Trading barriers immigration and the remaking of globalization

Trading Barriers Trading Barriers IMMIGRATION AND THE REMAKING OF GLOBALIZATION Margaret E Peters PRINCETON Princeton and Oxford UNIVERSITY PRESS Copyright c 2017 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR press.princeton.edu Cover art courtesy of Free Vector Maps All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Peters, Margaret E., 1980– author Title: Trading barriers : immigration and the remaking of globalization / Margaret E Peters Description: Princeton : Princeton University Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016020679 | ISBN 9780691174471 (hardcover : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780691174488 (pbk : acid-free paper) Subjects: LCSH: Emigration and immigration—Economic aspects | Emigration and immigration—Government policy | Emigration and immigration—Public opinion | International trade—Social aspects | Labor and globalization Classification: LCC JV6217 P48 2017 | DDC 325/.1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020679 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available This book has been composed in Sabon Next LT Pro Printed on acid-free paper ∞ Typeset by Nova Techset Pvt Ltd, Bangalore, India Printed in the United States of America 10 To Matthew and Callie Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xi Acknowledgments xiii A Note to the Reader on the Online Appendixes xvii Immigration and the Shape of Globalization Immigration, Trade, and Firm Mobility: A Political Dilemma 15 Immigration Policy and Two Eras of Globalization 41 Changing Industry Preferences in the United States 69 Policymakers’ Responses to Firms in the United States 116 Immigration Policy in Small Countries: The Cases of Singapore and the Netherlands 162 The Rise of Anti-Immigration Sentiment and Undocumented Immigration as Explanations for Immigration Policy 206 Immigration in an Increasingly Globalized World 222 Appendix A: Collection and Coding of the Immigration Policy Variable 243 Bibliography Index 313 295 List of Figures 2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Overview of the Argument 19 Immigration Policy and Trade Policy for the Settler States 46 Immigration Policy and Trade Policy for the European States 48 Immigration Policy and Trade Policy for the East Asian and Persian Gulf States 50 Predicted Effects of Capital Openness and Nonrestricted Entry of FDI for the Language Group 67 Number of Hearings in the US House of Representatives and Senate on Immigration and Migrant and Seasonal Workers 75 Number of Times That a Representative from Business Served as a Witness or Placed a Submission in the Record 76 Number of Times That a Representative from the Low-Skill Nontradable Sector Served as a Witness or Placed a Submission in the Record 78 Number of Times That a Representative from Organized Labor Served as a Witness or Placed a Submission in the Record 81 Number of Times That a Representative from Right-Leaning Groups Served as a Witness or Placed a Submission in the Record 82 Number of Times That a Representative from Left-Leaning, Immigrant/Minority, and Religious Groups Served as a Witness or Placed a Submission in the Record 84 Number of Witnesses and Submissions from High-Tech Professional Services Firms 86 Number of Left-Leaning Groups That Lobby on Immigration and Immigration as a Percent of Issues That They Lobby On 89 Number of High-Tech Professional Services Groups That Lobby on Immigration and Immigration as a Percent of Issues That They Lobby On 90 The NTA’s Perceptions of Imports, International Competition, and Domestic Competition 94 The NTA’s Perceptions on Moving Production, Increasing Productivity, and Immigration 96 Number of Witnesses and Submissions from Textile Firms and Trade Associations 101 The AISI’s 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and support for immigration, 152–54 See also labor-intensive agriculture AISI See American Iron and Steel Institute AK Steel, 101 Alliance Party (Malaysia), 174 American Cotton Manufacturers Association, 93 American Farm Bureau, 9, 239 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 91, 93, 101–7 “Americanization” of US economy (1790–1945), 120–39; banking/finance and, 122–23, 131–32; direct election of senators and immigration, 130–31; international trade and, 134; intra-US firm mobility and, 122, 125–27t, 131–32; intra-US trade and, 117, 121–22, 124–30, 125–27t; overview of, 116–17, 121–24; productivity increases in, 123–24, 132–33; railroads and, 121–22 Anderson, Perry, 230 anti-immigration sentiment: arguments of, 222; Chinese as target of, 136–38; economic factors influencing, 4; in EU, 234–35; fears underlying, 240; firm preferences in relation to, 23; and foreign intervention in failed states, 239–40; in Netherlands, 185, 196–97, 202–3; policymakers as targets of, 22; of Progressive movement, 130–31; in recent history, 7n, 41; and refugees, 8–9; scholarship on, 5–6; and securitization of immigration, 226; in Singapore, 166–67, 182–84; sources of, 30–34 See also immigration restrictions; nativism; pro-immigrant sentiment Antilles, 190 Argentina, 43, 56, 58, 62, 66, 68 Arizona, 107–14 Aruba, 190 Asian Financial Crisis, 66 Assad, Bashar al-, 239 asylum seekers, 1, 9, 56, 58, 200, 272–74 Australia, 6, 31, 43; coding of other rights regulations, 279, 280t; coding of recruitment policies, 264t, 264–65 autocracies, 47 Bangladesh, 176 banking, 122–23 Batam, 179 Belgium, 193, 231, 237 Benelux area, 189, 190 Bernhard, William, 233–34 bias, from primary and secondary sources, 248–50 Boerenpartij (Farmers’ Party; Netherlands), 192, 196 Borden textile company, 97 Bracero Program, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 153–54, 210 Brazil, 43, 58, 246, 248; coding of, 289–90 Bretton Woods agreement, 5, 49, 51, 142, 176, 193, 196, 210 Brexit, 2, 231, 234–35 Bulgaria, 198, 199 Bush, George W., 70 California: labor-intensive agriculture in, 107–14; transcontinental railroad’s effect on, 136 Canada, 6, 31, 43, 237; coding of family reunification policy, 268, 270t; coding of nationality and skill restrictions, 259, 260–61t capital openness/controls, 64–66, 141–42, 185 Carnegie Steel Corporation, 102 Catalonia, 236 causal chain, 14, 41, 69, 164–65 314 • Index CDA See Christian Democrats Center Party (Netherlands), 197 Central America, Central Pacific Railroad, 18 Central Provident Fund (Singapore), 169 Chartered Semiconductor, 171 China, 62, 92, 108, 178, 231, 236n33, 237, 237n36, 239 Chinese, in Singapore, 173–74 Chinese Communist Party, 231 Chinese Exclusion Act, 136–37 Chinn-Ito measure of capital openness, 64, 141 Christian Democrats (CDA; Netherlands), 185, 202–3 cities, internal migration to, 230–31 citizenship, 274, 276–78 classic trade theory, 16 climate change migration, 229 Cold War, 58 collective actions costs, 19n, 22n9, 71–72 Comfort Automotive Services, 171 Comfort Group, 171 Comfort Transportation, 171 comparative advantage, 16 competition See international competition Congress of Industrial Organizations, 211 Construction Industry Development Board (Singapore), 180 containerization, 59–62 cosmopolitans, 3, 32, 69, 81, 88–90, 115 See also pro-immigrant sentiment cotton, 143, 152–54 deindustrialization, 4–5 democracy, quality of, 237 Democraten 66 (Netherlands), 185 Democratic Party: constituencies of, 159–60; immigration preferences of, 116, 154–60, 155f, 156–58t democratization, as influence on immigration policy, 206–7, 208t, 209t, 237 Department of Statistics (Singapore), 169–70 deportation, 216–17, 217f, 219–20f, 279–83 See also immigration policy: enforcement of Development Bank of Singapore, 175 Displaced Persons Act, 9, 239 domestic policies, 225–26, 229–31 doubly decisive test, 166 Dutch disease, 43, 193 Dutch East Indies, 190 East Asian states, 50f, 51 Eastern Europe, 230–31, 233 Economic Development Board (Singapore), 174–75, 177–79 Economic Strategies Committee (Singapore), 181 ECSC See European Coal and Steel Community Egypt, 239 empire, end of, 236 employers associations, 198–99 Employment Act (Singapore), 175 environmental policy, 225 Ethiopia, EU See European Union euro crisis, 231, 233 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 189, 190, 232 European Community (EC), 193, 232 European Economic Area, 194 European Economic Community, 191 European states, immigration policy and trade policy in, 48f, 49 European Union (EU), 198, 228, 231–35 exchange rates, 42, 43, 62–63 export subsidies, 62 factor analysis, 287t See also principal component analysis failed and weak states, 238–39 family reunification, 266–71 far-right groups, 6–7, 185, 192, 196–97, 235 See also right-leaning groups Fast Track See Trade Promotion Authority FDI See foreign direct investment Federal Steel Company, 102 financial sector, 122–23, 131–32 firm mobility: defined, 3, 15; exceptions to, 29; firms’ willingness to lobby affected by, 29–30; and immigration policy, 63–68, 131–32, 147; international regulation of, 228; intra-US, 122, 125–127t, 131–32; low-skill immigration as substitute for, 18; obstacles to, 141; political dilemma involving, 3–5, 15–19, 19f, 42–43, 223; political influence on, 18; and Senate preferences, 144–45t, 153t; two-century examination of effects on immigration policy of, 41–68; types of, 29 firms: anti-immigration sentiment in relation to preferences of, 23; and congressional testimony, 75, 76f, 77; Index decision-making process of, 22–23; heterogeneity of, 224; high-skill-intensive, 11, 82, 86f, 88–89, 88n32, 90f; and immigration policies, 3–6, 8, 12, 19–30, 20t, 235; individual vs collective lobbying by, 22n9; on legal vs illegal immigration, 6n6, 33–34; and noneconomic migrants, 8–9, 239; scholarship on, 11–12; in Singapore, 168–72; threatened, 25; willingness to lobby of, 24–30; in world without trade or firm mobility, 20–21 fiscal burden argument, 6, 7, 31, 165, 175, 182, 192, 196, 202, 204, 212, 213 Foo, Cedric, 171 foreign-born population, 134–35, 147–48 foreign direct investment (FDI): and immigration policy, 64–66, 79; restrictions on, 5, 141; in Singapore, 175, 179 Fortuyn, Pim, 185 France, 43, 193, 197 franchise, as influence on immigration policy, 206–7, 208t, 209t Franklin, Benjamin, 222 Freedom Party (PVV; Netherlands), 185, 202 free trade See trade openness Fukuyama, Francis, 230 Gary, Elbert, 105–6 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), 49, 102, 118, 142 George III, King, Germany, 43, 234 GLCs See government-linked corporations globalization, 139–60; agriculture and immigration policy, 152–54; effect of, on immigration policy, 117–18; and immigration support, 143–48; lobbying and immigration policy, 148–49, 150–51t; partisan voting behavior and, 154–60; political choices shaping, 223; World War II and, 142–43 Government Investment Corporation, 169n23 government-linked corporations (GLCs), 168–71 grains, 133, 152 gravity model, 293t Great Britain, 2, 142, 193, 222 See also United Kingdom Great Depression, 49, 56n14, 66, 95, 119, 135, 140, 195, 210 • 315 Great Migration, 135, 230 Greece, 191, 231, 233–34 gross domestic product (GDP), 210 guest worker programs, 152–53, 191, 210 See also Bracero Program guided wage policy, 189, 191 Gulf Cooperative Council, 228 Hamilton-Hart, Natasha, 171 Hanse cities, 230–31 high-skill immigration, 10–11, 82, 86f, 88–89 hold-up problem, 112–14 Hong Kong, 43, 47, 176 hoop test, 165, 175–77, 182, 192, 195, 196, 200–203 horses, 132–33 hukou system, 231 humanitarian concerns, 8, 9, 56, 58 Hungary, 232 illegal immigration, 6n6, 10, 33–34, 112–14, 200, 216–18, 219–20f Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, 70, 210 IMF See International Monetary Fund immigrants: attitudes toward, 22; flows of, 291–93, 293t; native labor in relation to, 22; rights of, 227, 241, 278–79; as voters/interest group, 32, 134–35, 147–48, 212–13, 227 See also anti-immigration sentiment; migrants; pro-immigrant sentiment immigration: congressional hearings on, 73–82, 75f; EU’s effect on, 198; externalities of, 238–40; illegal, 10, 33–34, 112–14, 200, 216–18, 219–20f; international implications of, 228–29, 231–40; positive effects of, 240–41; securitization of, 226 See also migration Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Agency, 33–34, 112–13 Immigration and Nationality Act, 70, 148 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 112–13 immigration policy: alternative explanations for, 30–34, 40, 134–35, 147–48, 165, 196–97, 206–15, 214–15t, 218, 221; comparative examination of, 41–68; conventional wisdom on, 6n6, 33, 47, 112–14, 200, 216–18; as economic foreign 316 • Index immigration policy (cont.) policy, 11–13, 240; enforcement of, 33–34, 69–70, 112–14, 113f, 216–18, 217f, 219–20f, 284–85 (see also deportation); EU and, 231–35; exchange rates and, 62–63; firm mobility’s comparative effects on, 63–68; firms in relation to, 3–6, 8, 12, 19–30, 20t; future of, 226–28; implications of theories on, 35–37t, 223–41; liberal, 2; lobbying and, 19–30; recommendations concerning, 13; scholarship on, 5–7, 11–13; in Singapore, 166–68; size of state as factor in, 54, 56; trade’s comparative effects on, 45–63; transportation’s effect on, 58–62; in United States, 70; in world without trade or firm mobility, 23–24 See also anti-immigration sentiment; immigration restrictions; pro-immigrant sentiment Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), 70, 112, 210 immigration restrictions: classic trade theory and, 16; current, 1–2; economic factors influencing, 4, 5, 17; EU and, 232–33; future of, 13; Great Migration linked to, 135; international, 15; large vs small firms on, 34; in Netherlands, 198; in Singapore, 166 See also anti-immigration sentiment immobile sector: defined, 85n; lobbying by, 77, 85 import penetration, 79, 87 import subsidies, 62 import-substitution industrialization, 174 income inequality, 212, 213 India, 176 Indonesia, 179, 190 Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle, 179 Industrial Relations Act (Singapore), 175 industry level See sector level inflation, 139 INS See Immigration and Naturalization Service Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration, 143 international competition, 25–28 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 141, 142 international political economy, 11–12, 223–26 International Workers of the World, 211 intraindustry trade, 27 Iran, 239 Iraq, 238 Ireland, 1, 234 Israel, 236n34 Italy, 193, 234 Janmaat, Hans, 204n Japan, 43, 47 Jobbik party (Hungary), 232 Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 102 Johor, 179 Jurong Town Corporation, 175 Kamenos, Panos, 234 Kennedy, Anthony, 241 Know-Nothing Party, 6, 154 Kuwait, 43, 47, 51–52, 56, 217 labor: attitudes of, toward low-skill immigration, 6, 31; immigrant vs native, 22; laid-off, 17; stability in workforce, 33–34 See also labor unions; power of labor argument labor-intensive agriculture, 92, 107–15; competitive strategies in, 108–10, 110f; immigration preferences in, 110–14; lobbying by, 111; trade openness and competition in, 107–8, 109f, 111; undocumented immigrant labor in, 112–14, 113f Labor Party (PvdA), 192, 196, 202–3, 205 labor prohibitions, 265–66 labor unions: and immigration issue, 88, 148, 211–12, 213, 218; lobbying power of, 80, 81f; in Netherlands, 192, 196; in Singapore, 163 See also labor; power of labor argument Labour Foundation (Netherlands), 186 Lake, David, 223–24 Leblang, David, 233–34 left-leaning groups, 81–82, 84f, 88, 89f, 90 See also pro-immigrant sentiment Le Pen, Marine, 227 Liberal Party (VVD; Netherlands), 185, 203 Libya, 238 List Pim Fortuyn (LPF; Netherlands), 185, 202–3 Literacy Act, 70, 98 lobbying: avoidance of, 71–73, 91; characteristics of groups, 83–90; and congressional testimony, 73–82; Index costs of, 71–72; by firms, 22n9, 24–30; and immigration policy, 19–30; individual vs collective, 22n9; industry-level, 71–90; issues subject to, 83; in Netherlands, 21, 185–87; Senate voting behavior in relation to, 148–49, 150–51t; in Singapore, 168–72; in United States, 21 Lobbying Disclosure Act, 83 Loong, Lee Hsien, 171 low-skill immigration: attitudes toward, 227–28; defining, 2, 7–11; firm mobility as substitute for, 18; future of, 226–28; political dilemma involving, 3–5, 15–19, 19f, 42–43, 223; refugees and, 8–9; restrictions on, 2–3; in Singapore, 167; technology in relation to, 4, 226–27; trade as substitute for, 17–18; in United States, 70 low-wage trade penetration, 140–41 macropolitical and macroeconomic arguments, of immigration policy, 32–33, 206–11 Malay Federation, 174 Malaysia, 174, 176, 177, 179 Marshall Plan, 142, 189 McCarren-Walter Act, 70 median voters, 207 Melitz model, 27, 224 MERCOSUR, 228 Mexico, 108–9 migrants: categorization of, 7–8; noneconomic, 8–9, 239 migration, 226–31; climate change–related, 229; future of policies on, 226–28; internal, 229–31, 233–35; international cooperation on, 228–29; international implications of, 231–40; positive effects of, 240 See also immigration military, 236 Ministry of Defense (Singapore), 169 Ministry of Finance (Singapore), 169 Ministry of Manpower (Singapore), 163 Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore), 163 mobile sector, lobbying by, 77, 85 Morocco, 191, 194 mules, 132–33 multiculturalism, 203, 204n Multi-Fiber Arrangement, 100 multinational corporations (MNCs), 174–75 • 317 Nassif, Tom, 111 National Council of Textile Organizations, 93 National Front, nationality restrictions, 253–57 National Population and Talent Division (Singapore), 163, 183 National Productivity and Continuing Education Council (Singapore), 181 National Solidarity Party (Singapore), 164 National Steel Company, 102 National Textile Association (NTA), 91–100 National Trade Union Council (Singapore), 169 nativism: and Chinese exclusion, 136–38; and immigration policy, 6–7, 31–32, 212, 213; and lobbying, 80–81; low-skill migrants as target of, 10, 32; in Netherlands, 192, 196–97, 202–3; and nineteenth-century “Americanization” of economy, 134–35; in Singapore, 175, 177, 182 Nazis, 188 Neptune Orient Lines, 171 Netherlands, 2, 39–40, 162–63, 185–205; and Baltic trade, 231; business-government relationship in, 162, 185–87; capital policy in, 185, 188f; causal chain in, 164; environmental policy in, 225; immigration policy in, 187–204, 188f; lobbying in, 21, 185–87; methodology for studying, 163–66; modern golden age (1945–71) in, 188–92; natural resources in, 43; political pillarization in, 186–87; productivity increases in, 194–95; service economy era (1985–present) in, 197–204; system of government in, 163; trade policy in, 43, 188f; transitional era (1971–85) in, 193–97; value of currency of, 185, 189, 193 Netherlands People’s Union (NVU; Netherlands), 197 “new” new trade theory: and firm mobility, 19; and firm preferences, 12; and firms’ lobbying behavior, 23n10; and intraindustry trade, 27; and small firms, 72; and trade openness, 28 New Zealand, 6, 31, 43, 56n14 9/11 terror attacks, 226 noneconomic migration, 8–9, 239 318 • Index nontariff barriers (NTBs), 139–40; Multi-Fiber Arrangement, 100; and voluntary export restraints, 103 nontradable sector: defined, 17, 78n, 85n; lobbying by, 78–79, 78f, 85 North: Great Migration to, 135, 230; Senate immigration preferences from, 129 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 92, 108 NTA See National Textile Association NTBs See nontariff barriers economy, 123–24, 132–33; in Singapore, 177–82, 236; after World War II, 143 See also firm mobility; technology Progressive movement, 130–31 pro-immigrant sentiment: globalization and, 143–48; immigration policy affected by, 32; lobbying power of, 81–82; and nineteenth-century “Americanization” of economy, 134–35; recommendations for, 241 See also anti-immigration sentiment; cosmopolitans; left-leaning groups offshoring, 5, 177–84 See also firm mobility oil crises, 193, 196, 210 omitted variables problem, 38–39, 52 open economy politics, 12, 223–24 optimal currency area, 233 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 42, 43, 213, 227 Ortega, Francesc, 290 Quota Act (1921), 70, 98, 104–6 Quota Act (1924), 70, 98, 106, 210 quotas, 259, 262–63 Pandya’s entry restriction measure, 64, 141 PAP See People’s Action Party Passenger Cases, 119 People’s Action Party (PAP; Singapore), 162–63, 166–67, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 182–84, 204, 226 People’s Party (Denmark), People’s Party (Switzerland), Peri, Giovanni, 290 Persian Gulf states, 50f Philippines, 176, 177 policymakers, 116–61; decision-making process of, 21–22; as targets of anti-immigrant sentiment, 22 political dilemma on immigration policy, 3–5, 15–19, 19f, 42–43, 223 Portugal, 191, 234 power of labor argument, 31, 119, 148, 165, 175, 182, 192, 196, 201–2, 204, 211–12, 213 Primary Industries Enterprise, 171 principal component analysis, 45, 285–86, 288 productivity: in agriculture, 143; and immigration policy, 12–14, 87–88, 132–33, 147; lobbying linked to, 80, 80t; in Netherlands, 194–95; “new” new trade theory on salience of, 12, 16, 19, 23n10; in nineteenth-century “Americanized” race to the bottom argument, 225–26 railroads: effect of, on Senate immigration preferences, 124, 129–30; and immigration policy, 59, 61, 124–30, 136–39; and nineteenth-century “Americanization” of economy, 121–22; transcontinental, 130, 136–39 recessions, 49, 51 Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA), 39, 117–18, 139–40 recruitment of immigrants, 263–65 reduced form testing, 41 refugees: from current crises, 1–2, 222, 231–34, 238–39; low-skill migrants analogous to, 8–9; policies on, 271–72; resettlement of, 238–40, 239n; trade openness and, 56, 58; from World War II, 142–43 remittances, 1, 233 Republican Party: constituencies of, 159–60; immigration preferences of, 116, 154–60, 155f, 156–58t resource economies, 54, 56 Responsibility to Protect (R2P), 238–39 reverse causality, 38–39, 54, 162 Ricardo-Viner model, 25–28 right-leaning groups, 80–81, 82f, 88, 203 See also far-right groups rights, 227, 241, 278–79 Robinson, James, 237 Robot Leasing Scheme, 178 Rodan, Gary, 170 Rohingya, roll call votes, 118–20 Romania, 198, 199 Index Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 140, 142 RTAA See Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act rural-to-urban migration, 230–31 Ruhs, Martin, 290–91 Russia, 239 Rwanda, 238 San, Lim Kim, 171 Saudi Arabia, 43, 47, 217 Schengen Zone, 235 seconded workers, 201, 233 sector level: case studies of, 93–114; changes in group preferences in, 90–93; implications of immigration policy theory for, 69; lobbying at, 71–90; methodological issues in studying, 71 securitization, 226 SembCorp, 171 Senate: agricultural sector in relation to voting in, 152–54; and Chinese exclusion, 137–38; direct election of, 119, 130–31; firm mobility’s effect on, 144–45t; immigration votes in, 119–20, 120f; intra-US trade’s effect on, 124–30; lobbying in relation to voting in, 148–49, 150–51t; modern globalization and, 139–60; nineteenth-century “Americanization” of economy and, 120–39; roll call votes in, 118–20; trade effects beyond control of, 116–18, 120–22, 139; trade openness’s effect on, 144–45t; voting behavior in, 116, 117f, 118–19, 148–49, 150–51t, 152–54 SER See Social and Economic Council serfdom, 230–31 Service Employees International Union, 148, 211–12 settler states, 46f, 49 Seventeenth Amendment, 130 Sheng-Li Holdings, 169 shipping technology, 59–62 Singapore, 2, 39–40, 162–63, 166–84, 204–5; as autocracy, 47; business-government relationship in, 162, 168–72, 169n23; causal chain in, 164–65; civil service in, 174; coding of labor prohibitions, 266, 267t; construction industry in, 180–81; ethnic concerns in, 174, 183–84; immigration policy in, 166–68, 172–84, 173f, 210; labor-intensive economy era (1972–78) in, 176–77; lobbying in, • 319 168–72; methodology for studying, 163–66; popular opinion on immigration in, 166–67, 182–84; postcolonial era (1965–71) in, 173–75; productivity increases in, 177–82, 236; regionalization policy of, 179; size of state as factor in, 236; system of government in, 162–63; trade policy in, 43, 172–84, 173f; upskilling and offshoring era (1979–2014) in, 177–84; value of currency of, 172–73, 173f, 176 Singapore Airlines, 171 Singapore Democratic Party (SDP), 164, 183 Singapore Press Holdings, 171 Singapore Technologies, 171 Sisi, Abdel Fattah el-, 239 skill restrictions, 257–59 small firms: lobbying voice of, 72; railroads’ effect on, 121; and undocumented immigrants, 33–34 smoking gun test, 165–66, 175–77, 181, 182, 199–201 Social and Economic Council (SER; Netherlands), 21, 162, 185–86, 200 South: Great Migration from, 135, 230; production costs in, 39; Senate immigration preferences from, 129, 132; textile industry in, 92–95, 98–99 South Africa, 43, 56 South Korea, 43, 176 soy, 152 Spain, 191, 234, 236, 237 specialty crops, 107 See also labor-intensive agriculture Specialty Crops Competitiveness Act, 111 Srebrenica, 238 Sri Lanka, 176 Standards, Productivity and Innovation Board (SPRING), 163, 169 StarHub, 171 states, size of, 235–37 statutory boards, 168–69 ST Capital, 171 steel industry, 92, 101–7, 115; competition and consolidation in, 102–3, 104; competitive strategies in, 103–6, 105f; immigration preferences in, 104–7; lobbying by, 106–7 ST Engineering, 171 Sterling Crisis, 142 Stolper-Samuelson theorem, 320 • Index straw in the wind test, 165, 196 Suriname, 190, 194 Swift & Company, 121–22 Switzerland, 43 Syrian refugees, 1–2, 15n, 222, 232–34, 238–39 Taiwan, 43, 176, 210 tariffs, 45, 85–86, 139 TCNs See third-country nationals technology: agricultural productivity increased by, 123, 152–54; effects of, on trade and firm mobility, 5, 15; firms’ willingness to lobby affected by, 24–25; and intra-US firm mobility, 122; low-skill immigration in relation to, 4, 226–27; and nineteenth-century productivity increases, 123–24 See also productivity; railroads Temasek Holding Company, 169, 170–71 Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company, 102 Terms of Employments (Cross-border Work) Act (WAGA), 201 textile industry, 91–100, 115; changes in, since 1940s, 99–100; competition in, 93–96, 94f; competitive strategies in, 95–97, 96f; immigration preferences in, 97–98; lobbying by, 100, 101f Timmer, Ashley, 251, 289 Thailand, 176, 177 third-country nationals (TCNs), 194, 197–98, 200, 204 threatened firms, 25 Tong, Goh Chok, 171 Tory Party (United Kingdom), 235 tradable sector: defined, 17; lobbying by, 77, 85 trade: international regulation of, 228; intra-US, 117, 121–22, 124–30, 125–127t; lack of congressional influence on, 116–18, 120–22, 139–40 trade associations: American Iron and Steel Institute, 91, 93, 101–7; lobbying activities of, 91–114; as lobbying vehicle, 72; National Textile Association, 91–100; Western Growers Association, 91, 93 trade barriers: differential effects of, 43; domestic production in relation to, 3–5; firms’ willingness to lobby affected by, 25–28; and immigration policy, 45–58; lowering of, 3; low-skill immigration as substitute for, 17–18; measurement of, 45–58; political dilemma involving, 3–5, 15–19, 19f, 42–43, 223; tools for, 42; two-century examination of effects on immigration policy of, 41–68 See also nontariff barriers; tariffs; trade openness trade openness: attitudes toward, 227–28; and immigration policy, 79, 80t, 146, 208t; and labor-intensive agriculture, 107–8, 109f, 111; measurement of, 79; “new” new trade theory on, 28; during nineteenth-century “Americanization” of economy, 134; post–World War II, 140; and Senate preferences, 144–45t, 153t See also trade barriers Trade Promotion Authority (Fast Track), 139 trade theory See classic trade theory; “new” new trade theory Trade Unions (Amendment) Act (Singapore), 175 transcontinental railroad, 130, 136–39 transportation costs, 42, 43, 58–62, 121 Treaty of Paris, 190–91 Treaty of Rome, 191 Truman, Harry, Trump, Donald, 7, 222, 226 Tunisia, 191 Turkey, 191, 194 UK Independence Party, 234–35 undocumented immigrants See illegal immigration unions See labor unions United Kingdom, 231, 234–35; coding of subjecthood/citizenship regulations, 276, 277t, 278 See also Great Britain United Merchants Company, 97 United Nations, 238 United Nations Development Program, 174 United States: “Americanization” of economy in, 116–17, 120–39; coding of asylum policies, 274, 275t; coding of deportation and enforcement policies, 281, 282–83; coding of family reunification policies, 268, 269t ; coding of nationality and skill restrictions, 253–55, 256t, 257; coding of refugee policies, 272, 273t; and globalization of trade, 117–18; immigration policy history of, 116, 117f; low-skill immigration policy in, 70 See also North; South; West Index upskilling, 165, 177–84 US Chamber of Commerce, 72 US Congress: groups lobbying, 83–90; and immigration policy, 70; testimony before, 73–82 See also lobbying US Steel Corporation, 101, 102 Vietnam, 231 voluntary export restraints (VERs), 103 von Stein, Jana, 141–42 wage policies: in Netherlands, 189, 191, 197; in Singapore, 176 war, 210 See also World War II Wassenaar Accord (Netherlands), 196, 197 welfare state, 6, 31, 192, 196 West, Senate immigration preferences from, 130, 132 • 321 Western Growers Association (WGA), 91, 93, 107–14 West Germany, 189, 191, 193, 197 WGA See Western Growers Association wheat, 143 white flight, 230 Wilders, Geert, 185, 227 Williamson, Jeffrey, 251, 289 Winsemius plan, 174 Workers’ Party (Singapore), 164, 172 workforce stability, 33–34 World Trade Organization (WTO), 92, 227, 228 World War II, 119, 140, 142–43, 188, 210 Yang, Lee Boon, 171 Yew, Lee Kuan, 169n23, 174 Yuen, Wang Kai, 171 Yugoslavia, 191 ... Responses to Firms in the United States 116 Immigration Policy in Small Countries: The Cases of Singapore and the Netherlands 162 The Rise of Anti -Immigration Sentiment and Undocumented Immigration as... anti-Asian immigration groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States; the 1920s saw the rise of anti–Southern and Eastern European immigration groups throughout the New World; and. . .Trading Barriers Trading Barriers IMMIGRATION AND THE REMAKING OF GLOBALIZATION Margaret E Peters PRINCETON Princeton and Oxford UNIVERSITY PRESS Copyright