(BQ) Part 2 book Educational research has contents: Narrative research, ethnographic research, case study research, action research, organizing and graphing data, inferential statistics, fieldwork, preparing and publishing a research report,...and other contents.
Find more at www.downloadslide.com C h a pt e r T w e lv e Narrative Research House of Frankenstein, 1944 “If you are a person who does not interact well with others, narrative research is probably not for you!” (p 369) Find more at www.downloadslide.com chapter 12 • Narrative Research Learning Outcomes After reading Chapter 12, you should be able to the following: Briefly state the definition and purpose of narrative research Describe the narrative research process Describe the key characteristics of narrative research Describe narrative research techniques, including restorying, oral history, examining artifacts, storytelling, letter writing, and autobiographical and biographical writing Outline the steps involved in writing a narrative The chapter learning outcomes form the basis for the following task, which requires you to develop 365 the research procedures section of a research report for a narrative research study Task 7A For a qualitative study, you have already created research plan components (Tasks and 3B) and described a sample (Task 4B) If your study involves narrative research, now develop the research procedures section of the research report Include in the plan the overall approach and rationale for the study, site and sample selection, the researcher’s role, data collection methods, data management strategies, data analysis strategies, trustworthiness features, and ethical considerations (see Performance Criteria at the end of Chapter 15, p 455) Summary: Narrative Research Definition Narrative research is the study of how different humans experience the world around them, and it involves a methodology that allows people to tell the stories of their “storied lives.” Design(s) Narrative studies usually focus on the experiences of individuals and their chronology and context using the technique of restorying to collaboratively construct a narrative account The goal of a narrative research design is to collaboratively explore a phenomenon of interest with an individual in an effort to understand how individuals’ past experiences impact the present and, potentially, the future Types of appropriate Narrative research can contribute to our understanding of educational issues research questions such as adolescent drug use, cultural differences in diverse urban school settings, and the achievement gap that separates children raised in poverty from children who are less economically disadvantaged Key characteristics • A focus on the experiences of individuals • A concern with the chronology of individuals’ experiences • A focus on the construction of life stories based on data collected through interviews • Restorying as a technique for constructing the narrative account • Inclusion of context and place in the story • A collaborative approach that involves the researcher and the participants in the negotiation of the final text • A narrative constructed around the question “And then what happened?” (continued) Find more at www.downloadslide.com 366 chapter 12 • Narrative Research Steps in the process The narrative research process is a highly personal, intimate approach to educational research that demands a high degree of caring and sensitivity on the part of the researcher Identify the purpose of the research study, and identify a phenomenon to explore Identify an individual who can help you learn about the phenomenon Develop initial narrative research questions Consider the researcher’s role (e.g., entry to the research site, reciprocity, and ethics) and obtain necessary permissions Negotiate entry to the research setting in terms of a shared narrative with the research participant Establish a relationship between researcher and participant that is mutually constructed and characterized by an equality of voice Collaborate with the research participant to construct the narrative and to validate the accuracy of the story Potential challenges • Trust • Developing and maintaining a mutually constructed relationship that is characterized by caring, respectfulness, and equality of voice Example How teachers confront, and deal with, high school students who have drug problems? Narrative Research: Definition and Purpose recent trends have influenced the development of narrative research: ■ Narrative research is the study of how different humans experience the world around them, and it involves a methodology that allows people to tell the stories of their “storied lives.”1 Narrative researchers collect data about people’s lives and, with the participants, collaboratively construct a narrative (i.e., written account) about the experiences and the meanings they attribute to the experiences Narrative research has a long history in diverse disciplines such as literature, history, art, film, theology, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, sociolinguistics, and education, and as such it does not fit neatly into a single scholarly field Within the field of education, a number of “Stories and Experience and Narrative Inquiry,” by F M Connelly and D J Clandinin, 1990, Educational Research, 19(5), p ■ ■ The increased emphasis in the past 15 years on teacher reflection, teacher research, action research, and self-study The increased emphasis on teacher knowledge— for example, what teachers know, how they think, how they develop professionally, and how they make decisions in the classroom The increased emphasis on empowering teachers by giving them voices in the educational research process through collaborative educational research efforts These trends in education have resulted in a changing landscape of educational research and the promotion of scientifically based research practices to address social, cultural, and economic issues We live (and perhaps teach or work in schools in some other capacity) in a time when we are being challenged by educational issues such as adolescent drug use, cultural differences in diverse Find more at www.downloadslide.com chapter 12 • Narrative Research urban school settings, and the achievement gap that separates children raised in poverty from children who are less economically disadvantaged There are no silver bullets to solve these (and many other) issues that have come to the forefront of political and educational policy in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, but we can try to understand them better By using narrative research in education, we attempt to increase understanding of central issues related to teaching and learning through the telling and retelling of teachers’ stories Narrative research provides educational researchers with an opportunity to validate the practitioner’s voice in these important political and educational debates To visualize what narrative and research in the same sentence really mean, consider an example: Hilda, a teacher at High High School, has students in her class who appear “distracted” (which is perhaps teacher code for under the influence of drugs) As an educational researcher, you decide that it would be helpful to know more about how Hilda deals with this significant educational issue and what she does to work with the distracted, possibly drug-using adolescents in her classroom You think of a research question: “What have been Hilda’s experiences in confronting and dealing with a student who has a drug problem?” To study this question, you plan to interview Hilda and listen to stories about her experiences working with one particular distracted student You will talk to the student, the student’s parents, other teachers, administrators, and counselors, all of whom are stakeholders in the student’s educational experience You also want to know about Hilda’s life and any significant events that have affected her ability to work effectively with adolescent drug users Perhaps Hilda holds economic, social, cultural, or religious beliefs and values that affect her ability to deal with the drug culture in her school From the information you collect in interviews, you will slowly construct a story of Hilda’s work with the troubled student You will then share (i.e., retell) the story and, with Hilda’s help, shape the final report of the narrative research This final report will be Hilda’s story of working with a student who is troubled by drug use, and it will contribute to our understanding of what it takes, on the part of a teacher, to work with adolescent drug users in our schools This example shows how narrative research allows the researcher to share the storied lives of teachers to provide insights and understandings about challenging educational issues as well as to enrich the lives of those teachers Narrative research can contribute to our understanding of the complex world of the classroom and the nuances of the educational enterprise that exist between teachers and students It simply is not always possible, nor desirable, to reduce our understanding of teaching and learning to numbers Types of Narrative Research Like other types of qualitative research, narrative research may take a variety of forms Some of these forms are listed in Figure 12.1 How a particular narrative research approach is categorized depends on five characteristics: who authored the account (e.g., the researcher or the participant; note that the researcher is the participant in an autobiography), the scope of the narrative Figure 12.1 • Examples of types of narrative research forms • Autobiographies • Personal documents • • Biographies • Documents of life • • Life writing • Life stories and life histories • • Personal accounts • Oral histories • Popular memories • Personal narratives • Ethnohistories • • Narrative interviews • • Polish memoirs Ethnobiographies 367 Autoethnographies Ethnopsychologies Person-centered ethnographies Latin American testimonios Source: Creswell, John W., Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 5th Edition, © 2015, p 506 Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ Find more at www.downloadslide.com 368 chapter 12 • Narrative Research (e.g., an entire life or an episode in a life), who provides the story (e.g., teachers or students), the kind of theoretical/conceptual framework that has influenced the study (e.g., critical or feminist theory), and whether all these elements are included in one narrative.2 The nuances that distinguish the different forms of narrative research listed in Figure 12.1 are embedded in the disciplines in which they originated If one specific style of narrative research piques your interest, you would well to focus on the discipline-based literature to guide your research efforts.3 Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative It is important to distinguish between narrative analysis and the analysis of narrative, which, despite their similar terminology, reflect unique processes.4 In narrative analysis, the researcher collects descriptions of events through interviews and observations and synthesizes them into narratives or stories, similar to the process of restorying In this type of narrative research, the story is the outcome of the research, an attempt by the researcher to answer how and why a particular outcome came about Analysis of narrative is a process in which the researcher collects stories as data and analyzes common themes to produce a description that applies to all the stories captured in the narratives Using this approach, the researcher develops a statement of themes as general knowledge about a collection of stories, but in so doing, underemphasizes the unique aspects of each story In this chapter, the focus of discussion is narrative analysis That is, we are describing the development of a narrative or story that focuses on particular knowledge about how or why an outcome occurred rather than the development of a collection of stories and the search for themes to develop general knowledge about the collection of stories Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (5th ed.) by J W Creswell, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc For examples of how narrative research has been applied to a wide range of contexts (e.g., school-based violence, Holocaust survivors, undocumented immigrant families, and other challenging social problems), consider reading Narrative Analysis: Studying the Development of Individuals in Society, by C Dauite and C Lightfoot (Eds.), 2004, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage “Narrative Analysis in Qualitative Research,” by D E Polkinghorne, 1995, in Life History and Narrative (pp 5–23), by J A Hatch and R Wisniewski (Eds.), London: Falmer Press The Narrative Research Process The narrative research process is a highly personal, intimate approach to educational research that demands a high degree of caring and sensitivity on the part of the researcher Although negotiating entry to the research setting is usually considered an ethical matter with assurances of confidentiality and anonymity, in narrative research it is necessary to think about this negotiation in terms of a shared narrative That is, narrative research necessitates a relationship between the researcher and the participant more akin to a close friendship, where trust is a critical attribute However, this friendship quality is not easily attained in an educational research setting (let alone in our lives in general) It is not uncommon for teachers, for example, to be cynical about any educational research, especially a style of research whose success relies on a friendship between the researcher and participant Imagine how you would feel if approached by one of your educational research classmates (or colleagues at school) with a proposition such as this one: “I heard you talking about the difficulty you were having teaching kids who come to school stoned and wondered how you would feel about spending a lot of time talking to me about it Maybe by working on the problem together, we can gain a greater understanding of the issues involved.” Think about the kind of person you would trust to undertake this kind of research in your workplace; for your narrative study to succeed, you need to become that person If you are a person who does not interact well with others, narrative research is probably not for you! As Connelly and Clandinin5 have suggested, it is important that the relationship between researcher and participant be a mutually constructed one that is caring, respectful, and characterized by an equality of voice If the researcher is unable to let go of the control that is typical in many styles of educational research, the narrative research process is not likely to succeed The educational researcher using a narrative research methodology must be prepared to follow the lead of the research participant and, in the immortal “Stories,” by Connelly and Clandinin, 1990, pp 2–14; Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in Qualitative Research, by D J Clandinin and F M Connelly, 2000, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Find more at www.downloadslide.com chapter 12 • Narrative Research words of Star Trek, go where “no man [or woman] has gone before!” In a very real sense, narrative research is a pioneering effort that takes a skilled researcher committed to living an individual’s story and working in tandem with that individual Equality of voice is especially critical in the researcher–participant relationship because the participant (in all likelihood a teacher) must feel empowered to tell the story Throughout the research process, the researcher must leave any judgmental baggage at home The first hint of criticism or “ivory tower” superiority will be a nail in the research coffin The researcher’s intent must be clear: to empower the participant to tell the story and to be collaborative and respectful in the process The researcher should listen to the participant’s story before contributing his or her own perspective—even if asked That is, the narrative researcher must not become an informant After all, it is the participant’s story we are trying to tell As a patient listener, the researcher has an opportunity to validate the participant’s voice and allows the participant to gain authority during the telling of the story A researcher interested in a narrative study must thus decide if he or she has the time, access, experience, personal style, and commitment to undertake this particular style of on-site research Once the decision is made, the researcher can begin planning the study Each study will have unique requirements, and the steps that follow are meant simply as guideposts, but you should notice a parallel between the steps and the outline for writing a qualitative research proposal To illustrate the steps in planning and conducting narrative research, we build on the example of our teacher, Hilda Identify the purpose of the research study, and identify a phenomenon to explore The purpose of the study at High High School is to describe Hilda’s experiences in confronting and dealing with a student who has a drug problem The specific phenomenon that will be explored is that of adolescent drug use in high school Identify an individual who can help you learn about the phenomenon Hilda, a teacher at High High School, has volunteered to work collaboratively with the researcher 369 Develop initial narrative research questions What have been Hilda’s experiences in con fronting and dealing with a student who has a drug problem? What life experiences influence the way Hilda approaches the problem? Consider the researcher’s role (e.g., entry to the research site, reciprocity, and ethics) and obtain necessary permissions The researcher should seek permission from the Institutional Review Board (IRB), as well as any other permission required by the school or school district In addition, the researcher must ask Hilda to sign an informed consent form Develop data collection methods, paying particular attention to interviewing, and collect the data A narrative researcher utilizes a variety of narrative research data collection techniques, including interviewing and examining written and nonwritten sources of data Collaborate with the research participant to construct the narrative and to validate the accuracy of the story The researcher and Hilda participate collaboratively in restorying the narrative and then validating the final written account (restorying—a writing process that involves synthesizing story elements—is described later in this chapter) Write the narrative account Key Characteristics of Narrative Research Narrative research can be characterized by the following elements:6 ■ ■ ■ A focus on the experiences of individuals A concern with the chronology of individuals’ experiences A focus on the construction of life stories based on data collected through interviews Elements of narrative research were adapted from those in Educational Research, Creswell, 2015, and “Narrative Analysis,” by C K Riessman, 2002, in The Qualitative Researcher’s Companion, by A M Huberman and M B Miles, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Find more at www.downloadslide.com 370 chapter 12 • Narrative Research ■ ■ ■ ■ Restorying as a technique for constructing the narrative account Inclusion of context and place in the story A collaborative approach that involves the researcher and the participants in the negotiation of the final text A narrative constructed around the question “And then what happened?” The narrative research process is similar to the construction of a biography in that the educational researcher does not have direct access to observational data but must rely on primary data sources (e.g., the participant’s recollections) and secondary sources (e.g., written documents by the participant); data are collected primarily through interviews and written exchanges As mentioned previously, narrative research places considerable emphasis on the collaborative construction of the written account—the narrative text Although researchers using other styles of on-site research may share accounts with research participants as a way to test the trustworthiness of those accounts, they place little emphasis on the restorying process that is quite unique to narrative research Narrative Research Techniques Empirical data are central to narrative research in spite of the inevitable interpretation that occurs during the data collection process (e.g., during the telling and restorying activities) However, interpretation does not mean that the outcome of the process is fiction The narrative researcher, like researchers using other on-site research approaches, must be prepared to use multiple data sources to counteract challenges that narratives could be written without ever leaving home Accordingly, Clandinin and Connelly7 recommend that data be in the form of field notes on shared research experiences These experiences occur as the researcher collects data through journal and letter writing and documents such as lesson plans and class newsletters The immensity of the writing task for the narrative researcher becomes clear if you consider what is involved—for both the researcher and the participant—in “living the story.” The main challenge Narrative Inquiry, Clandinin and Connelly, 2000 involves the participants’ abilities to live their lives while telling their stories Picture yourself as Hilda, the teacher focused on coping with adolescent drug users in her classroom Can you imagine yourself fully engaged in living the daily life of a classroom teacher while relaying the story of your daily events and the meaning of your actions to a researcher? You might feel as if you were having a kind of out-of-body experience in which you had to look down on yourself from above As Connelly and Clandinin noted, “A person is, at once, engaged in living, telling, retelling, and reliving stories.”8 Now imagine yourself as the researcher who is faced with the task of recording and communicating Hilda’s story It is no wonder that the researcher and the research participant must establish a high degree of trust and respect akin to the kind of relationship we all expect in a close friendship As with other methods used in qualitative research, narrative research relies on the triangulation of data to address issues of trustworthiness As noted earlier, the data collection techniques used in narrative research are sometimes criticized as leading to fictitious, romanticized versions of life in schools Researchers can best counter this criticism by ensuring the use of multiple data sources as well as the collaborative negotiation of the written narrative account In the following sections, we focus on data collection techniques somewhat unique to narrative research (e.g., storytelling, letter writing, autobiographical and biographical writing, and other narrative sources) In writing about personal experience methods, Clandinin and Connelly described these data collection techniques as “field texts”9 that are focused on capturing the essence of collaboratively created artifacts of the field experience of the researcher and the participant Restorying A characteristic of narrative research that distinguishes it from other on-site research approaches is the technique of restorying the stories that individuals tell about their life experiences According to Creswell, restorying is “the process in which the “Stories,” Connelly and Clandinin, 1990, p “Personal Experience Methods,” by D J Clandinin and F M Connelly, 1994, in Handbook of Qualitative Research (p 419), by N K Denzin and Y S Lincoln (Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Find more at www.downloadslide.com chapter 12 • Narrative Research researcher gathers stories, analyzes them for key elements of the story (e.g., time, place, plot, and scene), and then rewrites the story to place it in a chronological sequence.”10 Often, individuals share stories about their experiences with researchers but without attention to the real-time order of events For example, participants may share specific details of a vacation in a somewhat random sequence, backtracking to fill in earlier omissions (e.g., “Oh, I forgot to tell you that before we got to the campsite . . .”) or jumping forward as certain details of the event call to mind other, related events (e.g., “Telling you about this trip makes me think of the one we took last year, when the bear showed up . . .”) With each interview, the researcher records these recollections, amassing many pages of notes, which serve as the raw data for the narrative account Although the notes contain many interesting stories and details, they not constitute a narrative account of the participant’s experiences because they lack chronology and coherence The researcher must go through the process of restorying to provide that coherence The restorying process has three steps:11 The researcher conducts the interview and transcribes the audio recording to provide a written record of the raw data from the interview This process involves noting not just the spoken words but also the nuances of the interview—for example, humor, laughter, anger, and so on The researcher retranscribes the data (i.e., condenses and annotates the transcripts) based on the key elements that are identified in the story For example, suppose that Hilda (our teacher at High High School) described how she copes with students who come to class under the influence of drugs From her comments, we may identify and highlight certain themes, such as seeking assistance from a school nurse or counselor and establishing individual educational plans and contracts The researcher organizes the story into a chronological sequence with attention to the setting, characters, actions, problems, and resolutions For example, Hilda’s story may be set in the context of her classroom with the adolescents who use drugs (i.e., characters) 10 11 Educational Research (p 511), Creswell, 2015 Ibid 371 and may be focused on the actions of the students (e.g., their off-task behavior and other relevant classroom behavior), the problems caused by the actions (e.g., other students distracted, teacher time focused on a few students), and any resolutions to the problems that Hilda employed (e.g., seeking assistance from outside the classroom, establishing learning contracts with students) After restorying is completed, the researcher invites the participant to collaborate on the final narrative of the individual’s experiences For example, the educational researcher and Hilda would collaboratively construct a narrative that describes Hilda’s experiences working with adolescent drug users, as well as the meaning these experiences had for Hilda This collaboration between researcher and participant is critical to ensure that there is no gap between the “narrative told and narrative reported.”12 One test of the trustworthiness of the narrative account is the participant’s validation that the account is representative of the individual’s lived experiences, as relayed in the interviews A valid and clear narrative should increase our collective understanding of the phenomenon under study—in Hilda’s case, how a teacher confronts and deals with adolescent drug users in the classroom Oral History One method for creating field texts is to have participants share their oral histories An oral history may be obtained by the researcher during a structured interview schedule with predetermined questions (and hence with the researcher’s agenda clearly stated) or through an open-ended approach in which the researcher asks participants to tell their own stories in their own ways In constructing an oral history, a researcher may ask a participant to create a time line (also known as a chronicle) that is divided into segments of significant events or memories An oral history of a teacher working with adolescents who use drugs, for example, may include a time line from the beginning of the year (or previous years) that indicates significant events related to student drug use, such as when students were suspended from school because they violated a zero tolerance policy or when students were arrested for drug 12 Ibid p 514 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 372 chapter 12 • Narrative Research possession The time line is a helpful tool for the narrative researcher attempting to make sense of the importance of these events in the teacher’s overall story The teacher may also be asked to expand on these significant events and to write a description in a journal Together, the chronicle and journal of the teacher’s experiences provide the narrative researcher with a powerful descriptive tool Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes, and Other Artifacts Teachers have a proclivity for acting like pack rats The materials they collect, apart from the obvious curriculum materials, often include cards from former students, newspaper clippings, yearbooks, photographs, and audio and video recordings of student performances Often, these artifacts adorn a teacher’s desk and bulletin board as badges of honor The narrative researcher can use these artifacts as prompts to elicit details about the teacher’s life in school and in particular the phenomenon under investigation For example, a teacher may share thank-you cards from students who, due to the teacher’s intervention, were able to kick a drug habit Storytelling Narrative research affords many opportunities to engage participants in storytelling Teachers, by nature, are master storytellers, and many will happily share stories about their experiences in school as “competent narrators of their lives.”13 The manner in which narrative researchers engage participants in storytelling sessions has a great impact on the nature of the story That is, when storytelling is a routine part of the narrative research process, researchers can regularly add to their understanding of a “day in the life” of a teacher who is focused on finding a resolution to a challenging educational problem Often, stories are shared when a recorder is not handy, and the researcher will have to record field notes and verbatim accounts as necessary These stories are critical in providing insights into teachers’ work and explanations of their actions 13 The Active Interview (p 29), by J A Holstein and J F Gubrium, 1995, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Letter Writing Letter writing (or email exchange) is another way to engage participants in writing about their lived experiences and to engage the narrative researcher and participant in a dialogue The commitment of thought to text helps both the researcher and the participant Because email is widely available, this kind of dialogue can be easily initiated and maintained The dialogue serves as a working chronicle of the participant’s thoughts on issues related to the research phenomenon and thus provides the narrative researcher with valuable insights into the evolving, tentative interpretations that the participant may be considering Further, if each email includes previous messages, the narrative researcher and the participant can reflect on the evolution of the themes by reading the increasing record of the narrative dialogue Autobiographical and Biographical Writing Engaging a participant in constructing or collaboratively constructing a life history through autobiographical or biographical writing has the potential to broaden the narrative researcher’s understandings about past events and experiences that have affected the participant’s experiences with the phenomenon under investigation Perhaps Hilda, for example, has had other professional or personal experiences with adolescent drug users that would contribute to an understanding of how she operates in her current educational environment Autobiographical or biographical writing about Hilda’s life could bring these experiences to light Again, the use of email could provide a wonderful electronic record of the emerging narrative Other Narrative Data Sources A researcher can access many other narrative data sources that can contribute to the construction of the written narrative For example, documents such as lesson plans, parent newsletters, and personal philosophy statements are readily available These sources provide windows into a world of classrooms that is not easily accessible to outsiders Narrative research relies heavily on interviewing and observing, which comes with the challenges of transcribing recorded interviews and Find more at www.downloadslide.com chapter 12 • Narrative Research recording field notes Thus, the use of new, readily accessible digital dictation tools is described in the Digital Research Tools for the 21st Century feature Writing the Narrative The final step in the narrative research process is writing the narrative, which is again a collaboration between participant and researcher Many data collection techniques used in narrative research result in products—such as email, letters, and a participant’s biography—that often 373 end up as part of the final written account Given the collaborative nature of narrative research from the beginning until the end, the negotiation of the final narrative account should be relatively easy to achieve However, it is worth remembering that the goal in conducting narrative research is to “learn about the general from the particular.”14 As such, we should be modest in the claims we make for the collaboratively constructed written narrative that is the final product of our research efforts 14 “Narrative Analysis,” Riessman, 2002, p 262 Digital Research Tools for the 21st Century Dragon mobile assistant, Dragon Dictation, and dragon Dictate for Mac Speech recognition programs have been available for many years but were often cumbersome to use and expensive to purchase However, there are now many smartphone and computer applications available that will save the narrative researcher some of the time spent writing field notes and transcribing interviews Dragon Mobile Assistant A new app for your mobile phone, Dragon Mobile Assistant combines the easy-to-use voice recognition software application with a host of other tools for the on-the-go researcher Need help scheduling an interview? Check your calendar and send an email to your research participants while driving to another research site This free app can help record your field notes, send emails and texts, and make your dinner reservations while automatically detecting the need for hands-free operation Dragon Dictation Dragon Dictation is an easy-to-use voice recognition software application that allows you to speak and instantly see your content in a text form that can be edited, emailed, or even posted to blogs With a little practice, Dragon Dictation gives the researcher the potential to record observations, field notes, and interviews at five times the speed of typing on a keyboard This is also a great tool to use to record your thoughts in the car while you are driving to your home or office, and best of all, it’s a free application for smartphone users As Dragon Dictation claims, “Turn talk into type while you are on the go.” Dragon Dictate for Mac If you’re not comfortable with talking and driving and you are looking for a more advanced software package, Dragon Dictate for Mac allows you to convert talk to type at a computer (and to interact with Mac applications by using only your voice) This program could be used to record interviews with research participants and would therefore save the researcher time spent transcribing Unlike Dragon Dictation, it is not free, but it may become your favorite computer application and narrative research timesaving tool Find more at www.downloadslide.com Glossary Type II error The failure of a researcher to reject a null hypothesis that is really false unobtrusive measures Ways to collect data that not intrude on or require interaction with research participants; examples include observation and collecting data from written records unstructured interview An interview that consists of questions prompted by the flow of the interview itself unstructured item An item on a questionnaire that gives the respondent complete freedom of response validity The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure; a test is valid for a particular 683 purpose for a particular group In qualitative research, validity refers to the degree to which qualitative data accurately gauge what the researcher is trying to measure variable A concept (e.g., intelligence, height, aptitude) that can assume any one of a range of values variance The amount of spread among scores z score The most basic standard score; expresses how far a score is from a mean in terms of standard deviation units Z score See T score Find more at www.downloadslide.com This page intentionally left blank Find more at www.downloadslide.com Name Index A Agar, M H., 421, 568 Ainley, John, 452 Airasian, P W., 199–200 Anderson, G L., 582 Atkinson, P., 395 B Barlow, D H., 342 Biklen, Sari Knopp, 109, 142, 143, 565, 577 Bogdan, Robert C., 109, 142, 143, 565, 577 Bourke, Sid, 452 Bracht, G H., 293 Buckley, N K., 337–338 C Camilli, G., 420 Campbell, D T., 289, 290 Clandinin, D J., 32, 366, 368, 370 Connelly, F M., 32, 366, 368, 370 Cook, T D., 289, 290 Creswell, John W., 24, 367–368, 371, 395–396, 446, 448, 451, 511, 569, 591 D Dalrymple, A J., 31 Dauite, C., 368 Denzin, N K., 370, 395, 418 Deshler, D D., 32 Dey, I., 593 E Gould, Stephen Jay, 546, 550 Green, J L., 420 Gridler, M., 35 Guba, E G., 573–575 Gubrium, J.F., 372 H Haaland, J., 518 Hammersley, M., 395, 478 Hatch, J A., 368 Herr, K., 582 Hersen, M., 342 Holbrook, Allyson, 452 Holstein, J A., 372 Huberman, A M., 369, 418, 423 Hughes, C A., 32 J Jackson, P W., 477 Jaegar, R M., 396, 397 Jones, J H., 37 Jorner, U., 518 K Kellaghan, T., 35 Kemmis, S., 481 Kennedy, M M., 477 Koorland, M A., 476 Krathwohl, D R., 584 L Eisner, E W., 40 Elmore, P B., 420 Emerson, R M., 399 LeCompte, M D., 395 Lightfoot, C., 368 Lincoln, Y S., 370, 395, 418 Lortie, D.C., 477 F M Feldman, M A., 31 Flinders, D J., 41, 421 Fretz, R I., 399 Fueyo, V., 476 Madaus, G., 35 Malinowski, B., 25 Marshall, C., 109, 142, 143, 144 Marzano, R.J., 128 McGaw, B., 128 McKenzie, Phil, 452 McNulty, B A., 128 McTaggart, R., 481 Merriam, S B., 418, 419, 420, 422 G Gardner, Howard, 546, 550 Geertz, C., 419 Glass, Gene V., 128, 293 685 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 686 Name Index Merton, R K., 421, 424, 425 Miles, M B., 369, 418, 423 Milgram, S., 37 Mills, Geoff E., 34, 125, 144, 399–402, 418– 421, 423–425, 478–480, 586 Morse, J M., 445, 450 N Niehaus, L., 450 Nihlen, A S., 582 O Owen, John M., 452 Shadish, W R., 289, 290 Shaw, L L., 399 Smith, L M., 40 Smith, M L., 128 Spradley, J., 397 Stake, R E., 418, 420 Stanley, J C., 290 Stringer, E T., 478, 587–588, 592 Stufflebeam, D., 35 T Tashakkori, A., 445, 450 Teddlie, C., 445, 450 P Patton, M Q., 32, 400, 403, 420, 422 Pelto, G H., 397 Pelto, P J., 397 Persson, R., 518 Peshkin, A P 40 Polkinghorne, D E., 368 R Riessman, C K., 369, 373 Rossman, G., 109, 142, 143, 144 Ruhl, K L., 32 Russell, M., 199–200 S Schensul, J J., 395 Schram, T H., 142, 143, 395 Schumaker, J B., 32 V Van de Walle, J A., 481 W Walberg, H J., 128 Walker, H M., 337–338 Wallgren, Anders, 515, 518 Wallgren, B., 518 Waters, T., 128 Whyte, W F., 420 Wisniewski, R., 368 Wolcott, H F., 142, 393, 396–399, 402, 480, 575–576, 592, 593, 605 Y Yin, R K., 34, 418, 420, 422, 425 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index A A-B-A-B design, 338–339 A-B-A design, 337–338 A-B-A withdrawal designs, 337–339 A-B design, 337 About ED—Educational Associations and Organizations, 119 Absenteeism, concept map of factors, 589 Abstracts defined, 127 dissertation, 116 evaluating, 623 in mixed methods research, 452 writing, 602 Accessible population, 156 Accidental sampling See Convenience sampling Achievement tests, 181 Action research, 36, 49 definition and purpose, 475–476, 483 describing members, 485–485 evaluating, 626 key characteristics, 476–477, 483 levels, 479–480, 483 practical action, 478–479 types, 477–479, 483 Action research process, 480–483 action planning, 482 data collection, analysis, and interpretation, 482 identifying area of focus, 480–482 Active participant observer, 397, 563 Additive design, 337 Advanced mixed methods designs, 447–448 Affective characteristic, 179 Affective tests, 182–185 Alternative assessment See Performance assessment Alternative treatments design, 340–342 Ambiguity, 398–399 American Educational Research Association (AERA), code of ethics, 36–37 American Psychological Association (APA), 114 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 36 style manual See Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Analysis, data See Data analysis and interpretation Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 265, 300, 543, 554 Analysis of narrative, versus narrative analysis, 368, 374 Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 540–543, 554 calculating with post hoc multiple comparison tests using SPSS, 541–542 factorial, 265–266 Annotation, 122–123, 130–131 Anonymity, 38 Antecedents, analyzing, 588–589 APA style See Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Appendixes, 147, 149 Applied research, 34–35, 49 Aptitude tests, 181–182 Archival documents, 571 Area-of-focus statement, 485 Artifacts, as data source, 572 Artificial category, 547 Assessment defined, 180 performance, 180 See also Instruments; Measuring instruments; Tests Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), 118 Assumption, defined, 140 Attenuation, 242 Attitude, defined, 182 Attitude scales, 182 Audit trail, establishing, 574 Authentic assessment See Performance assessment Author, evaluating, 121 Available population, 156 B Bar chart, 517 Baseline measures, 343 Baseline stability, 343–344 Basic research, 34–35, 49 Bell-shaped curve See Curve, normal Bias and affective and cognitive instruments, 185 avoiding, 165, 170–171 experimenter, 296–297 Big Pine School District, 175 Bimodal, defined, 505 Blogs, 92, 573 Bounded system, 418 687 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 688 Subject Index Buckley Amendment See Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 Budget, in research plan, 141, 149 C Calculation for interval data, 521 “Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk of School Failure?,” 25 Canonical analysis, 244 Case study determining theoretical and conceptual framework, 421 ethnographic, 396 single, multiple, or collective, 421 Case study research, 32–34 conducting and analyzing multiple studies, 422–426 data collection, 422, 426 definition and purpose, 418–420, 426 design, 420–421, 426 evaluating, 626 sample selection, 421–422, 426 Case study research, purpose characteristics, 419–420, 426 when to use, 419, 426 Categorical variables See Nominal variables Causal–comparative research, 30 basic design, 263 defined, 259, 260, 267 evaluating, 624 purpose, 260–263, 267 Causal–comparative research process, 263–267 control procedures, 264–265, 267 data analysis and interpretation, 265–267 design and procedure, 263–264 Causal models, 425 Causal variable See Independent variable Ceiling effect, 539 Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), 117 Changing criterion design, 337 Chi square, 266, 547–550, 555 Citation, sample APA, 114 Classifying, in qualitative research, 584 Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications, 200–201 Clinical replication, 344 Closed-ended items See Structured item Cluster, defined, 161 Cluster sampling, 161–163, 170 Coding, 585–588 Coefficient of determination, 244 Coefficient of equivalence, 192 Coefficient of stability, 192 Coefficient of stability and equivalence, 192 Cognitive characteristic, 179 Cognitive tests, 181–182 Cohort survey, 211 Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS), 181 Common variance, 237 Comparison groups, 259, 263, 303 See also Control groups; Experimental groups; Study participants Compensatory rivalry, 297 Computer databases See Databases Concept map, developing, 588–589 Conclusions, drawing and stating, 24, 46 Conclusion section See Discussion section Concurrent validity, 187–188 Confidence limits, 525 Confidentiality, 38 Confirmability, defined, 573–575 Consequences, analyzing, 588–589 Consequential validity, 189–190 Constructs, 175–176, 201 Construct validity, 189, 289 Content validity, 186–187 Control defined, 288 participants as, 300 Control groups, 285 See also Comparison groups; Experimental groups; Study participants Convenience sampling, 166 Convergent parallel (QUANT + QUAL) design, 447 Coping strategies, taxonomy, 419 Correlation, 29 Correlational research defined, 233, 234, 246 evaluating, 624 miscellaneous analyses, 244–245, 248 prediction studies, 242–244, 247–248 purpose, 234, 246 relationship studies, 239–242 Correlational research process, 235–238, 246 data analysis and interpretation, 235–238, 246 design and procedure, 235, 246 participant and instrument selection, 235, 246 process, problem selection, 235, 246 Correlation coefficients, 29 problems to consider in interpreting, 245 types, 240 Counterbalanced designs, 308–309 Cover letter, questionnaire, 215–216, 223 Credibility, defined, 573–574 Criterion, defined, 188 Criterion-referenced scoring, 180 Criterion-related validity, 187–189 Criterion variable See Dependent variable Critical action research, 478 Critical ethnography, 396 Cronbach’s alpha, 193–194 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index Cross-sectional surveys, 210–211 Cross-site analysis, 422–423 Cross-validation, 243 Culture, defined, 393 Curve, normal, 508–511, 520 Curvilinear relation, 241 D Data collecting, managing, and analyzing, 144 defined, 175 graphing, 517–518, 521 interpreting See Data analysis and interpretation Data analysis and interpretation, 24, 26–27, 46, 180 action research, 482 causal–comparative research process, 265–266, 267 correlational research, 235–238, 246 prediction studies, 242–243, 248 preparation, 502–503, 519 relationship studies, 239–242, 247 research plan, 141, 149 single-subject experimental designs, 342, 346 strategies, 144 Databases managing references, 115 searching, 112–115, 130 See also Education Full Text; Education Resources Information Center (ERIC); PsycINFO Data collection, 26–27 action research, 482 comparing methods, 217 developing ideas, 486–487 from interviews, 569 methods, 144 prediction studies, 242–243, 247–248 quantitative and qualitative methods, 180 relationship studies, 239, 247 techniques for case study research, 422, 426 See also Qualitative research, data collection; Quantitative research, data collection methods Data mining, 550, 555 Deception, 39, 49 Deductive hypothesis, 99 Deductive reasoning, 22–23 Degrees of freedom (df), 532, 553 Dependability, defined, 573–574 Dependent variable, 30, 178–179, 286 Descriptive activities, gaining insight through, 481 Descriptive case studies, 419 Design defined, 140, 148 description, 603 Design and procedure, evaluating, 623 “Developing Teacher Epistemological Sophistication about Multicultural Curriculum: A Case Study,” 26 689 Developing Educational Standards, 117 Diagnostic test, 181 Diagonal of the matrix, 515 Dialectic action research spiral, 480 Difference scores, analyzing, 539–540, 554 Differential Aptitude Tests, 181–182 Differential selection of participants, 292 Digital research tools for developing research problems, 91–92 Dragon products, 373 Google searches, 118–119 managing citations, 601 qualitative data analysis computer software, 591 Web-based survey tools, 220–221 wiki, blog, and Skype, 573 Directional hypothesis, 99–100, 101 Direct replication, 344 Discriminant function analysis, 244 Discussion section, 603, 623 Dissertation abstracts, 116 formatting, 600–604, 606 Dragon Mobile Assistant, Dragon Dictation, and Dragon Dictate for Mac 21, 373 Dummy variable, 545 E Ecological validity See External validity Education Full Text, 109–110, 116 Education Resource Organizations Directory, 119 Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), 109–110, 115–116 Educational Research Service (ERS), 198 Educational research approaches, 24–28, 47 defined, 23 ethics, 36–45, 49 See also Mixed methods research; Qualitative research; Quantitative research; Research Educational Testing Service (ETS) Test Collection Database, 198, 203 Effect See Dependent variable Effect size, 128 E-mail interviews, 570 E-mail lists, as source for research problem, 91–92 EndNote, 601 Environmental variable, 289 Epistemology, defined, 24 Equivalence, 192 Equivalence and stability, 192 Equivalent-forms reliability See Equivalence Errors, avoiding, 165, 170–171 See also Sampling error; Standard error; Type I and Type II errors eSurveyspro, 221 Eta coefficient, 241 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 690 Subject Index Ethics, 36–45 addressing in research plan, 145 unique to qualitative research, 39–42 See also Sampling bias Ethnograph v6, 591 Ethnographic case study, 396 Ethnographic research, 32, 33 definition and purpose, 391–393, 404 evaluating, 626 key characteristics, 395, 404 process, 393–395, 404 types, 395–396, 404 Ethnographic research techniques, 396–402, 405 field notes, 399–401, 403 looking for bumps and paradoxes, 402, 405 participant observation, 397–399 thorough observation, 401–402 triangulation, 397 Ethnography, defined, 396 Ethnomethodology, 32 Ethology, 32 Evaluation research, 35, 49 Excel, using for statistics, 502 Experimental groups, 285 See also Comparison groups; Control groups; Study participants Experimental mixed methods design, 448–449 Experimental research, 31 evaluating, 624 group designs, 300–311, 314–315 single-variable designs, 301–309, 314 See also Single-subject experimental designs Experimental research, definition and purpose, 286–289, 312 manipulation and control, 288–289, 312 process, 287–288, 312 Experimental research, threats to validity, 289–300, 302, 304, 312–314 control of extraneous variables, 298–300, 313–314 external, 293–298 internal, 290–293 Experimental variable See Independent variables Experimenter bias effect, 296–297 Experimenter effects, 296 Experimenter personal-attributes effects, 296 Explanatory activities, gaining insight through, 481–482 Explanatory sequential (QUAN S qual) design, 445–446 Exploratory sequential (QUAL S quan) design, 446–447 External validity, 289, 313 External validity, threats experimental research, 293–298, 313 qualitative studies, 625 single-subject experimental research, 342, 346 Extraneous variables, control, 298–300, 313–314 F Face validity, 187 Facebook, 92 Factor analysis, 245, 550, 555 Factorial analysis of variance, 265 Factorial designs, 301, 309–311, 315 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, 38–39, 49 Feedback, seeking, 576 Field notes, 399–401, 403, 405, 564–566 Fieldwork, prior, 142, 149 Findings, displaying, 589 Focus groups, 569–570 Follow-up survey, 211 Foreshadowed problem,” 25 Formulas, statistical, 521 Freedom from harm, 38, 49 Frequencies, 503–504, 519 Frequency distribution example, 505 Frequency polygon, 518 G Gain scores, 539–540, 554 Generalizable, defined, 155, 577, 579 Generalization, 22 Google searches, 118–119 Grading on the curve, 180 Grounded theory, 32 Group designs experimental, 300–311, 314–315 versus single-subject experimental designs, 336, 345 Grouping variable, 30 in causal-comparative versus experimental research, 261 comparing homogeneous groups or subgroups, 265 Groups or subgroups, homogeneous, comparing, 265, 299–300 Guba’s criteria for validity of qualitative research, 573–575 Guiding hypotheses, 101–102 Guttman scale, 183 H Haphazard sampling See Convenience sampling Hawthorne effect, 297 Heuristic case studies, 419 Historical research, 32 History, and threats to validity, 290–291 Human Subjects Review Committee (HSRC), 37 HyperRESEARCH 3.0.2, 591 Hypothesis defined, 22, 97 evaluating, 622 formulating and stating, 97–102, 104 presenting, 602 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index in quantitative studies, 98–99, 104 in research plan, 139 stating, 100–101, 104 testing, 101, 104 types, 99–100, 104 Hypothesis, good characteristics of, 99 guidelines, 98–99 Hypothesis testing, 526, 552 I Independent samples, 534 Independent variables in causal–comparative studies, 262 in experimental research; 286 and measuring instruments, 178–179 See also Grouping variable; Malleable variable Inductive hypothesis, 99 Inductive reasoning, 22–23 Inferential statistics, 523–532, 552 defined, 523 degrees of freedom (df), 532, 553 hypothesis testing, 526, 552 standard error, 523–526 tests of significance, 526–527, 552 two-tailed and one-tailed tests, 527–529 Type I and Type II errors, 529–532 Informed consent, 37–41, 43–44, 49 Innovation, describing, 485–486 Institutional Review Board (IRB), 37, 450 Instrumentation, and threats to validity, 291–292 Instruments defined, 139–140, 148, 176 description in report, 603 evaluating, 622–623 selecting for correlational research, 235, 246 See also Assessment; Measuring instruments; Tests Interaction, 289 Interaction of history and treatment effects, 296 Interaction of time of measurement and treatment effect, 296 Interest inventories, 183–184 Interests, defined, 182 Interjudge reliability, 194 Internal consistency reliability, 192–194 Internal validity, 289, 312 Internal validity threats experimental research, 290–293, 312–313 qualitative studies, 625 single-subject experimental research, 343, 346 Internal variables, 177–178 International Reading Association (IRA), 119 Internet, searching, 116–117, 130 Interpretive research See Qualitative research approaches Intervening variable, 244 Intervention, describing, 485–486 Interviews case study research, 422 coding, 585–588 collecting data, 569 conducting, 568–570, 578 defined, 211–212, 568 e-mail, 570 guidelines, 569 Intrajudge reliability, 194 Introduction section planning and evaluating, 138–139, 142–143, 148–149, 622 writing, 602 J John Henry effect, 297 Journals as data source, 571 for information about tests, 196–197 refereed, 121 writing for, 604–605, 607 Judgment sampling, 167 K Keywords identifying, 109–110, 129 sample search, 113 Kuder Preference Record—Vocational, 184 Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20), 193–194 L Letter writing, as narrative research, 372 Library catalogs, 111–112 Library searches for books on research problem, 111–112, 129–130 as source for research problem, 90–91 Likert scale, 182, 183 LimeSurvey, 221 Linear relation, 241 Linear Structural Relationships (LISREL), 550 Listening, 575 Literature matrix, 123–125 Literature review, 26–27 analyzing, organizing, and reporting literature, 123–127, 131 basic process, 109 contextualizing, 592 evaluating, 622 purpose and scope, 107–108, 129 qualitative research, 109–110, 129 reporting, 602 in research plan, 139, 143 Longitudinal surveys, 211 691 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 692 Subject Index M Malleable variable, 501 Manipulated variable See Independent variables Manipulation of the treatments, 287 Maps, as data source, 571 Matching, 264, 299 Matrixes, for case study research, 423–425 Maturation, defined, 291 Mean in causal–comparative research, 265 and descriptive statistics, 504–506 formula, 521 Measurement defined, 180 repeated and reliable, 343 Measurement scales comparisons, 177 defined, 176 and variables, 176–178 Measures of central tendency, 504, 519 Measures of relationship, 514–516, 520 Measures of relative position, 511–514, 520 Measures of variability, 506, 519 Measuring instruments characteristics, 179–180, 201 interpreting data, 180 self-report, problems with, 185 See also Assessment; Instruments; Test Measuring instruments, criteria, 186–195, 202 reliability, 190–195, 202–203 validity, 186–190 Measuring instruments, types, 181–186, 201 affective tests, 182–185 cognitive tests, 181–182 projective tests, 185–186 Median, 506 Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY), 181, 184, 195–197, 203 Meta-analysis, 127–128, 131 Meta-Analysis in Social Research, 128 Methodology defined, 24 evaluating, 121 Methods, overlapping, 574 Method section, 602–603 evaluating, 622 planning and evaluating, 139–141, 148 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 184–185 Mixed methods research, 26, 48 conducting, 449–450, 453 definition and purpose, 443–445, 453 evaluating, 451, 453, 626 identifying studies using, 451, 453 study abstract, 452 Mixed methods research, types of designs, 445–449, 453 advanced mixed methods, 447–448 basic mixed methods, 445–446 convergent parallel (QUANT + QUAL) design, 447 experimental, 448–449 explanatory sequential (QUAN S qual), 445–446 exploratory sequential (QUAL S quan), 446–447 multistage evaluation, 449 social justice, 449 Mode, 505–506 Mortality, and threats to validity, 292–293 Multifactor analysis of variance (MANOVA), 542–543, 554 Multimodal, defined, 505 Multiple-baseline designs, 339–340 Multiple comparisons, 541, 554 Multiple regression, 544–547, 554 Multiple regression equation, 243 Multiple-treatment interference, 294–295 Multistage evaluation design, 449 Multistage sampling, 162 N Narrative, writing, 373, 374 Narrative analysis, versus analysis of narrative, 368, 374 Narrative research, 32–33 definition and purpose, 365–368, 374 evaluating, 626 key characteristics, 369–370, 374 process, 368–369, 374 types, 367–368, 372, 374 Narrative research, techniques, 370–373, 374 autobiographical and biographical writing, 372 examining artifacts, 372 letter writing, 372 miscellaneous data sources, 372–373 oral history, 371–372 restorying, 370–371 storytelling, 372 National Board on Educational Testing and Public Policy (NBETPP), 198 National Center for Education Statistics, 117 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 119 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 119 National Education Association (NEA), 119 National Research Act of 1974, 37 National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), 119 Nominal variables, 177 Nondirectional hypothesis, 99–100 Nonequivalent control group design, 307 Nonparametric statistical tests, 551 Nonparametric test, 532–533 Nonparticipant observation, 564 Nonprobability sampling, 166 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index Nonrandom sample, 166–167, 171 Norm-referenced scoring, 180 See also Measures of relative position Null hypothesis, and hypothesis testing, 526, outcomes from rejecting, 529 and problem selection and definition, 100–101 NVivo 28, 591 O Observation, 22 nonparticipant, 564 participant, 397–399, 563–564 recording, 564, 567–568, 575–575 Off-diagonal cells, 515 One-group posttest-only design, 301 One-group pretest-posttest design, 301–302 One-tailed tests, 527–529, 553 One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), 540 Ontology, defined, 24 Operational definitions, 98–99 Oral history, 371–372 Ordinal variables, 177 Organismic variable, 261 Organizational review, 588 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 181 Outcome See Dependent variable Outline, literature review, 124, 126 P Pair-wise matching, 264 Panel survey, 211 Parameters, 503, 519 Parametric statistical tests, 551 Parametric test, 532–533 Participant effects, 297 Participant observation, 397–399, 563–564 Participant variable, 289 Particularistic case studies, 419 Passive observer, 398, 563 Path analysis, 244, 245, 544 Pearson r, 239–240, 514–516 Pearson r formula, 521 Peer debriefing, 574 Percentile ranks, 180, 512 Performance assessment, 180 Personal experience, as source for research problem, 90 Personality, defined, 182 Personality inventories, 184–185 Phenomenology, 32 Phi coefficient, 240 Piaget, Jean, 90 Pie chart, 518 Pilot study, 147 Placebo effect, 297–298 693 Population defined, 139 defining, 155, 156, 170 Population parameter, 510 Post-test See Dependent variable Posttest-only control group design, 305–306 Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups, 303 Power, defined, 543 Practical action research, 478–479 Pre-experimental designs, 301–303, 314 Prediction studies, 242–244, 247–248 data analysis and interpretation, 243–244, 248 data collection, 242–243, 247–248 evaluating, 624 Predictive validity, 188 Predictor, defined, 188, 242 Pretest sensitization See Testing, and threats to validity Pretest-treatment interaction, 293–294 Pretest–posttest control group design, 303, 305 Primary source, 110 Privileged, active observer, 398, 563 Pro-Ed Publications, 196 Probability sampling, 156 Problem statement, 94–95, 97, 103, 138 in introduction, 602 placement and nature, 97 Procedure section, 140–141, 148, 603 Professional organizations, joining, 117–119, 130 Projective tests, 185–186 Proportional stratified sampling, 159–161 Proposal See Research plan Prospective causal–comparative research, 260 Protocol, 564, 567 PsycINFO, 116 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 599–600, 604, 608 Purposive sampling, 167, 168, 171 Q Qualitative research, 25–26, 47–48 components of research plan, 142–147 data-organizing activities, 583 definition and purpose of hypotheses, 101–102, 104 developing questions, 96–97 ethical issues, 39–42, 49 evaluating validity and reliability, 625–626 general evaluation, 625 Guba’s criteria, 573–575 and literature review, 109–110, 129 reliability, 576–577, 579 sampling, 167–169, 171 stating problem, 95 time to narrow problem, 93 validity, 572–576, 578–579 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 694 Subject Index Qualitative research (Continued) Wolcott’s strategies, 575–576 See also Case study research; Ethnographic research; Narrative research; Mixed methods research Qualitative research, data analysis and interpretation after data collection, 582 definition and purpose, 581–582, 594 during data collection, 581–582 ensuring credibility, 593, 595 example, 589–590 steps, 582–584, 594 describing, 584 reading/memoing, 583–584 Qualitative research, data analysis and interpretation, strategies, 584–595 coding, 585–586 concept map, 588–589 themes, 584–585 Qualitative research, data collection methods, 180 analyzing data during and after, 581–582 getting started, 577, 579 Qualitative research, data collection, sources and techniques, 563–572, 578 examining records, 571–572, 578 interviewing, 568–570, 578 observing, 563–568, 578 Qualitative research approaches, 32–34 case study research, 32, 33–34 characteristic, 26–28, 48 ethnography, 32, 33 narrative research, 32–33 Qualitative sampling, defined, 167 Qualitative variables, 178 Qualtrics, 221 Quantitative research, 24–25, 47 characteristic approaches, 26–28, 48 data collection methods, 180 definition and purpose of hypotheses, 98–99, 104 developing questions from, 95–96 stating problem, 94–95 time to narrow problem, 93 See also Causal–comparative research; Correlational research; Experimental research; Mixed methods research; Single-subject research; Statistics; Survey research Quantitative research, components of plan, 138–141, 148 appendixes, 147, 149 compared with qualitative components, 146 Quantitative research, sampling, 155–167, 170 avoiding error and bias, 165, 170–171 defining population, 156, 170 determining size, 163–165, 170 nonrandom, 166–167, 171 random, 156–163, 170 Quantitative research approaches causal–comparative research, 30 correlational research, 29–30 experimental research, 31 single-subject research, 31–32 survey research, 28–29 Quantitative variables, 178 Quartile deviation, 507 Quasi-experimental designs, 301, 306–309, 315 Questionnaire, 570–571, 578 coding, 585–586 defined, 211 Questionnaire study, administering, 216–221, 223 analyzing results, 220–221 dealing with nonresponse, 219, 223 distributing, 217–218, 223 follow-up, 218–219, 223 selecting participants, 216–217, 223 tabulating responses, 219–220, 223 Questionnaire study, conducting, 212–216, 222 constructing questionnaire, 212–216, 222 guidelines, 215 pilot-testing, 215, 222 preparing cover letter, 215–216, 223 stating problem, 212, 222 Questionnaire study, sample items, 213 Questions, key, 587–588 Quota sampling, 167 R Randomization, 298–299 Random numbers table, 157–158 Random sample selecting, 156–163, 170 strategies, 164 Range, 506–517 Rank difference correlation See Spearman rho Rating scales, 183 Ratio variables, 178 Raw score, 180 Reactive arrangements, 297 Reading/memoing, in data analysis, 583–584 Realist ethnography, 396 Reasoning, inductive and deductive, 22 Reciprocity, in ethnographic research, 398 Recommendations See Discussion section Records, examining, 571–572, 578 Refereed journal, 121 References analyzing, 126 managing in database, 115 Referential adequacy, establishing, 574 Reflexivity, 574–575 RefWorks, 601 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index Relationship studies, 239–242, 247 data analysis and interpretation, 239–242, 247 data collection, 239, 247 evaluating, 624 Reliability defined, 190 evaluating, 625–626 in qualitative research, 576–577, 579 Reliability coefficient, 191, 194, 203 Replication, 90, 344, 345 Representative sample, 156 Research classification by design, 28–34, 48 classification by purpose, 34–36, 49 defined, 23 potential contributions, 145 reporting and evaluating, 26–27 well-written, 45–46 writing about, 127, 169 See also Educational research; Mixed methods research, Qualitative research; Quantitative research; Study Research and development (R&D), 35, 49 Researcher as participant observer, 397–399 role of, 144 Research hypothesis, 526 Research participants See Study participants Research philosophies, 24 Research plan critiquing, 147 definition and purpose, 137–138, 148 revising and improving, 147, 149 Research plan, qualitative, 142–147, 149 introduction section, 142–143, 149 procedure section, 143, 149 Research plan, quantitative, 138–141, 148 data analysis and interpretation, 141 introduction section, 138–139, 148 method section, 139–141, 148 procedure section, 140–141, 148 Research problem, 89 defining, 23, 45 evaluating, 622 good, characteristics, 93–94, 103 identifying, 89–97, 103 narrowing, 92–93, 103 in questionnaire study, 212, 222 searching library for, 111–112, 129–130 selecting, 23, 45, 235, 246 sources, 89–92, 103 statement of, 138 Research problem, stating, 103 in introduction, 602 qualitative study, 95 quantitative study, 94–95 Research procedures, executing, 23–24, 45 Research questions determining, 420 developing, 95–97, 103, 485 framework for conceptualizing, 96 statement of, 138, 143 Research report format and style, 599–600, 606 guidelines for writing, 597–599, 606 main body, 602–604 preliminary pages, 601–602 Research report, evaluating general criteria, 620–623, 627 type-specific criteria, 623–626, 627 Research site, gaining access, 42–45, 49–50 Research topic, identifying, 26–27 Response set, 185 Restorying, 370–371 Results, evaluating, 623 Results section, 603–604 Retrospective causal–comparative research, 260 Review of related literature, 107 See also Literature review Rich Site Summary (RSS) feeds, 91–92 Rorschach inkblot test, 185 S Sample, defined, 31, 155 Sample-based statistic, 510 Sample size, 163–165, 169, 170 Sampling defined, 155 in quantitative research, 155–167 Sampling bias, 165, 170–171 Sampling error, 165, 170–171, 524, 552 Sampling validity, 186 Scatterplots, 424 Scholastic aptitude tests See Aptitude tests Scientific method, 22–24, 47 applications in education, 23–24, 47 defined, 22 limitations, 23, 47 Scorer/rater reliability, 193–194 Scoring procedures, 502 Secondary source, 110 Selection–maturation interaction, 293 Selection methods, 180 Selection–treatment interaction, 295 Self-referenced scoring approaches, 180 Self-reflection, gaining insight through, 481 Semantic differential scales, 182–183 Shared variance See Common variance “Should,” inappropriateness in research problem, 94 Significance, defined, 526–527 Simple analysis of variance (ANOVA), 540, 554 Simple random sampling, 156–159, 170 695 Find more at www.downloadslide.com 696 Subject Index Single-subject experimental designs, 31–32 data analysis and interpretation, 342, 346 defined, 335, 336, 345 types, 336–342, 345 versus group designs, 336, 345 Single-subject research, evaluating, 624 Single-variable designs, 301–309, 314 Single-variable rule, 336 Site-ordered descriptive matrix, 423–424 Site-ordered effects matrix, 424–425 Site-ordered predictor-outcome matrix, 424 Site and sample selection, 144 Skewed distributions, 510–511, 520 Skype, as research tool, 573 Social justice design, 449 Solomon four-group design, 306 Sources annotating, 122–123, 130–131 evaluating, 119–122, 130 rubric for, 120 at library, 90–91 See also Databases; Journals, refereed; Reference; Websites, educational Sources, identifying, 110–119, 129 databases, 112–115 Internet, 116–117 professional organizations, 117–119 searching library, 111–112, 129–130 Spearman rho, 240, 516 Split-half reliability, 192–193 Stability, 191–192 Stable, defined, 264 Stacks, browsing, 112 Standard deviation, 265, 507–508, 521 Standard error in correlational research, 244 and inferential statistics, 523–526, 552 Standard error of the mean, 525–526, 552 Standard error of measurement, 194–195, 203 Standardized test, defined, 179–180 Standard scores, 512, 521 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing manual, 190 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 182 Statement of resources, developing, 486 Statistical conclusion validity, 289 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), 502 calculating ANOVA with post hoc multiple comparison tests, 541–542 calculating chi square, 548–550 calculating multiple regression, 545–547 calculating t test, 534–539 Statistical regression, 292 Statistical significance, 237–238 Statistics common symbols, 521 defined, 501 language, 501–502, 519 See also Inferential statistics, concepts underlying Statistics, descriptive, preparing for analysis, 502–503, 519 Statistics, descriptive, types, 503–516, 519 deciding among mean, median, and mode, 506, 519 frequencies, 503–504 mean, 504–505 measures of central tendency, 504, 519 measures of relationship, 514–516, 520 measures of relative position, 511–514, 520 measures of variability, 506, 519 median, 505 mode, 505–506 quartile deviation, 507 range, 506–507 standard deviation, 507–508 variance, 507 Storytelling, as narrative research, 372 Stratified sampling, 159–161, 170 Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, 184 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 245, 550, 555 Structured interviews, 568 Structured item, 212 Study framing, 143 limitations of, 145 overall approach and rationale, 143–144 replicable, as source for research problem, 90 Study participants addressed in research plan, 139, 148 anonymity and confidentiality, 38 evaluating, 622 as own controls, 300 See also Comparison groups; Control groups; Experimental groups Study participants, selecting, 26–27 correlational research, 235, 246 questionnaire, 216–217, 223 using purposive sampling, 168–169, 171 Study title, 142, 149 Study of Values, 184 Style manuals, 599–600 Subtest, 181 Summary See Abstract Supply methods, 180 Survey coding, 585–586 defined, 210 SurveyMonkey.com, 220 Survey research, 28–29 comparison of data collection methods, 217 conducting, 211–221, 222 Find more at www.downloadslide.com Subject Index defined, 209, 210, 222 designs, 210–211, 222 evaluating, 624 purpose, 210, 222 response rate, 219 See also Questionnaire study Symbolic interaction, 32 Systematic sampling, 163, 170 T Table of random numbers, 157–158 Tabulation and coding procedures, 502–503, 519 Target population, 156 Technical writing guidelines, 126 Test battery, 181 Testing, and threats to validity, 291 Test publishers and distributors, 197 Test-retest reliability See Stability Tests administering, 200, 203 comparative analysis for selecting, 198–199 constructing, 199–200, 203 defined, 179 diagnostic, 181 selecting, 195–199, 203 sources of information, 195–197, 203 two-tailed and one-tailed, 527–529, 553 Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Psychology, Education, and Business, 196 Tests in Print (TIP), 196, 203 Tests of general mental ability See Aptitude tests Tests of significance, 526–527, 528, 552 Tests of significance, selecting among, 532–551, 553 analysis of variance (ANOVA), 540–543, 554 chi square, 547–550, 555 multiple regression, 544–547, 554 other investigative techniques, 550, 555 parametric and nonparametric statistical tests, 551 t tests, 533–540, 553–554 Themes, identifying, 584–585 Theory, 90, 593 Theory development, 420–421 Theses, formatting, 600–604, 606 Thurstone scale, 183 Time line, developing, 486 Time-ordered meta-matrix, 424 Time schedule, in research plan, 141, 149 Time-series design, 307–308 Transferability, defined, 573–574 Treatment diffusion, 296 Treatment variable See Independent variables Trend survey, 211 Triangulation, 397, 574 True category, 547 True experimental designs, 301, 303–306, 314 Trustworthiness, in qualitative research, 572–573 697 T scores, 513–514 t test, 265, 533–540, 553–554 t test for independent samples, 534–537 t test for nonindependent samples, 537–539 Twitter, 92 Two-tailed tests, 527–529, 553 Type I and Type II errors, 529–532, 553 U Unidimensional, defined, 183 Unobtrusive measures, 294 Unordered meta-matrix, 423 Unstable, defined, 264 Unstructured interviews, 568 Unstructured item, 212–213 USA.gov, 119 U.S Department of Education, 117 V Validity in qualitative research, 572–576, 578–579 threats, 342–344, 346 See also Experimental research, threats to validity Validity of measuring instruments, 186–190 Validity standards, 190 Values, 182 Values tests, 184 Variables, 176–179, 201 in causal–comparative research, 261–262, 265 defining, 485 dependent and independent, 178–179 in experimental research, 286, 289 extraneous, control, 298–300, 313–314 grouping and dependent, 30 intervening, 244 and measurement scales, 176–178 quantitative and qualitative, 178 specificity, 295 Variance, 507 Video and audio recordings, as data source, 571–572 W Websites, educational, 117 Weschler scales, 182 Wiki, as research tool, 573 Wolcott’s strategies for ensuring validity of qualitative research, 575–576 Writing, 126, 127 autobiographical and biographical, 372 strategies, 576 Writing Up Qualitative Research, 605 Z Zoomerang, 220 Zotero, 601 z scores, 512–514 ... during the 1999? ?20 00 school year, 29 1 students during the 20 00? ?20 01 school year, and 350 students during the 20 01? ?20 02 school year Researcher’s role in the study was as an observer and participant... from nasbe org /Educational_ Issues/Reports/Schools %20 without %20 Fear.pdf National Center for Educational Statistics (20 02) Retrieved from nces.ed.gov/surveys/frss/publications/ 20 020 04/6.asp Noddings,... written narrative that is the final product of our research efforts 14 “Narrative Analysis,” Riessman, 20 02, p 26 2 Digital Research Tools for the 21 st Century Dragon mobile assistant, Dragon Dictation,