ruth Nieces and nephews Stacey, Jamie, Djanielle, Jason, Brandon, DeLeon, and Morgan G ­ rand-­niece Salome This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowl­edgments ◆ ix  Introduction ◆ part i THE IMPETUS FOR CHANGE Key Concepts Informing Early Conservation Thought ◆ Wealthy P ­ eople and the City: An Ambivalent Relationship ◆ 32 part ii MANLINESS, WOMANHOOD, WEALTH, AND SPORT Wealth, Manliness, and Exploring the Outdoors: Racial and Gender Dynamics ◆ 51 Wealth, ­Women, and Outdoor Pursuits ◆ 83 5 ­People of Color: Access to and Control of Resources ◆ 109 part iii WILDLIFE PROTECTION Sport Hunting, Scarcity, and Wildlife Protection ◆ 161 Blaming ­Women, Immigrants, and Minorities for Bird Destruction ◆ 189 Challenging Wildlife Regulations and Understanding the Business-­Conservation Connections ◆ 224 part iv GENDER, WEALTH, AND FOREST CONSERVATION Rural Beautification and Forest Conservation: Gender, Class, and Corporate Dynamics ◆ 257 10 Preservation, Conservation, and Business Interests Collide ◆ 290 11 National Park Preservation, Racism, and Business Relations ◆ 328 12 Nation Building, Racial Exclusion, and the Social Construction of Wildlands ◆ 350 Conclusion ◆ 383  Notes ◆ 399  References ◆ 407  Index ◆ 465 Acknowl­edgments I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my husband Ian and my ­daughters Shaina and Justine for putting up with the writing of yet another book It takes special ­people to put up with the seemingly endless research, references to esoteric facts, and detours to strange places so that I could see something “I wrote about in my book.” Thank you for putting up with it The students of the University of Michigan have inspired me They keep asking challenging questions and are curious about the books I write They want to know more and they push me to write more Thanks to all of you who have supported me I ­really ­couldn’t have done it without all the conversations in my office, over at my ­house, and all over the Dana Building To Maren Spolum, who runs my research program—­thank you for helping to make this pos­si­ble through the wonderful work you To all the research assistants and postdoctoral fellows who have worked in my lab in the past years: I appreciate your help and dedication Special thanks to the School of Natu­ral Resources and Environment and to the Office of the Vice Provost for Research for providing a book subvention award to help with the completion and publication of this book I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers who read the manuscript and provided very useful feedback Your suggestions helped to improve the manuscript tremendously Fi­nally, I want to thank the amazing editorial staff at Duke University Press I have enjoyed working with you Thank you for your support and your belief in the proj­ect Farquhar, Francis, 100–101, 103, 295, 308, 356–357 fauna, 66, 91, 162, 309, 354 feather craze, 190 feathers, 88, 94, 105–108, 189–203, 205–208, 210, 212–213, 221, 230–231, 384 feather workers, 205, 208–209 Fechner, Robert, 368 Federal Register, 380 Federal Reporter, 17–18 Federal Writers’ Proj­ect, 100, 102 Federation Bulletin, 204 Fenelon, James V., 19, 21 Fernald, Merrit, 370 Fernow, Bernhard E., 178, 273 Fetterley, Judith, 97 Filipino, 149–150, 153, 367, 372 Fink, Leon, 250 Finney, Carolyn, 211 Fishbough, Emma, 227 Fisher, A., 164 Fisher, Colin, 373 fisheries, 234, 236 fishing, 79, 235 fish protection legislation, 232, 234–236, 240, 288 Flathead Indian Reservation, 359 Flathead tribe, 357 Fleck, Richard F., 65–66 Fletcher, Alice, 347 floating orphans, 328, 332 flora, 66, 141 Florette, 199 Florida Indian Land Claim Settlement Act, 122 Flour Riot, 3­ fly-­fishing, 186 Folds, Charles W., 250–251 Fontainebleau, 175 Forbes, Linda C., 106 Foreign Miner’s Tax, 151 Forest, Fish, and Game Law, 227, 229–230 Forest and Stream, 72, 182, 187–188, 193, 222, 237, 274, 285, 288, 302, 303, 305 Forester, Frank See Herbert, William Forest Management Act, 278–279 Forest Park, 174 Forest Reserve Act See Sundry Civil Ser­vice Act Forestry Commission, 79, 274–277, 390 Forten, Charlotte, 143 Fort Laramie Treaty, 357 Fort Mandan, 111 Fort Manuel, 112 Fort McPherson, 68 Fort Michilimackinac, 128, 134 Fort St. David’s Fishing Com­pany, 172 Foster, Mark S., 373, 381–382 ­ ourteenth Amendment, 18, 220 F Fox, Stephen, 27, 65, 70–72, 200, 228, 239–242, 244, 246–247, 249, 252–253, 273, 276–279, 282–283, 306, 311–314, 317–318, 324, 326–327, 359, 369–370, 387, 389, 391, 393–394 Franciscan Order, 16 Franklin, John Hope, 13, 125, 128, 131–132 Freeman’s Rec­ord, 136, 139 Frémont, John, 131 Frémont Expedition, 131, 145 French, 10, 25, 54, 62, 95, 111, 113–114, 133, 145 Fresonke, Kris, 111–112 Frick, Henry Clay, 178 Friday, Chris, 151, 153 Friedman, Debra, 31 frontier, 21, 26, 48, 54–56, 65, 67, 73, 76–77, 81, 84, 86, 95–97, 109, 116, 126, 272, 299, 351–354, 370; blacks, 128–129, 133; business mogul, 161–162; heroes, 80, 170; manliness, 182; men, ­ omen, 94–95 77, 129, 133; w frontierism, 2, 24, 26, 352, 354, 384 frontierists or frontierist identity, 26, 53 Frost, Hiram, 76, 168 Frothingham, O. B., 59 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, 163–164 Fuertes, Mary Boynton, 164 Fugitive Slave Law, 134, 138 Fuller, Margaret, 25, 59, 62, 92, 93, 95–97, 142, 196, 351, 355 Furlow, John W., Jr., 79 Gadsden Purchase, 15 Gaines, Kevin K., 374 Gallman, J Matthew, 100 Galton, Francis, 346 Gannett, Henry, 163 Gardener, James, 296 Garfield, James, 316, 322, 337, 388 Garner, John S., 262, 268 Garrison, J Ritchie, 115 Garrison, Tim Alan, 118–119, 121 Geffen, Elizabeth M., 38 gender, 2–5, 9, 22–23, 51, 72, 94, 127, 146, 255, 257, 364, 376, 384, 394, 397 General Allotment Act See Dawes Act General Federation of ­Women’s Clubs, 204, 252, 316, 338, 345, 348, 389 General Land Office, 277, 280, 295 Genovese, Eugene D., 14, 126–127 genteel, 45–46, 48, 51–52, 63, 67, 82, 85, 161, 165–166, 169, 172, 176, 185, 249, 258–259, 384 Gentile, Elliott, 235 472  ◆  Index gentlemen farmers, 57, 64, 258–259, 265, 267–268 Gibbs, John T., 365 Gibson, Campbell J., 26, 34, 112 Gibson, George, 233 Giddens, Anthony, 28 Gilded Age, 81, 161, 364 Giles, Fayette, 175 Gilje, Paul A., 37–38 Gilman, William H., 61 Gilmore, David D., 23 Gilpin, William, 145 Glacier National Park, 73, 79, 107, 335, 337 Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, 153 Glitherall, Eliza B., 96 Goethe, Charles, 346–347 Goetzmann, William H., 162–165 Goldstein, Eric A., 41 Goodspeed, Charles Eliot, 232 Gordon, Vivian V., 377 Gottlieb, Robert, 87 Gower, Calvin W., 368 Graham, Frank, Jr., 182, 191–193, 200–203, 206–207, 211, 213–214, 222–223, 228, 232, 240–242, 247, 252–253 Graham, Shirley, 134 Gramercy Park, 44, 73, 242, 275 ­Grand Canyon National Park, 107 ­Grand Duchy of Baden, 175 ­Grand Tetons National Park, 394 Grangers, 189, 204 Grant, Madison, 344, 346–347 Graves, Harry, 79 Graves, Henry S., 337–338 Gray, Asa, 342 ­Great Migration, 39 ­Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 376, 380 Grebler, Leo, 147 Greeley, Horace, 62, 293–294, 351 Green, A. M., 95 Green Mountains, 40 Greenwood, Grace See Lippincott, Sarah Jane Gregg, Josiah, 67, 69 Gregg, Matthew, 117–118, 121 Gregory, Clara Bartlett, 57 Greve, Charles Theodore, 233 Grieve, Lucia, 210 Grimké, Charlotte Forten, 143 Grinder, Robert Dale, 42 Grinnell, Elizabeth, 73, 194 Grinnell, George Bird, 57, 67, 69–73, 76, 79, 81, 161, 163–165, 168, 170, 181–184, 188, 191–195, 197, 199, 212, 214, 232, 240–241, 253, 274, 302–303, 351, 354, 360, 385–388, 390–391, 393, 395 Grinnell, Thomas, 70 Griscom, John H., 40 Groneman, Carol, 41–42 Groves, H. E., 18 Grunsky, C., 322 Gullah Sea Islands, 381 Gwaltney, William W., 128, 131–132 Haberly, Loyd, 57–58 Habermas, Jürgen, 28 Hague, Arnold, 275 Haizlip, Shirlee Taylor, 381 Hall, Minna, 200 Hallock, Charles, 173, 175 Hallock Bill, 206 Halter, Marilyn, 37 Hamlin, Chauncey, 245 Hammond, Samuel H., 284, 293 Hamnett, Brian R., 15 Hannan, Christopher W., 11 Harding, Robert, 402 Harding, Walter, 24–25, 59–60, 62–63 Harding, Wendy, 295, 2­ 97 Hard-­Scrabble and Snow Hill Riot, 39 Harper’s Bazaar, 197 Harpers Ferry, 377–378, 381 Harper’s Magazine, 149, 197 Harriman, Edward, 162–167, 170, 275, 310, 393 Harriman Alaska Expedition, 161–165, 391 Harris, Ma­de­moi­selle, 190 Harris, Moses, 303–304 Harris, Thaddeus Mason, 69 Harrison, Benjamin, 273, 275, 284, 308, 342, 376–377 Haskell, Llewellyn, 260 Haskin, Frederic J., 231 hats, 31, 88, 105, 107, 190–192, 198, 202–208, 210, 231; dead birds on ­women’s hats, 192–195, 198–199, 202, 207 Haverman, Christopher D., 118 Hawaii, 97, 152–153, 157; bombing of Pearl Harbor, 156; mi­grant laborers, 149; sugar plantations, 147, 150 Hawaiians, 133, 150 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 25, 59–60, 62–63 Hayashi, Brian M., 155–156 Hayden, Dolores, 64 Hayden, Elizabeth Wied, 305 Hayden, Ferdinand, 299–300 Hayden Expedition, 107, 299–300 Hayes, Rutherford B., 90 Index  ◆  473 Hays, Samuel P., 27, 272–277, 279–283, 285, 337, 390–392, 394 Hazen, Henry A., 98 Hazen, Lilian Weston, 104 Hearn, Lafcadio, 149 Hearst, William Randolph, 326 heath hen (Eastern prairie chicken), 171 Hechter, M., 20 Hedge, Frederic Henry, 25 Hedges, Cornelius, 298 Helena Herald, 298 Helweg, Arthur Wesley, 150 Hemenway, Harriet, 199–200, 203, 247, 389, 393 Herbert, William, 168, 173, 187, 215, 233 Herman, David Justin, 52 herons, 89, 194, 200–201, 204, 207, 211 Herrera, Juan José, 144 Herrick, Francis Hobart, 222 Hetch Hetchy, 99, 188, 307, 313–329, 332–333, 339–340, 363, 384–385, 387, 390–391, 393 high society, 56, 161, 170 Hill, Abby Williams, 107 Hill, Andrew, 343 Hitchcock, Ethan, 315–316 Hoar, Elizabeth, 59 Hoar’s bill (George Hoar), 228 Hoffman, Caroline, 201 Hoffman, Charles Fenno, 69 Hofstra, Warren R., 378 Hogan, Linda, 118 Holland, Jacqueline L., 381 Hollister, Thompson, Mrs., 193 Homberger, Eric, 43, 45, 48 Homer, Winslow, 291, 352 Homestake Mining Com­pany, 282 Homestead Act, 342 Hooker, Joseph, 260 Hoover, Herbert, 251, 379 Hopedale, 59 Hopkins, Mary Gross, 262 Hornaday, William ­Temple, 183–184, 196, 211, 217–219, 240–241, 243–245, 253, 304, 373 Horticulturalist, 259 Horvath, Ronald J., 20 Hot Springs National Park, 376–377 Hot Springs Reservation, 376–377 Hough, Emerson, 303 Hough, Franklin B., 271–272 Hough, Philip R., 375 Houk, Seeley, 214–216, 218–219, 287 hounding, 169, 186, 288 housing, 2, 22, 36, 126, 157, 251, 270, 277, 395; affordable housing, 2; slave housing, 126 Howe, Henry, 90 Howell, Ed, 303–305 Hult, Ruby E. J., 129 Humane Society, 204, 211 Hummel, Richard, 52, 167, 170 Hunkins, John, 288 Hunt, Richard Morris, 265 Hunter, Lucille, 130 Hunter, Thomas Lomax, 379 hunters, 12, 71, 77, 79, 117, 128, 131, 169, 171, 173– 174, 182, 188, 195, 206, 213–215, 217, 219–221, 224, 228, 232, 238, 249, 302–304, 347, 358, 360, 363, 388; big game, 182; collectors, 164, 198, 201, 223; elite, 168–169, 186, 214, 305; gentlemen, 168; market, 68, 72, 76, 131, 167–169, 171, 182–183, 190, 196, 212, 214, 218, 221–222, 237–238, 240, 246, 304–305, 352, 357; plume or feather, 197, 212; poor, 187; pot hunters, 168, 188, 208, 210–212, 215, 221, 237; professional, 169; recreational, 170, 220; rural, 186, 237; sport, 72, 76, 164–167, 184–187, 191, 196, 198, 221–222, 232, 288, 384, 391; subsistence, 168, 186, 211, 213, 304; wilderness, 77 hunting licenses, 216, 237, 252 Hutchings, Elvira, 103 Hutchings, James Mason, 103, 294, 357 Hyde Park, 47, 365 Ichioka, Yuji, 153–154 Ickes, Harold L., 375, 380 Idlewild, 382 immigration, 22, 147, 152–154, 157, 346–347, 396 Immigration and Naturalization Act, 157 India, 128, 194, 206 Indian, 10–13, 19–20, 58, 67–68, 165; allotment, 122–123, 128, 133; artifacts, 57, 102, 110–112, 165, 347; blamed for bird destruction, 210, 212–213; Christianization of, 16, 115; collaboration with British, 113; cultural habits, 54, 359; cultural obliteration, 108, 376; destruction of communities, 113; disparagement of, 96, 98, 359–362; displayed in parks, 292; enslavement of, 13; explorers’ fear of Indians, 71–72; fearful of national park landscapes, 358; fearful of whites, 67–68; massacre of, 102; place names, 108; population size, 112; slaveholding, 124; welfare or plight of, 60, 102, 107 Indian acculturation and assimilation, 114–117, 122 Indian agriculture or farming, 115–116, 122–124 Indian Appropriation Act, 114 Indian Country, 114 Indian fighter, 77, 116 474  ◆  Index Indian land appropriated, 112, 114–116, 123–125 Indian land converted to parks and forests, 20, 123, 358 Indian leaders, 113 Indian policies, 102, 113, 122–123 Indian Removal Act, 116 Indian removal and relocation, 21, 114–117, 124, 355–359, 376 Indian Rights Association, 123 Indian wars, 112–113, 355, 361 industrial, 1, 2, 4, 26, 80, 181, 329, 383, 394; facilities, 42, 269, 330; growth, 58; industrialism, 58–60, 77, 383; industrialists, 33, 42, 44, 76, 162, 181, 285; industrialization, 41, 58, 60, 292, 350, 383; laborers, 146; ­labor pool, 148; land uses, 12; pollution, 6, 41, 233; revolution, 59, 350; towns, 58; village, 126; waste, 40 Ingalls, John, 301 Ingram, David, 28 Inland Waterways Commission, 283 internal colonialism, 19 internment, 121, 155–157 Interstate Commerce Clause, 224, 227, 235–236 In the Open, 237 Irving, Washington, 67, 69, 76, 292 Isenberg, Andrew C., 183–185 Ives, H. L., 285 Izaak Walton League, 238, 248–253, 385 jacking, 169–170, 186 Jacklin, Kathleen, 91 Jackson, Andrew, 39, 77, 116, 118–120, 259, 270 Jackson, Donald, 125 Jackson, Edward, 102 Jackson, Helen Hunt, 89, 101–102, 107 Jackson, Kenneth T., 32–33, 41, 43, 64 Jackson, Sanders, 131 Jackson, William, 299 Jacoby, Karl, 285–289 Jaimes, M Annette, 114, 123 James, Edward T., 98 James, Laurence P., 104 Janvier, Thomas, 33, 41, 43–44 Japa­nese, 152–157 Japa­nese American Evacuation Claims Act, 157 Jardin de Plantes, 61 Jay, John, 267 Jefferson, Alison Rose, 381 Jefferson, Thomas, 297 Jeffrey, Julie Roy, 94–96 Jenkins, ­Virginia Scott, 258, 260, 267 Jewett, Sarah Orne, 87–89, 351 Jibou, Robert M., 17, 146–147, 149–151, 153–155 Jim Crow, 372, 380, 395 Johnson, Charles, 367–368 Johnson, Robert Underwood, 273–274, 283, 306–308, 320 Johnson, Rochelle, 88 Johnston, Anna Mills, 99 Johnstown colony, 181 Johnstown flood, 179–181 Joliet, Louis, 128 Jones, Billy, 121 Jones, Esther, 98 Jones, Genevieve, 90 Jones, Holway R., 132, 318 Jones, Howard, 90 Jones Wood, 48 Josselyn, John, 69 Journal of Commerce, 47–48 Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 259 Judd, Richard W., 78, 171, 185–187, 189–190, 215, 232–234, 268, 270–271, 284, 312 Judy, W., 226 Jung, Judy, 150 Kahrl, Andrew William, 376–378 Kaiser, Harvey H., 286 Kant, Immanuel, 24–25, 140 Karr, Ronald Dale, 32, 44–45, 268 Kastor, Peter J., 111–112 Katz, William Loren, 99, 128–134 Kaufman, Polly Welts, 100–103, 107, 347 Keep, Hannah Taylor, 98, 354 Keller, Robert H., 108, 348, 358–359 Kellogg, Vernon, 346 Kenan, Randall, 382 Kent, James, 12 Kent, William, 311–313, 319, 339–340, 344–346, 386–388, 392–394 Kester, Jesse Y., 166 Kilpinen, Jon T., 117–118 King, Clarence, 99, 294, 296 King, Thomas Starr, 294 Kirkland, Caroline Matilda, 86, 94, 96–97, 258, 262, 292 Kirkland, William, 96 Kirtland, Harriet, 101 Kiser, Joy M., 90 Kitano, Harry H. L., 149, 153–155, 157 Kiwanis Club, 249 Klandermans, Bert, 30 Klein, Philip Shriver, 179–181 Kleindeutschland Riot, 37 Knight, Sarah Kemble, 85, 95–96 Knights of ­Labor, 144 Index  ◆  475 Knowlton, Clark, 144 Knox, Philander, 179 Kofalk, Harriet, 106 Korean, 149, 157 Kreiger, Alex, 45 Kyle, Gerard, 265 Lacey, John, 217, 228, 278, 281, 303, 305, 337, 348, 386–388 Lacey Act, 182–183, 208, 212, 228–230, 236 Ladies’ Christian Union of New York, 193 Ladies’ Health Protective Association, 87 Ladies’ Home Journal, 197 Lafayette National Park, 313 Lake Eleanor, 314–317, 322–323, 326 Lake Mohonk Conference, 123 Lakota tribe, 357 Lambert, Darwin, 379–380 Lammon, Dad, 250 Lamora, Oliver, 286–288 Lancaster, Jane Fairchild, 121 Lancaster Treaty, 378 land grant, 143, 145, 275, 308, 310 Lane, Charles, 59 Lane, Franklin, 281, 313, 324–325, 332–333, 344 Langdon, F., 194 Langford, Nathaniel Pitt, 54, 298–301, 303 Lanman, Charles, 69 Lapp, Rudolph M., 130–132 Larsen, C. S., 112 Larson, Kate Clifford, 135–137 Larson, T. A., 258 Las Gorras Blancas, 144 Lassen Volcanic National Park, 99 Latimer, Margaret, 46 Latinos, 9, 15–17, 80, 98, 143–148, 372, 395 Laurel Hill Association, 262–263 Lawrence, Henry W, 44–45 League of American Sportsmen, 206, 228, 240 Le Beau, Bryan F., 24–25, 59 Lebergott, Stanley L., 13 LeConte, Joseph, 333 Lee, Alice, 74–75 Lee, Catherine, 152–154 Lee, Stephen Loius, 145 Leicester Square, 44 Leidesdorff, William Alexander, 132 Leidig, George, 103 Lembi reservation, 304 Lemmon, J. G., 104 Leonard, Harry, 239, 241 Leonard, K. I., 18 Leopold, Aldo, 370 Lewis, Meriwether, 54, 61, 109–111, 128, 135, 170 Lewis, Monte Ross, 118 Lewis and Clark expedition, 13, 61, 109–111, 128, 135, 170 Lewis and Clark Forest Reserve, 79 Lewis Mountain, 379–380 Lewison, Laura, 46 Lillquist, Karl, 156 Limbaugh, Ronald H., 389 Limerick, Patricia, 146 Lincoln Inn Fields, 44 Lindberg, Richard C., 134 Lippincott, Sarah Jane, 101–102, 104 Lipson, Dorothy Ann, 39 Littlefield, Daniel, 14 ­Little Missouri Stockmen’s Association, 75 Llewellyn Park, 260 Lo, Clarence Y. H., 248 Locke, John, 11–12, 24 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 75 Logan, Olive, 102 Long Expedition, 54, 56 Longrigg, Roger, 52 Lorimer, George, 346 Los Angeles Times, 199, 202, 204, 209–210, 213, 221, 239, 250, 263, 268, 307, 312, 322–324, 327 Loudon, John Claudius, 64 Louisburg Square, 44 Lovejoy, Arthur, 25–26 lower class See social class Lowry, Beverly, 135 Ludlow, Charlotte, 95 Ludlow Expedition (William Ludlow), 72 Macieski, Robert L., 33, 39, 44–45, 268 Mackinac National Park, 328 Mackintosh, Barry, 334, 339 Madsen, David, 253 Magagnini, Stephen, 130, 132 Magner, John, 226 Maher, Neil M., 365–366, 369–372 Majumdar, R. D., 18–19 Malay, 18 Malloy, Elaine, 59 Manchester, Arthur, 236 Manifest Destiny, 26, 54, 109, 124, 161 Manson, Marsden, 314, 316, 319 Manton, May, 207 Mariposa Battalion, 356–357, 360 Mariposa Gazette, 101 Mariposa Grove, 295–296, 298, 307–310 Mariposa Mining Com­pany, 103 Marquette, James, 128 476  ◆  Index Marsh, George Perkins, 52, 65, 76, 78–79, 164, 190, 197, 233, 265–266, 270–271, 274, 286 Marsh, Othniel C., 71 Marshall, George, 369 Marshall, John, 12, 112 Marshall, Megan, 25 Marshall, Robert (Bob), 359, 369–370 Marshall, Robert B., 332, 339, 341 Marshall, Sarah, 107 Martha’s Vineyard, 380–382 Martin, Mary, 100 Marx, C., 322 Mason, Biddy (Bridget), 84, 132, 135 Mas­sa­chu­setts Audubon Society, 200–203 Masten, Arthur, 285 Mather, Stephen Tyng, 108, 330, 333–336, 338–341, 345, 354, 377–379, 386, 388, 392–393 Matthiessen, Peter, 171 Maxwell, George, 280, 364, 394 Mazamas Club, 1­ 03 McCarran-­Wallace Act, 154 McChesney, Fred S., 123 McCoy, Michael B., 38 McCullough, David G., 179–180 McClurg, ­Virginia, 347–348 McDermott, John M., 364 McFarland, J Horace, 283, 319, 330, 333, 338–340 McFarland, Philip, 93 McGee, W., 280 McGinley, Mary, 209 McGough, Michael, 179–180 McIntosh, Phyllis, 369 McKinley, William, 278, 280, 285 McLellan, Isaac, 197 McLoughlin, William G., 119 McMahon, Michael, 40 McMullan, Kate, 135–139 McRae, Bennie J., Jr., 133 Meehan, Thomas A., 134 Melendy, H Brett, 152 Mellon, Andrew W., 163, 178–179 Meloy, Andrew D., 232, 240 Melville, Herman, 60 Mendel, George, 314, 322 Menominee Indians, 65 Merchant, Carolyn, 23, 198 Merriam, C Hart, 106, 163, 205, 241, 344–345 Merriam, John Campbell, 344 Mesa Verde National Park, 348–349 Mesa Verde Park Act, 348 Metropolitan Club, 182 ­middle class See social class Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 230–231 Miller, Adolph C., 332–333 Miller, Char, 76, 78–79, 265, 332 Miller, Harriet Mann, 105, 144, 192 Miller, Olive Thorne See Miller, Harriet Mann Miller, Robert J., 54, 111 Miller, Watts Todd, 105 milliners or millinery, 190–192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 203–210, 212–213, 221, 231–232, 238, 313 Millinery Merchants’ Protective Association, 206–208 Millinery Trade Review, 228 Millner, Darrell M., 125 Mills, C Wright, 28 Min, Pyong Gap, 157 Ming, W. R., 18 minorities, 4, 17, 109–110, 189–190, 210, 331, 366, 367, 396–397 Minot, Charles, 200 Minot, William, 211 Minturn, Robert, 47 Minturn Circle, 47–48 Mission Indians, 102 Missouri Botanical Garden, 260 Missouri Republican, 42 Mitchell, Arthur Wergs, 377 Mitchell, Don, 147 Miwok Indians, 150 model law, 191–192 Modoc War, 361 Mondell, F., 3­ 22 Mondragón-­Valdéz, Maria, 145–146 Mongolian, 18 Mono Indians, 361 Mooar, Josiah, 237 Mooney, James E., 43, 53 Moore, Glenn, 260 Moore, Jacqueline M., 377 Moran, Thomas, 291, 299–300 Morgan, J Pierpont, 126, 183, 287–288 Mormons or Mormonism, 107, 132 Morris, Elizabeth S., 369 Morris, Glen T., 113 Morris, James S., 59 Morris, Lewis, 53 Morton, Sterling, 271 Moseley, Ella Lowery, 207, 212 Moses, Marion, 147 Mosher, Donald L., 23 Moulton, Gary E., 111–112, 125 Mountaineer Club, 103 Mount Desert Island, 212, 312–313 Mount Katahdin, 98 Mount Regale Fishing Com­pany, 172 Index  ◆  477 Mount Tamalpais National Park Association, 311 Mount Tamalpais State Park, 312 Mount Rainier National Park, 339 Mount Vernon, 376 Muir, Daniel, 272 Muir, John, 26, 64–66, 69, 78, 80–83, 88, 99–101, 106, 135, 137–139, 163, 165, 183, 272–273, 275–276, 283, 290, 306–313, 316–325, 329–330, 333, 339, 342, 351–352, 354–355, 360–362, 387, 389, 390–391, 393, 395; views on Indians, 359–362 Muir Woods, 311–313, 319, 339, 393 Murphy, Robert Cushman, 243, 245 Museum Gazette, 129 Museum of Comparative Zoology, 191 Myres, Sandra L., 95 Nabokov, Peter, 10–11, 112–114, 116–118, 122–124 Nasaw, David, 163 Nash, Roderick, 24–27, 65, 69, 99, 138, 163, 195, 222, 291–292, 301–302, 316, 318, 324–325, 327, 352, 357, 370, 391 Nathan, Walter L., 69 National Acad­emy of Design, 265 National Acad­emy of Sciences, 163 National American ­Women Suffrage Association, 110 National Association for the Advancement of Colored ­People, 373, 377 National Association of Manufacturers, 394 National Association of ccc Alumni, 372 National Audubon Society, 106, 191–196, 198–199, 202–208, 211–214, 221, 224, 229, 231–232, 238–249, 252, 307, 385–387 National Bison Range, 359 National Board of Trade, 280, 394 National Businessmen’s League, 394 National Conservation Committee, 284 National Fancy Feathers Association, 231 National Forestry Commission See Forestry Commission National Gallery of Art, 163 National Indian Association, 123 National Origins Act, 147 national parks, 3, 30, 79, 107, 135, 182, 211, 276, 281–282, 290, 292–295, 298–301, 303–304, 306, 308, 311, 315, 320–321, 323, 326–341, 344, 346–348, 353, 355–358, 360–361, 363, 369, 375, 379–380, 386–387, 392–393, 395–396; conversion of Indian lands, 123, 358; Indian removal from, 357–358; preservation, 5, 271, 363; role of blacks in construction and protection, 331, 365; segregation, 374–376 National Park Ser­vice, 59, 108, 135, 180, 310–312, 329, 340–341, 346, 363, 366, 369, 374, 378, 380, 393 Native Americans, 9–11, 16, 18, 20–21, 24, 26, 41, 53–54, 57–58, 71–73, 80, 96, 98, 102, 110, 112–114, 123–124, 131, 133, 143–144, 155, 165, 201, 211, 215, 292, 301, 303, 331, 351, 359–362, 376, 378, 395–396; ancestral lands, 301, 348; assimilation, 115; blamed for the decimation of birds, 212; capacity to resist, 67, 113; Civilian Conservation Corps, 366, 372; conversion to Catholicism, 16; fear of, 65, 67–68, 71–72, 360–361; place names, 107–108, 134; population size, 112; removal and relocation, 116, 122–123, 125, 355, 358–359; shaping the landscape, 297; tribes as sovereign nations, 20; use value, 295; wars, 161; ­women, 84–85, 110, 133 nativism, 9, 21–22 natu­ral right, 11 Needleman, Ruth, 367 Nelli, Humbert S., 214 Nelson, E. W., 252 Nelson, Jill, 381 Newberry, J., 347 Newell, F., 280 Newhall, Frederick, 394 New Market Track, 52 New York Association for the Protection of Game, 174, 182 New York Audubon Society, 205 New York Herald, 163, 334 New York Sportsmen’s Club, 73, 166–167, 173–175, 188 New York State Fisheries Commission, 173, 288–289 New York State Forest, Fish, and Game League, 240 New York Times, 172–178, 190, 194–195, 199–212, 220, 231–232, 239–241, 244–247, 250, 253, 262–263, 267–269, 286–289, 309, 314, 345, 366, 369, 371 New York Tribune, 93, 178, 293 New York Zoological Society, 218, 240–241, 344 Nez Perce, 114, 357 Ngai, Mae M., 21, 150–151 Niagara Falls, 92, 294, 297, 352 Niagara Movement, 377–378 Nicetown Hunting Park, 52 Nicholls, Richard, 52 Niles’ Weekly Register, 117 Nishi, Setsuko Matsunaga, 153–157 Nixon, Edgar, 365 478  ◆  Index Noble, John, 273, 324 Noble, Louis Lengrand, 293 Nobles, Katherine, 200, 202–203 Nord, David Paul, 33 Nordenskiold, Baron Gustaf, 347 Norris, Thaddeus, 233 North American ­Women Suffrage Association, 110 Northern ­Virginia Park Association, 379 North Star, 136 Northwest Ordinance, 114 Nuttall Ornithological Club, 191 Nuttall Ornithological Union, 191 Nye, David E., 42 Oak Bluffs, 381–382 Oberhansley, Frank, 303 Oehser, Paul H., 106 Oelschlaeger, Max, 66, 352 O’Fallon, Brendan D., 112–113 Office of American Indian Trust, 113–114, 122 Ogle, Samuel, 52 Oldham, Kit, 129–130 Old Tioga Road, 330, 334, 339, 341 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 47–48, 69, 94, 97, 103, 176, 260–262, 294, 296–297, 330, 355, 359–360, 394 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr., 330, 333 Olmsted, Mary, 103 Olney, Warren, 324 Olson, Sherry H., 33, 39 Olwig, Kenneth R., 297 O’Neale, Sondra A., 140 open season, 225–226, 229–230 Oquossoc Club, 185 ornithologist, 56, 90, 96, 105, 164, 191–192, 196–197, 201, 211, 242 ornithology, 90, 105, 196 Orr, Oliver H., Jr., 191–193, 195–196, 201, 223, 239–241, 247 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 240, 344, 346 Osborne, William S., 97 O’Shaughnessy, M., 325 Ossoli, Giovanni Angelo, 91 outdoor recreation, 2–3, 5, 47–48, 51, 97, 176, 258, 372, 381, 385, 394; outdoor recreationers or recreationists, 27, 30–31, 392, 396 Outlook, 316, 324 overcrowding, 1–2, 36, 89, 126 Pacific Gas and Electric Com­pany, 324–325 padrone system, 153 Paige, Amanda L., 118 Paige, John C., 376–377 Palmer, Theodore Sherman, 171, 175 paper son, 152 Parish, Peter J., 13, 125 Park, Anna, 101 Park, Yoosun, 154–155 Parkman, Francis, 69, 292 park village concept, 335 Pasadena Village Improvement Society, 268 Patterson, Daniel, 93 Paul, Matilda, 94 Paul, Sherman, 25, 60, 353 Pawnee Indians, 71 Payson, Lewis, 302 Peabody, Elizabeth, 25, 60 Peabody, Lucy, 348 Peabody, Mary, 25 Peabody, Sophia, 25, 59 Peale, Wilson, 222 Pearl Harbor bombing, 154 Pearson, T Gilbert, 191, 197, 204, 211, 222, 231, 232, 239–241, 243–247, 388 Pease, Jane, 86 Pena, Devon, 145–146 pensionado plan, 149 Perdue, Theda, 117–118 Perkins, Eli, 102–103 Perkins, Frances, 368 Pescadero Creek, 342 Pescadero Lumber Com­pany, 343 Peterson, John Alvah, 259 Pettus, T., 19 Phelan, James, 314–316, 319 Phillips, John C., 165 Phillips, John M., 76, 165, 168 Phillips, Kate, 102 Pierpont, James, 46 Pilarcitos Creek, 315 Pinchot, Cornelia Bryce, 79 Pinchot, Gifford, 27, 69, 78–79, 81, 93, 176, 183, 264–265, 273–284, 311–313, 317–319, 321, 323, 329, 336–337, 385, 388, 390–391, 394 Pinchot, James, 264–265 Pitz, Marylynne, 180–181 Plains Indians or tribes, 123, 362 plantation, 14, 16, 54, 57, 121, 124–126, 133, 135–137, 139–140, 147–150, 152–152, 157, 169, 378, 395 Platt, Zephaniah, 234 plug fishing, 186 plumage or plumes, 131, 190–191, 194–195, 197–201, 203–207, 212–213, 228, 231 Plummer, Sara, 104 Index  ◆  479 poach, 187, 272, 287; poachers, 168, 173, 186, 217, 221, 272, 275, 287–288, 302–305, 396; poaching, 52, 131, 166, 179, 272, 285, 289, 301, 303–305, 396 pollution, 1, 36, 42, 54, 87, 181, 251, 269; air, 2, 42, 127; industrial, 6, 41, 233; ­water, 41, 87, 233 Pope’s Creek, 374 Porter, Kenneth Wiggins, 128 Porter, William, 172 Posadas, Barbara M., 149 poverty, 1, 33, 36–37, 59, 81, 89, 100, 140, 208, 214, 364–365, 395–397 Powell, Ellen, 104 Powell, John Harvey, 40 Powell, John Wesley, 104 praying towns, 115 Preemption Act, 116 preservation, 5, 24, 27, 58, 142, 162, 283, 286, 290, 293, 330, 346, 350, 384, 389, 392–394, 397; ­battles or conflicts, 311, 313, 386, 388, 390; campaigns, 307, 310, 323, 330, 333, 347, 386–387; definition, 27; and eugenics, 346–347; forest, 272, 280, 283, 285, 387; game, 172–173, 187–188; groups, clubs, or organ­izations, 163, 248–249, 371, 385, 389, 393–395; historic, 374; land, 311; laws, 215, 225, 235, 304; message, 374; park, 2, 5, 60, 318–319, 328, 330; politics, 388; redwoods, 344–345; scenic, 307, 338, 340; self-­preservation, 11; wilderness, 290, 386, 390–391, 394 preservation movement, 54 preservationism, 2, 27, 31, 275, 307, 346, 391, 393–395; wilderness preservationism, 391 preservationist, 3, 27, 58, 68, 87, 135, 183, 276, 279, 283, 307–311, 313, 318–320, 323–325, 329–330, 333, 341, 343–344, 350, 384–386, 393, 395–396; ­battles or conflicts, 5, 318; cause, 313; criticism of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 372; and discrimination, 376, 382; discourse or ideology, 5, 60, 396; and native tribes, 357, 359–360; perspective, 5, 284, 385, 393–394; and solitude, 319 Prewitt, Kenneth, 28, 392 Price, Overton, 27 Price, R., 339 Price, Uvedale, 261 primitive forests, 293 primitive masculinity, 23 primitivistic or primitivism, 2, 26, 77, 9­ pro-­environmental: activities, 27; advocacy 30; be­hav­ior, 1; concerns, 385; thought, 21 Progressive Era, 362, 392 Prospect Park, 175 Prucha, Francis Paul, 115–116, 118, 121 Public Works Administration, 365 Pueblo Indians, 113 Puerto Ricans, 147–148, 372 Punjabi immigrants and farmers, 18 Punke, Michael, 71 Puritans, 24 Pusey, Michael, 28 Quakers, 38, 55, 100, 138, 222 Quapaws, 376 Quinn, Davis, 243 Quinnipiacs, 115 Rabinovitch, Eyal, 23 Racco, Rocco, 214, 218–219 race, 4–5, 9, 10, 17, 21, 96, 116, 120, 130, 133, 346–347, 351, 366, 373, 394, 397; master race, 347; race relations, 9, 21; race riots or wars, 37–38, 367, 372 Racey, Joseph, 225 racial mixing, 2, 22 racial uplift, 373–374 racism, 2, 4, 6, 9, 328, 367–368, 395, 397 racist, 346, 397 Radcliffe Bill, 231 railroads, 15–16, 27, 38, 107, 114, 126, 146–147, 150–153, 162, 164, 168, 177, 217, 258, 263, 268, 275, 278, 280–281, 283, 288, 299, 302–303, 307–308, 311, 331–332, 335, 337–338, 344, 365, 378, 388, 393 Rainey Wildlife Sanctuary, 246–247 Raker Act, 324 Ramirez, Jan Siedler, 43 Randolph, David, 225 Randolph, Peter, 140 Raney, Peter, 131 Ranney, Victroria P., 103, 261, 296, 359 Rapidan Camp, 379 Raymond, Israel, 295 Rea, Gene, 90 Recreation, 285 Redwood Canyon, 311 Redwood City Times and Gazette, 342 Redwood Creek, 311 redwoods, 311, 341–342, 344–347 Refugee Escape Act, 152 regulated monopolies in national parks, 335 Reiger, John F., 70–73, 165, 168–171, 173, 178, 181–182, 185–188, 193, 200, 233–234, 272, 284, 302, 392 Reiss, Steven A., 52 Remington Arms, 253 480  ◆  Index Remini, Robert V., 116 Removal Act, 117 removal of ­people, 20, 115–121, 125, 355; Cherokee removal, 121; expedited, 118; from national parks, 301, 356–360; re­sis­tance, 117–118, 121; Seminoles, 121; voluntary, 119 Reparations, 156 reservation, 20–21, 107, 114–115, 122–123, 270, 299, 348, 356, 395 Revolutionary War, 114, 134, 268 Reynolds, Charles B., 13, 148 Rhodes, Richard, 53, 55, 56–57, 65, 222, 352, 395 rice, 14, 125, 177 Richards, Ellen (Swallow), 86 Richardson, Robert D., Jr., 24, 58–63, 259 Richter, Daniel K., 112 riding astride, 94–95, 101–103 Rigg, Dorothy Mae, 130 Righter, Robert W., 325, 3­ 27 Right-­of-­Way Act, 315, 340 Riley, Glenda, 95 Rinehart, Mary Roberts, 107–108 Ripley, George, 25, 59–60 robber baron, 163, 181 Rocke­fel­ler, J. D., 247, 312–313, 341, 345, 392, 394 Rocke­fel­ler, William, 170, 285–288 Rocke­fel­ler men, 288 Rocky Mountain Fur Com­pany, 130 Rocky Mountain National Park, 100, 337 Rocky Mountains (the Rockies), 54, 56, 59, 72, 79, 100, 102, 111, 291, 331, 351, 358 Rocky Mountain School (of landscape art), 291 Rodman, C., 226 Rodriquez, Clara E., 148 Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow, 47 Rollins, Alice, 95 romantic, 25, 85, 92, 97–98, 100, 131, 140–142, 176, 258, 260, 291–292, 306, 354–355, 384; romanticized, 294 romantics, 25–26, 90, 140, 142, 292, 352 romanticism, 25–26, 96, 140, 142, 259, 290, 352, 370 Rome Semi-­Weekly Citizen, 178 Ronda, James P., 125 Rood, Irene, 199–200, 247 Roo­se­velt, Cornelius, 73 Roo­se­velt, Eleanor, 368 Roo­se­velt, Elliott, 74 Roo­se­velt, Franklin Delano, 364–365, 367, 371 Roo­se­velt, Robert Barnwell, 73, 166–169, 174 Roo­se­velt, Theodore, 26, 67, 69, 73–81, 90, 93, 123, 161, 164–165, 168–170, 181–184, 204, 222, 232, 241, 279, 280–283, 309–312, 317–318, 329, 342, 348, 351, 353, 354, 358–359, 362–363, 370, 373, 385–390, 393–394; Indians’ claims to land, 359, 363 Roper, Laura Wood, 47, 64, 103, 295–297 Rose, Edward, 128 Rosenbaum, Robert J., 144, 146 Rosenberg, Charles E., 40 Rosenkrantz, Barbara Gutmann, 40 Rosenzweig, Roy, 47–48, 259, 291 Ross, Alan, 65 Ross, Araminta See Tubman, Harriet Ross, John, 118, 121 Ross, Judge, 18 Rotary Club, 149 Rountree, Helen C., 378 Rousseau, Jean-­Jacques, 25–26 Royal Botanic Gardens, 260 Royal Geographic Society of ­Eng­land, 100 Ruby, Reuben, 130 Ruff, Benjamin, 178 Runkle, L. G., 292 Runte, Alfred, 47, 292, 294–296, 298–300, 308–310, 315, 318, 356–357 Russell, Carl Parchet, 102–103, 333, 341, 356–357, 394 Russell, Lynette, 21 Rutgers, Anthony, 44 Ruthven, Alexander, 245 Rybczynski, Witold, 261 Sacagawea, 110–112 Sachs, Aaron, 66 Sage, Russell (Mrs.), 239, 393 Salmond, John A., 364 San Francisco Examiner, 326 Sangre de Cristo Land Grant, 145 Santa Cruz County Big Trees Park, 342 Sargent, Charles Sprague, 273–277, 283 Satz, Ronald, 117 Saunders, C., 227 Save the Redwoods League, 344–346, 385, 393 Schiff, Judith A., 39, 115 Schlesinger, Andrew B., 144 Schmeckebier, L. H., 331 Schneider, Mary Jane, 118, 1­ 24 Schneider-­Hector, Dietmar, 28, 330, 332, 338–339 Schrepfer, Susan R., 306, 343–347 Schurz, Carl, 272 Schuyler, David, 64, 261 Schuylkill Fishing Com­pany, 172 Scobey, David, 260 Scott, Genio, 175 Index  ◆  481 Scott, James, 404 Scribner’s Monthly, 300 Second ­Middle Passage, 126 Sedgwick, Catherine, 262 See Amer­i­ca First campaign, 331 segregation: accommodations, 376–382; Civilian Conservation Corps, 366; in national parks, 374–382; outdoor recreation, 372; public transportation, 376; wildland segregation, 374 Segregation Bill, 303 Sellars, Charles Coleman, 222 Sellars, Richard West, 299–330, 333–334, 337–341, 365–366, 369 Seminoles, 116, 121–123 semi-­nomadic, 360, 362 Sennett, George, 223 Sequoia National Park, 99, 363 Sernett, Milton C., 136 settler colonialism, 20–21, 107, 109, 148, 295, 353, 356, 384 Severance, Carol, 79 sexism, 2, 4, 9, 397 Shankland, Robert, 333 Shattuck, Lemuel, 40 Shaw, Henry, 260 Sheldon, Addison E., 58 Shellum, Brian G., 331, 363 Shenandoah National Park, 363, 378–379 Sheridan, Dick, 52 Sheth, Manju, 150 Shields, George O., 206, 240 Shields, John C., 140–142 Shirley, Gayle C., 133 Shook, B. A., 113 Shoshone tribe, 110–111, 357 Shu, Julia, 331 Shugart, Sharon, 377 Shumaker, Susan, 374, 377, 379–380 Shute, Katharine H., 89 Sierra Club, 103, 247, 249, 306–307, 309, 316, 319, 321, 323–324, 326, 329–330, 333–335, 341, 343, 345, 385, 387, 389–390, 393 Sierra Club Bulletin, 307, 326, 330 Sieur de Monts National Monument (or national park), 312–313, 336 Siltz, August, 229–230 Silva, C., 18–19 Simpson, William L., 305 Skinner, Charles, 204 Sky, Doris, 102 Skyline Drive, 365, 379 Slack, Nancy G., 104 slavery, 11, 13, 15, 20–21, 24, 139–140, 150, 161, 363, 372, 394–395; antislavery activism, 100, 122, 134, 138, 140, 395; escaping slavery, 84, 98, 125, 134–135, 137, 363; removal and relocation, 84 slaves, 13, 84, 110, 169, 353, 377; used on expeditions, 125, 128–129; forced relocation, 125–126, 132; on the frontier, 128–129, 133; housing, 126–127; used as miners, 103, 130; population size, 13, 133; revolt in Haiti, 54; runaway slaves, 135–140; skills, 14, 136 Sletcher, Michael, 32, 37, 39, 46, 115 slot racket See paper son Smillie, James D., 359 Smith, Beatrice Scheer, 104 Smith, David C., 61, 63 Smith, Duane A., 348 Smith, Edward H., 91 Smith, Gideon, 187 Smith, Herbert F., 66 Smith, Jedediah, 131 Smith, Nathaniel S., 175 Smith, Ralph Sydney, 342–343 Smith, Samuel, 132 Snow, Pamela, 115 social class, 3–5, 23, 89, 94, 96, 165, 167, 187–188, 203, 214, 217, 248, 250, 257, 300, 304, 331, 394–395, 397; agricultural, 297; business, 47; conflicts, 9, 37, 185, 285, 287, 289, 364, 384, 396; disparities, 293, 373; distinctions, 185–186, 397; dynamics, 5; leisured, 51; lower, 4, 218, 265; ­middle, 4, 23, 28, 30, 40, 46, 80–81, 83, 85, 95–96, 100, 111, 137, 249, 267, 291, 306, 347, 371, 373–374, 378, 382, 394; patrician, 170; ruling, 46; upper, 4, 23, 67, 80, 83, 85–86, 95, 162, 164, 169–170, 187, 193–194, 215, 258, 291, 293, 297, 331, 371, 392; working, 4, 37–38, 68, 80, 85–86, 99, 110, 186, 208, 250, 287, 305, 352, 354, 364–365, 371–372, 382, 385, 397 Society for the Preservation of National Parks, 324, 390 Society for the Preservation of New Hampshire Forests, 284 Society for the Protection of National Parks, 319 Society of American Foresters, 281, 283 solitude, 63–64, 73, 98, 100–101, 131, 137, 319, 350–351 Solnit, Rebecca, 295, 297 Southern Appalachia National Park, 379 Southern Pacific Railroad, 146, 152, 162, 307–310, 339, 344 South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, 173, 178–181, 185, 187, 396 Spady, Matthew, 57, 70 Spanish, 10, 13, 15, 113–114, 130, 143–144, 148–149 482  ◆  Index Spanish-­American War, 149 Spann, Edward K., 22, 36, 38, 47 Spirit of the Times, 172 Sprague, William Forrest, 103 Springfield Republican, 68, 294 Spring Valley ­Water Com­pany, 314–316, 322, 323, 325–326 St. Augustine, 13, 38, 148, 172 St. Lawrence Railroad Com­pany, 285 Stagecoach Mary (Mary Fields), 99, 133 stalking or stalk, 166, 186 Stamp Act, 37 Stanley, William, 212 Stansell, Christine, 86 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 102 Star Demo­crat, 402 Star Times, 243 Sterling Borax Com­pany, 333 Stevenson, Brenda, 86, 142 Stevenson, Matilda, 347 Steward, Austin, 127 Stewart, A. T., 260 Stiffarm, Lenore A., 1­ 13 still-­hunting, 186 Stoddard, Seneca Ray, 178 Stoddart, Anna M., 100 Stoller, Marianne, 146 Stone, Emma, 107 Storer College, 377 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 86, 108 Strenzel, Louisa, 66 Strouse, Jean, 126 Stryker, Sheldon, 30 Stuyvesant, Petrus (Peter), 43, 257 Stuyvesant, Rutherford, 174 Sublette, Ned, 13–14, 126–127 sublime or sublimity, 25–26, 92, 100–101, 140, 317, 351, 354 ­Sullivan, John L., 78 Summer, George (Mrs.), 347 Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill, 278–279 Sundry Civil Ser­vice Act (Forest Reserve Act), 273, 277 Sung, Betty Lee, 152 sustained yield, 176, 271, 274, 277 Sutton, Barry, 261 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 25 Taft, William Howard, 242, 310, 322–323, 330 Tahawus Club, 2­ 85 Tail-­Feathers-­Coming-­Over-­The-­Hill, 108 Takaki, Ronald, 146, 150, 156 Tamalpais Land and ­Water Com­pany, 311 Taos Pueblo Uprising, 145 Tauber, Alfred I., 63 Tauber, G., 44 Taylor, Dorceta E., 2, 10, 20, 28, 36–37, 39–40, 43–44, 48, 79, 85, 94, 96–97, 176, 183, 248, 257, 263–264, 266, 302, 355, 364, 371–373 Taylor, Henry Louis, 39 Taylor, Jack, 146 Taylor, James, 104 Taylor, Quintard, 130–133 Taylor, Robert Lewis, 242–243, 247 Taylor, Ronald B., 147 Teale, Edwin Way, 66 ­Temple School, 59 Texas Revolt, 16 Thaxter, Celia, 199 Thayer, John, 241 Thomas, Edith Matilda, 87, 89, 351 Thomas, Emma, 31 Thompson, Ernest, 373 Thoreau, Henry David, 25–26, 58–60, 62–66, 80–82, 88, 93, 98–99, 105, 137, 139, 290, 293, 350–354, 360, 395 Thorkildsen, Thomas, 333 Thornton, Pamela Plakins, 44, 268 Thornton, Russell, 112–113, 121 Thurman, Sue Bailey, 132 Timber and Stone Act, 342 Time, 244, 247 Tinkcom, Harry M., 52–53, 172 Tong, Benson, 150–152 Torres-­Reyes, Ricardo, 347, 349 Townshend, Charles Harvey, 115 Trail of Tears, 84, 121 Transcendental Club, 25 Transcendental thought, 24–25, 59, 98, 100, 353, 384 Transcendentalism or Transcendental movement, 2, 24, 58, 60, 92–93, 352, 383; pastoral, 355; wilderness, 354 Transcendentalist, 24–25, 53, 58–61, 63–64, 92–93, 105, 137, 142, 352–354, 355, 383, 395 Transfer Act, 282 trap shooting, 174 treaty, 10, 15, 17–18, 113–114, 118–121, 129, 220, 230, 357, 376, 378 Treaty of Doaksville, 118 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 15, 144 Treaty of New Echota, 118–119 Trefethen, James B., 27, 173–174, 182, 189, 191–192, 195–197, 214, 219, 273, 229, 240–242, 247, 249, 252–253, 273, 276, 282, 283, 305 Trenton Club, 172 Index  ◆  483 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, 79 Trist, Elizabeth House, 96 true manhood, 22, 80, 85 true sportsman or sportsmen, 30, 167–170, 186 true womanhood, 5, 22–24, 85–86, 94 trusted slave, 136 Truth, Sojourner, 84 Tubman, Harriet, 84, 98–99, 134–139, 142; imitate bird calls, 136 Tuolumne County, 150 Tuolumne River, 321, 323, 326 Tuolumne Valley, 314 Turner, Frederick, 27, 65, 272, 275–276, 278, 284, 300, 306, 306, 389, 390 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 26, 353 Tuttle, William M., 372 Underground Railroad, 134–135, 137, 139 Underwood Tariff Act, 230 Union Club, 182 University Club, 182 Updyke, Gloria, 379 upper class See social class urban reformer, 394, 397 U.S Cartridge Com­pany, 240 U.S Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 234 U.S Department of Agriculture, 91, 156, 178, 205, 229, 231, 246, 272, 280 U.S Fish and Wildlife Ser­vice, 234 U.S Forest Ser­vice, 280–283, 329, 332, 335–338, 366, 369–371, 387–388, 393 U.S Geological Survey, 100, 163, 272, 275, 299, 307, 332, 394 Ute reservation, 348 Utica Morning Herald, 177–178 Utica Weekly Herald, 177 utilitarian, 27, 188, 267–269, 274–275, 278–279, 307, 318, 330, 369, 394 utilitarianism, 27, 385, 394 Valdez, Maria Rita, 130 Vallejo, Guadalupe, 16 Van Buren, Martin (president), 120 Van Dyke, Henry, 202 Van Name, Willard Gibbs, 242–243, 245 Van Twiller, Wouter, 43 Van Valkenburgh, Norman, 288 Vanderbilt, Alfred G., 287 Vanderbilt, Cornelius (the Commodore), 400 Vanderbilt, George, 239, 265 Vandever, William, 308 Vargas, Jose, 221 Vaux, Calvert, 47–48, 261–262, 355 Veracini, Lorenzo, 19, 21 Vest, Bill, 302–303 Vest, George, 302 Vialet, Joyce, 147 Vilas, Martin Samuel, 314–315, 319, 321, 323, 325–327 village improvement, 267–269 Village Improvement Association of New-­Brighton, 269 Vogel, Virgil, 113 Vose, Daniel, 234 Waddell Creek, 343 Wadworth, James W., 71 Wainwright, Nicholas B., 38, 52–53, 172 Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony, 153 Wakefield Memorial Association, 374 Walcott, Frederic C., 172, 174, 177 Walden Pond, 61, 63, 351 Walker, Dale L., 81 Walls, Michael D., 118 Waltonian Merit Men, 251 Waltonism, 249, 251 Wampanoag Indians, 382 Wang, Ning, 113 War Department, 20, 117, 119, 366 War Relocation Authority, 155 warden, 186, 188, 207–208, 211–212, 214, 216, 218–221, 228, 237, 286–288, 305, 386 Waring, George E., 266–267 Warner, Charles Dudley, 193 Warner, Sam Bass, 45 Warren, Louis, 76, 213–220, 237–238 Washburn-­Langford-­Doane Expedition, 54, 298 Washington, George, 129–130 Washington Bee, 378 Washington Post, 165, 194–195, 198, 200, 205, 207, 209–211, 214, 219, 241, 247, 269 Waterman, Laura, 98, 355 Watkins, Carleton, 294 Watson, John F., 172 Wear, D. W., 303–304 Weaver, Warren, Jr., 379 Webb, William Seward, 285 Webster, Daniel, 233 Weeks, John, ­270 Weeks-­McLean Bill, 242, 284 Weinberg, P., 17 Welch, Joseph, 342–343 Welker, Robert Harvey, 195 Welter, Barbara, 23–24 484  ◆  Index westward expansion, 26, 54, 77, 109–110, 124–125, 146, 148, 183, 383 Wetherill, Richard, 347 Whalen, Ken, 116, 118 Wheatley, Phillis, 140–143 Wheeler, Benjamin, 346 Whigs, 37 Whip, 373 White, Deborah, 86 White Caps See Las Gorras Blancas White Mountain Club, 306 White Mountain National Forest, 284 White Mountains, 69, 260, 284 White River Forest Reserve, 273 whites, 4, 16–17, 39, 65, 67–68, 73, 95, 99–101, 107–110, 154, 184, 206, 218, 298, 358, 388; Civilian Conservation Corps, 364–372, 380; control of land, 23, 114, 116–117, 119, 128–129, 143, 357, 359, 361, 363; elites, 67, 96, 109, 123–125, 138; farming, 16, 132–133, 142, 144; laborers or workers, 39, 151, 153; ­middle class, 4, 83–85, 96, 111, 137, 382, 394; mining, 16, 150–151, 356; outdoor recreation, 372, 375–377, 379–380, 382; population size, 13, 26; privilege, 21; nativism, 22; relations with Indians, 10, 112–113, 115–116, 122, 356, 359, 361; religious conflicts, 38; superiority, 21; views of the land, 11; wealthy or affluent, 5, 84–85, 96, 98, 182, 331; working class or poor, 2, 63, 80, 84–86, 96, 110, 190, 211, 219, 364, 367, 397 white supremacists, 153 Whitman, Edmund, 319 Whitman, Karen, 377 Whitney, Eli, 71 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 193 Wilberforce, William, 373 wilderness, 2–3, 5, 21, 24, 26, 61, 65, 69–70, 77, 81, 83–85, 93, 98–99, 101, 107, 120, 127, 170, 177, 211, 258, 281, 290–293, 300, 302, 306, 313, 350–356, 358–362, 365, 369–370, 384, 386, 389–391, 394, 397; advocates, 2, 369; Alaskan, 391; American, 25, 291, 352; fighter, 130; lifestyles, 383; Manhattan, 364; romantic, 176; as site for healing, 134; slave songs, 139–140; and solitude, 98; southern, 84; Transcendentalism, 354–355; treks of Harriet Tubman, 137 Wilderness Society, 359 wildlife, 29, 31, 41, 87–88, 117, 145, 161, 168–169, 208, 215–216, 218, 220, 236, 252, 271, 292, 366, 391; activists, advocates, or protectors, 2, 30, 171, 211, 289, 391; activism, 3; benefits, 215; collectors or collecting, 222; conflicts, 384; conquest of, 354; conservation, 2, 173, 214–215, 224, 253; controversies, 251; declining or disappearing, 171, 173, 176, 187, 196, 269, 292; destruction or decimation of, 166, 168–170, 198, 208, 211–213, 222–223, 236, 305, 352; enthusiasts, 247; habitat, 251, 309; Indians and wildlife on display in parks, 292; legislation, 214, 386–387; national park wildlife ­under attack, 302–303, 305; networks, 248; nuisance, 215; organ­izations, 252; policies, 172, 187; private preserves, 172; regulation, 224; rhe­toric or discourse, 186, 217; slaughter of, 221–222, 236, 239–240, 271, 305, 396; stocks, 5, 31, 167, 173, 196, 383; trade or market, 237–238; violation of laws, 216 Wildlife Conservation Society, 185 wildlife protection, 5, 159, 161, 163, 171–172, 181, 185, 190, 214–215, 220–221, 223–224, 232, 236, 242, 301, 305, 353, 386, 391 wildlife refuges or reserves, 20, 135, 182, 211, 221, 241, 252–253, 282, 302, 387 Wilkins, Thurman, 163, 272–279, 282–284, 306, 314–319, 322–327, 345, 390, 393 Willcox, Albert, 239 Williams, Charles Dickerman, 245 Williams, Eugene, 372 Williams, Jean Kinney, 132 Williams, Raymond, 47 Williams, Wilberforce, 373, 382 Williamstown Alpine Club, 306 Wilson, Alexander, 56 Wilson, James, 282 Wilson, Sherill D., 128 Wilson, Woodrow, 313, 324, 326 Winchester Repeating Arms Com­pany, 239, 241, 252 Winnemucca, Sara, 84, 135 Winter, Thomas, 23 Winthrop, John, 11, 19, 45 Wisconsin Territorial Gazette, 187 wise use, 27, 188, 274, 369, 384 Wolfe, Linnie Marsh, 65–66, 164–165, 275–279, 283, 316–317, 319, 323–324, 326–327, 329, 390–391, 393 Wolfe, Patrick, 21 Wolf Plume, 108 ­Woman’s Load Mining Claim, 103 ­Women’s Save the Redwoods League of Humboldt County, 345 Wong, Morrison G., 150–152 Wood, Adolph, 284 Wood, Peter H., 14 Woolsey, Susan Chauncey, 102 Words­worth, William, 25–26, 105 Index  ◆  485 working class See social class Works Pro­gress Administration, 365 Worster, Donald, 86, 270 Wright, Elizabeth C., 92–94, 104 Wright, Henry C., 93 Wright, James Osborn, 106 Wright, Mabel Osgood, 105–106, 199–201, 207, 247, 389 Wyatt, Victoria, 163 Yale School of Forestry, 218, 283 Yamamoto, Kazuya, 30 Yard, Robert Sterling, 330, 334, 338, 340 Yellowstone, 54, 68, 101, 107, 110 Yellowstone Act, 299–301 Yellowstone Forest Reserve, 273 Yellowstone National Park, 72, 176, 182, 184, 221–222, 273, 293, 295, 298–305, 308–310, 313, 328, 331, 338, 352, 357–358, 386; Indian removal, 357 Yellowstone River, 111 Yelverton, Thérèse, 101 Yenne, Bill, 112 York, 124–125, 135 Yosemite, 66, 101, 103, 106, 110, 138, 176, 273, 294–297, 299–300, 306–308 Yosemite National Park, 276, 282, 308–310, 314–318, 320–322, 324, 326, 328, 330–332, 341, 352, 356–357, 386–387, 390, 394; black superintendent, 331; Buffalo (black) Soldiers, 363; cultural nationalism, 293; development of, 335–336, 338–339; disparaging views of Indians, 357–360; Indian massacre, 102; Indian removal, 356–359, 359; ­women’s rights, 102 Yosemite Park Act, 296 Yosemite Park Commission, 307, 309, 359 Yosemite Reserve, 328 Yosemite suit, 99 Yosemite Valley, 101–103, 273, 295–297, 307, 309–310, 320, 356, 359 Young, Charles, 363 Young, Phyllis, 114 Young, Samuel Hall, 165 Young Men’s Christian Association, 373 Young ­Women’s Christian Association, 373 Yusuf, 269 Zanjani, Sally, 104 Zinn, Howard, 37 zoning, 17–18, 372 Zumwalt, Daniel, 308 486  ◆  Index .. .THE RISE OF THE AMERICAN CONSERVATION MOVEMENT This page intentionally left blank THE RISE OF THE AMERICAN CONSERVATION MOVEMENT Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection DORCETA... recreation and the establishment of sportsmen’s clubs, the formation of environmental organ­izations, and the promulgation of environmental policies Overview of the Book The Rise of the American Conservation. .. book, The Rise of the American Conservation Movement, examines the actions and experiences of elites with regard to environmental protection It traces the outward movement of ­people from the cities