Recently Acceded Members of the World Trade Organization Membership, the Doha Development Agenda, and Dispute Settlement Kenji Takamiya Recently Acceded Members of the World Trade Organization Kenji Takamiya Recently Acceded Members of the World Trade Organization Membership, the Doha Development Agenda, and Dispute Settlement Kenji Takamiya Manila, Philippines ISBN 978-981-13-9158-3 ISBN 978-981-13-9159-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9159-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by 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East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Preface Developing and transition economies that acceded to the multilateral trading system since the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 had made extensive market access commitments in the course of membership negotiations After joining the multilateral trading system, however, these recently acceded members (RAMs) generally expressed reservations against further market opening in the Doha Round launched in 2001, also known as the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) At the same time, a number of RAMs have been aggressively using the dispute settlement mechanism (DSM) at the WTO, partly to address issues related to their terms of accession Using the economy theories of trade agreements and negotiations as a guide for intellectual inquiries, this book assesses motivations accounting for the RAM’s evolving behaviors in the multilateral trading system The volume was substantially written when I was at the University of Cambridge in 2012–2015 I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Amrita Narlikar, presently President of the GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies I could not compete the research without her constant encouragement, in addition to valuable technical advice while she was still in Cambridge and thereafter I am also grateful to Dr Pieter van Houten, Dr Kun-Chin Lin, and Professor Richard Rex, all from the University of Cambridge I would also like to acknowledge funding provided by the Cambridge Political Economy Society Trust and the Joint Japan/World Bank Graduate Scholarship Programme, among others v vi Preface The research entailed overseas travels to five countries (Ecuador, Georgia, People’s Republic of China, Switzerland, and Viet Nam), and I am grateful to officials of the government agencies and business associations, as well as colleagues of international organizations and academia for welcoming me for necessary interviews While their valuable contributions are kept anonymous in the text of the book, all of them very pleasantly spent their precious time to talk with me, despite their busy schedules Special thanks also go to Jacob Dreyer, Commissioning Editor and Anushangi Weerakoon, Editorial Assistant of Palgrave Macmillan The views expressed and the conclusions reached are those of mine in my personal capacity, and these not reflect views of my employer and scholarship sponsors, their policies and activities, or any national political questions Manila, Philippines Kenji Takamiya Contents Background and Theoretical Framework 1 Background Research Question and Relevance 2.1 Research Question 2.2 Specific Areas of Research 2.2.1 Market Access Negotiations 2.2.2 Countering Long-Standing Discrimination 10 2.3 Relevance of the Research 12 Argument, Theories, and Hypotheses 14 3.1 Main Argument 14 3.2 Conceptual Framework for Analyzing Multilateral Trade Liberalization 14 3.2.1 General Thrust of Trade Theories 14 3.2.2 Market Access Liberalization for Merchandize Trade 15 3.2.2.1 Case for Unilateral Policy Commitment 15 3.2.2.2 Case for Trade Reciprocity 17 3.2.3 Recovering Cost of Prior Non-membership 21 3.3 Supplementary Explanation and Other Theories 23 Methodology and Case Selection 24 4.1 Research Methodology 24 4.2 Selected Case Countries 27 vii viii Contents Literature Survey Structure of the Book 7 Conclusion References 30 33 34 34 The RAMs’ Accession and Post-membership Activities: An Overview 45 1 Introduction 45 WTO Accession at a Glance 46 2.1 Practice of the WTO Membership Process 46 2.2 Open-Ended Rule on Terms of Accession 48 2.3 Mostly One-Sided Negotiations for Applicant’s Commitments 54 The RAMs’ Post-accession Performance 59 3.1 Reciprocity in the Doha Development Agenda 59 3.2 Emergence of the RAMs Group at Market Access Negotiations 61 3.3 Redressing WTO-Minus Trade Remedies and Other Discrimination 69 Preliminary Examination of the RAMs’ Policy Positions 72 4.1 Accession as a Commitment Device to Support Domestic Reforms 72 4.2 Export Orientation, Size of Economies, and Reciprocity 78 4.3 Recovering the Cost of the Outsider Status 83 5 Conclusion 85 References 86 3 Georgia 93 1 Introduction 93 Post-Soviet Transition, WTO Accession, Toward the Doha Round 96 2.1 From the Crisis to International Economic Integration 96 2.1.1 Post-Soviet Transition and Stabilization 96 2.2 WTO Accession: Tying Hands to Consolidate Domestic Reforms 99 2.3 Setback at the Post-accession Reforms and Early Days of the Doha Round 106 Contents 2.3.1 Restrictive Measures of 2002 2.4 Doha Round Negotiations as a Recently Acceded Member Rose Revolution and Departure from the WTO Track 3.1 Resurgence of Domestic Reforms After the Rose Revolution 3.2 Disengagement from the DDA Negotiations as a Low-Income Economy in Transition 3.3 Toward Free Trade: Going Alone Further with Autonomous Liberalization 3.4 Draft 2008 Modalities of the Doha Development Agenda Further Theoretical Considerations 4.1 Domestic Contexts 4.2 Absence of Substantive Discrimination 5 Conclusion References ix 106 109 114 114 118 121 122 126 126 129 131 132 People’s Republic of China 137 1 Introduction 137 Pushing Domestic Reforms Through WTO Accession 139 Pursuit of Export Interests in the Doha Development Agenda 145 3.1 Export Orientation and Engagement in Market Access Negotiations 146 3.2 Still Falling Short of Prominent Leadership 153 3.2.1 “Partial Stakeholder” at the WTO 153 3.2.2 Qualifiers on Pursuit of Post-accession Multilateral Liberalization 154 Potential Relevance of Terms of Trade for a Large Economy 160 Long-Standing Pursuit of Non-discrimination 163 5.1 Unconditional MFN Treatment 163 5.2 Textile Quotas and Special Safeguard 169 5.3 Non-market Economy Status in Anti-dumping 172 5.4 Transitional Product-Specific Safeguard 179 6 Conclusion 182 References 184 x Contents Viet Nam 193 1 Introduction 193 WTO Accession Under Cautious Gradualism of Doi Moi 195 Doha Round Negotiations Under Macroeconomic Instability 200 3.1 Side-Lined from the Post-accession Market Access Negotiations 200 3.2 Irrelevance of Term of Trade Externality for a Medium-Sized Economy 206 Recovering the Cost of Previous Outsider Status 208 4.1 Restoring MFN Access in the Textile and Clothing Sector 208 4.1.1 Domino in Motion—Acceleration of Accession Negotiations Since 2001 208 4.1.2 The US Import Monitoring Program for Textiles and Apparel 216 4.2 Anti-dumping Disputes as an NME in the Fishery Sector 219 4.2.1 Pre-accession Dispute on United States—Catfish 219 4.2.2 Post-accession Disputes on United States—Shrimp 223 5 Conclusion 228 References 231 6 Ecuador 237 1 Introduction 237 WTO Accession Commitment and Implementation 239 2.1 Tariff Binding Detached from Domestic Reforms 239 2.2 Modest Implementation Record of Accession Commitment 243 Banana Disputes 251 3.1 Toward the Doha Ministerial Conference 251 3.2 Toward Geneva Agreement on Trade in Bananas 260 Proactive Engagement in the Doha Development Agenda 262 4.1 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(2013) Basic Instruments and selected documents on the negotiations for China’s accession to the World Trade Organization Beijing: China Commerce and Trade Press Yongtu, L (2002) Negotiating entry: Key lessons learned In C A Magariños, L Yongtu, & F C Sercovich (Eds.), China in the WTO: The birth of a new catching-up strategy (pp 25–35) New York: Palgrave Macmillan Zhang, Y., & Yang, G (2004) China as a WTO member in the first two years In M Matsushita & D Ahn (Eds.), WTO and East Asia: New perspectives (pp 313–325) London: Cameron May Zheng, Z (2003) Economic globalization and development of China’s foreign economic cooperation and trade In D Lu, G J Wen, & H Zhou (Eds.), China’s economic globalization through the WTO (pp 5–12) Aldershot: Ashgate Index A Acceding government(s), 4, 17, 19, 48, 75, 77, 85 Accession(s), 1–12, 14, 16, 17, 20–23, 25–34, 45–48, 50–52, 54, 55, 57–59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 69–85, 93–96, 98–102, 104–109, 111, 113, 119–126, 129–131, 137–140, 142–146, 148–150, 152, 158, 160, 163, 166–171, 174–176, 178–184, 193–195, 197–201, 203–206, 208–217, 219, 220, 224–229, 237–239, 241–243, 245, 250, 253, 262–264, 272, 273, 281–285, 287–289, 292, 293, 295, 297–300 negotiations, 1, 4, 7, 12, 19, 22, 23, 57, 61, 75, 94, 103–106, 112, 131, 139, 142, 149, 164, 166, 168, 173, 179, 180, 193, 197, 198, 208, 227, 241, 283 Accession package, 105, 107 Accession protocol See Protocol of Accession Adjustment lending, 51, 299 Adjustment program, 106, 131, 299, 301 Ad valorem equivalents (AVEs), 247 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP), 6, 59, 72, 86, 238, 251, 252, 255, 257, 259–261, 263, 268, 272, 273, 284 Agreement on Agriculture, 255, 267 Agreement on Safeguard, 58, 179, 180 Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM), 178, 179 Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC), 10, 169–171, 174, 209–211, 215, 229, 284 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 257 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2019 K Takamiya, Recently Acceded Members of the World Trade Organization, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9159-0 341 342 Index Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS), 255 Agriculture, 2, 4, 6–9, 26, 52, 53, 61, 63, 65–69, 81, 102, 104, 110, 111, 123–125, 139, 144, 150– 152, 204, 205, 231, 239, 245, 262–270, 272, 284, 288, 292 Albania, 2, 27, 49, 56, 57, 62, 67–69, 73–77, 79, 82, 84, 123, 263 America, 217 Andean Community, 242, 243 Anderson, Kym, 31, 257, 258 Anti-dumping See Dumping Anti-Dumping Agreement, 58, 70, 174, 176, 228 Anti-dumping measure(s), 122, 167, 177, 225 Appellate Body, 11, 26, 71, 72, 153, 177, 179, 181, 231, 255, 256, 261 Arbitration(s), 72, 256, 257, 260–262 Arbitrator, 256–258 Argentina, 159, 167, 220, 240 Armenia, 2, 49, 56, 57, 62, 67–69, 73–77, 79, 81, 82, 84, 120, 121, 123, 125 Article I waiver, 260 Article IV consultation(s), 107, 229, 230, 300 Article XII Members See Recently acceded members (RAMs) ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), 195, 228 Asia, 211, 213 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 98, 208 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 193, 195, 228 Australia, 47, 61, 206, 212, 224 Azevêdo, Roberto, 183, 298 B Bacchetta, Marc, 31, 54, 55, 73 Bagwell, Kyle, 19, 32, 113, 160, 206, 271, 285 Balance of payments (BOP), 245–248, 272, 284, 288 Baldwin, Richard E., 17, 18, 21, 112, 129, 146, 157, 163, 200, 208, 266, 285, 286 Baldwin, Robert E., 15 Bali Ministerial Conference, 75, 231, 298 Banana disputes, 72, 239, 250–253, 255–259, 262, 263, 268, 270, 272, 273, 284, 287 Bananas I, 251, 252, 255, 262 Bananas II, 252, 255, 262 Bananas III See EC – Bananas III Banana wars, 238, 251 Best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA), 125 Bhagwati, Jagdish, 10, 14, 150 Bilateralism, 296 Bilateral trade agreements (BTAs), 48, 163, 174, 175, 193, 195, 211, 214, 219, 221, 223, 228, 273 Bolivia, 240, 242 Braga, Carlos A Primo, 30, 55 Brazil, 61, 151, 159, 212, 220, 226 Bretton Woods Conference, 52 Brunei Darussalam, 206 Bulgaria, 120 C Cairns Group, 230, 231 Cambodia, 208, 211–214, 217 Canada, 47, 130, 151, 220, 226, 300 Cancún Ministerial Conference, 111, 159 Cape Verde, 2, 49, 65, 68, 69, 74, 76, 79, 82, 84 Index Catfish dispute, 228, 229 Caucasus, 62, 73 Central Asia, 8, 62, 73, 116 Chile, 61, 206, 226, 240 China, 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 26–32, 48, 49, 55–59, 61–63, 65–68, 70, 71, 73–80, 82, 84–86, 109, 123, 137–184, 193–195, 207–217, 224, 226, 229, 237, 248, 263, 266, 283, 286–295 China, People’s Republic of See China Chinese Taipei, 2, 49, 62, 64, 66–68, 73–80, 82, 84, 85, 109, 123, 172, 173, 212, 226, 263, 291 Columbia, 220, 226, 251, 252, 273 Commitment, 1–5, 9, 15–17, 19–21, 23, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 47, 48, 51–54, 60–67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 78, 80, 83, 85, 94, 100– 103, 105–107, 109–112, 119, 120, 123–126, 137, 138, 142– 145, 148–150, 152, 160, 165, 168, 193–196, 198–200, 204, 209, 210, 215, 227, 228, 230, 237, 238, 241, 243, 245, 250, 253, 262–266, 272, 281–284, 286–289, 293, 295–297, 299 Commitment theory, 15–17, 21, 26, 32, 45, 72, 94, 99, 100, 111, 126, 137, 140, 182, 194, 195, 200, 228, 241, 285, 287 Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT), 193, 195 Common external tariff (CET), 81, 242 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 97, 129–131 Comparative advantage, 53 Compensation(s), 179 Complaint(s), 84, 175, 256 Compliance panel, 11, 177, 256, 261, 262 Conditionality, 52, 106, 117, 122, 299, 301 343 Consensus, 7, 13, 33, 48, 65, 255, 297, 298 Consultation(s), 47, 71, 124, 143, 155, 170, 172, 225, 231, 251, 253 Contracting party(ies), 1, 50, 51, 58–60, 140, 142, 159, 164, 179, 251, 252, 298 Costa Rica, 226, 251, 252 Cotonou Agreement, 59, 259 Countervailing duties, 11, 177, 178 Countervailing Measures, 70 Croatia, 2, 49, 62, 68, 69, 73–79, 82, 84, 120, 123, 263 Cross-retaliation, 257, 258 Customs unions (CUs), 10, 21, 130, 164, 242, 251, 301 Czech Republic, 32, 130 D Decision on Differential and More Favourable Treatment, Reciprocity, and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries See Enabling Clause Deng Xiaoping, 139, 142 Developed country(ies), 12, 30, 52–54, 61, 63, 103, 124, 151, 157, 159, 183, 294, 295, 298 Developing country(ies), 2, 4, 7, 10, 12, 50–53, 55, 60, 61, 63, 65–67, 84, 96, 101, 103, 110, 120, 121, 123, 146, 148–153, 155, 157, 159, 160, 198, 213, 245, 248, 251, 260–266, 268, 269, 272, 283, 290, 294–297, 299–301 Director-General, 3, 47, 61, 75, 105, 142, 154, 168, 200, 212, 251, 261, 262, 298 Discrimination, 3, 5–7, 10–12, 22–25, 27, 28, 30, 34, 59, 83–86, 129, 344 Index 138, 163, 168, 169, 175, 181, 183, 184, 194, 208, 216, 238, 250, 251, 253, 263, 267, 283, 284, 286, 291–293, 295 Dispute(s), 6, 10, 12, 29, 30, 72, 84, 162, 170, 172, 175, 177, 178, 180, 181, 184, 194, 208, 217, 220–224, 227, 229, 231, 252, 253, 255, 262, 267, 295, 299 Dispute settlement, 5–7, 11, 12, 14, 16, 23, 25, 29, 32–34, 46, 59, 71, 72, 85, 86, 131, 132, 137, 171, 181, 184, 194, 216, 217, 219, 225, 238, 251, 252, 255–257, 272, 273, 281, 283, 284, 293, 295, 299 Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), 26, 177, 181, 228, 253, 256–259, 261, 298 Dispute settlement mechanism (DSM), 5, 6, 11, 22, 23, 29, 85, 139, 171, 175, 179, 180, 184, 216, 223, 225, 228, 229, 238, 283, 284, 291, 292, 295, 298 Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) Article 19 of, 256 Article 21.3(c) of, 256 Article 21.5 of, 177, 256, 261 Article 22 (on compensation and suspension of concessions) of, 257 Article 22.3 of, 258 Article 22.6 of, 257 Article 22.7 of, 258 Doha Development Agenda (DDA), 4–8, 10, 21, 23, 26, 29, 34, 59, 61, 65, 69, 72, 83, 86, 112, 122, 125, 145, 146, 148, 149, 154, 157, 159, 162, 182, 183, 194, 201, 204–206, 208, 209, 217, 226, 229, 262, 264, 267–270, 272, 282–284, 288, 293, 295, 298, 301 Doha Ministerial Conference, 59, 110, 145, 198, 209, 210, 259, 260, 263, 283 Doha Ministerial decisions, 260, 267 Doha Ministerial Declaration, 60, 70, 110, 149, 210, 263 Doha Round, 2, 4–9, 11, 12, 14, 20, 23, 25, 28, 30, 32, 54, 60–63, 65–67, 69–71, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 94, 96, 109, 111–113, 118–120, 122, 124–126, 128, 131, 132, 137, 138, 145, 148–150, 152, 154–156, 159, 162, 180, 182, 193, 198, 200, 204, 205, 209, 210, 217, 224, 229, 238, 239, 258, 262, 263, 265–268, 270–273, 281–285, 288–298, 300 negotiations, 4, 19–21, 33, 45, 46, 52, 65, 70, 72, 78, 81–83, 94, 95, 113, 123, 125, 131, 132, 138, 148, 153, 160, 168, 174, 182–184, 194, 205, 207, 226, 239, 250, 261, 263, 264, 267, 270, 271, 284, 285, 288–291, 295 Doha waiver, 59, 261 Domestic reform(s), 4, 10, 15–17, 20, 23, 26–28, 45, 72, 75, 77, 80, 85, 95, 96, 99, 102, 106, 109, 111, 114, 120, 121, 125, 131, 137, 138, 140, 142, 144–146, 152, 182, 196, 200, 228, 237, 238, 241, 258, 272, 281, 283–285, 287, 288, 295, 298 Domino, 15, 34, 137, 208, 211, 213, 229, 273, 282, 284, 286, 293, 295 Domino theory, 21, 22, 33, 45, 83, 129, 163, 184, 194, 208, 211, 215, 229, 286, 292 Double remedy, 177–180 Drabek, Zdenek, 31, 54, 55, 73 Index Dumping, 5, 58, 122, 172–175, 177, 219, 221–226 anti-dumping, 5, 10, 11, 30, 58, 71, 122, 163, 168, 172–180, 184, 194, 208, 217, 219–221, 223–227, 229, 231, 245, 284, 292 E East Asia, 55, 57, 73, 146, 157, 208, 211 East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), 140, 141, 164, 196, 213 Eastern Europe, 8, 62, 73, 116 EC – Bananas III, 12, 292 EC – Fasteners, 71, 175, 176 EC – Fasteners (China) See EC – Fasteners Economic growth, 117, 204, 249 Economic policy(ies), 93, 96, 117, 118, 127, 158, 239, 297, 301 Ecuador, 2, 6, 12, 26–30, 49, 59, 63, 68, 69, 72–74, 76, 79–82, 84–86, 237–243, 245–250, 252, 253, 256–273, 284, 286–292, 294, 295, 300 Egypt, 159, 220 Emerging economies, 27, 60, 66, 150, 154, 182 Emerging markets, 27, 60, 66, 150, 182 Enabling Clause, 50, 60, 61, 251 Estonia, 120 Ethier, Wilfred J., 18, 20 EU – Footwear, 71, 175, 176 Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), 10, 81 Europe, 131, 251, 252, 262 European Commission, 143 European Community – Fasteners (China) See EC – Fasteners 345 Europe and Central Asia (ECA), 94, 95, 109, 129, 130 European Currency Unit (ECU), xiv, 252 European Economic Community (EEC), 163, 237 European Union (EU), 2, 6, 12, 27–29, 32, 47, 58, 59, 63, 71, 72, 78, 104, 120, 122, 130–132, 151, 153, 154, 160, 170–173, 175–178, 181, 184, 214, 220, 226, 237, 238, 251–253, 255–263, 267, 268, 272, 273, 284, 292, 294, 300 European Union – Footwear (China) See EU – Footwear Evenett, Simon J., 30, 243 Exchange rate, 155, 247, 248 Export duties, 155, 162 Export subsidies, 47 Export tariff(s), 155, 162 F Ferrantino, Michael J., 30 Finger, J Michael, 248, 258, 291, 299 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 254 Foreign direct investment (FDI), 16, 157, 201, 203, 213, 239 Foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs), 139, 156, 157, 215, 290 Formula country(ies), 8, 30, 64, 65 Framework Agreement on Bananas (BFA), 252, 253, 255 Free trade, 10, 72, 101, 119, 143, 169, 181, 290 Free trade agreement/areas (FTAs), 21, 129–132, 153, 164, 213, 251, 268, 269, 273, 301 346 Index G GATT-think, 18, 19, 45, 112, 131, 150, 194, 200, 266 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Ad Article VI, 58, 70 Article I: 1, 178 Articles I, II (on tariff bindings), III (on national treatment), 252 GATT 1947, 50, 51, 140, 238, 255 GATT 1994; Article I: 1, 54, 178; Article VI, 70, 224; Article VIII, 162; Article XXIII, 218 GATT Article I, 2, 164, 218, 251, 252, 255, 259, 260, 301 GATT Article II, 261 GATT Article III, 255 GATT Article VI, 58, 174 GATT Article XI, 166 GATT articles XII and XVIII: B, 245 GATT Article XIII, 255, 259, 260 GATT Article XVIII: B, 245, 248 GATT Article XIX, 58, 179 GATT Article XXIV, 21, 251, 252, 257, 260, 273, 301 GATT Article XXVIII, 60, 260, 298 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), 51, 103, 144, 255, 257, 306 Article II, 255 Article XVII, 255 General Council, 47, 48, 99, 105, 199, 200, 297, 298 Generalized system of preferences (GSP), 130, 131, 251 Geneva Agreement of Trade in Bananas, 261, 270, 273 Geneva Ministerial Conference, 159 Georgia, 2, 8, 26–30, 49, 56, 57, 62, 66–69, 73–77, 79, 81–84, 86, 93–106, 108–132, 137, 182, 183, 207, 224, 237, 263, 282, 283, 286–290, 292, 293 Global economy, 5, 12, 154, 157, 181, 197, 203, 207 Global financial crisis, 127, 155, 156, 229, 245, 248, 250, 284, 289 Global imbalances, 146, 147, 155 Globalization, 111, 144, 148 Global trade, 69, 123, 154, 156, 183, 263 Global value chains, 155–158, 231 Goldstein, Judith, 18, 31, 34 Good offices, 251, 261 Goods, trade in, 6, 31, 47, 48, 53, 102, 117, 138, 195, 199 Governance, 34, 106, 109, 154, 156, 206, 301 Gradualism, 139, 144, 145, 182, 193–195, 200, 228, 283, 287, 288 Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), 208, 211, 214, 217, 229, 284 Gross domestic product (GDP), 28, 79, 81, 97, 98, 109, 112, 113, 127, 146, 147, 201, 202, 204, 240, 247 Grossman, Gene M., 17, 24 Growth rate(s), 53, 97, 98, 127, 147, 170, 202 Gruber, Lloyd, 21 Guatemala, 251–253 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 8, 68, 80 H Helpman, Elhanan, 17, 24 Hoekman, Bernard, 15, 20, 30, 32, 53, 299 Hong Kong, 101, 226, 290 .. .Recently Acceded Members of the World Trade Organization Kenji Takamiya Recently Acceded Members of? ? ?the World Trade Organization Membership, the Doha Development Agenda, and Dispute Settlement... investment climate of recently acceded members 76 Current account balance of the recently acceded members (% of GDP) 79 Market sizes of the recently acceded members 82 Tariff barriers against the RAMs... Question 2. 2 Specific Areas of Research 2. 2.1 Market Access Negotiations 2. 2 .2 Countering Long-Standing Discrimination 10 2. 3 Relevance of the Research 12 Argument, Theories, and Hypotheses 14