Part 2 book “Human anatomy” has contents: Brain and cranial nerves, spinal cord and spinal nerves, pathways and integrative functions, autonomic nervous system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system, reproductive system, blood,… and other contents.
N E R V O U S Outline 15.1 Brain Development and Tissue Organization 15.1a Embryonic Development of the Brain 15.1b Organization of Neural Tissue Areas in the Brain 15.2 Support and Protection of the Brain 15.2a Cranial Meninges 15.2b Brain Ventricles 15.2c Cerebrospinal Fluid 15.2d Blood-Brain Barrier 15.3 Cerebrum 15.3a Cerebral Hemispheres 15.3b Functional Areas of the Cerebrum 15.3c Central White Matter 15.3d Cerebral Nuclei 15.4 Diencephalon 15.4a Epithalamus 15.4b Thalamus 15.4c Hypothalamus 15.5 Brainstem 15.5a Midbrain 15.5b Pons 15.5c Medulla Oblongata 15.6 Cerebellum 15.6a Cerebellar Peduncles 15.7 Limbic System 15.8 Cranial Nerves MODULE 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM S Y S T E M 15 Brain and Cranial Nerves 436 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves A bout to million years ago, when the earliest humans were evolving, brain size was a mere 440 cubic centimeters (cc), not much larger than that of a modern chimpanzee As humans have evolved, brain size has increased steadily and reached an average volume of 1200 cc to 1500 cc and an average weight of 1.35 to 1.4 kilograms In addition, the texture of the outer surface of the brain (its hemispheres) has changed Our skull size limits the size of the brain, so the tissue forming the brain’s outer surface folded on itself so that more neurons could fit into the space within the skull Although modern humans display variability in brain size, it isn’t the size of the brain that determines intelligence, but the number of active synapses among neurons The brain is often compared to a computer because they both simultaneously receive and process enormous amounts of information, which they then organize, integrate, file, and store prior to making an appropriate output response But in some ways this is a weak comparison, because no computer is capable of the multitude of continual adjustments that the brain’s neurons perform The brain can control numerous activities s imultaneously, and it can also respond to various stimuli with an amazing degree of versatility 15.1 Brain Development and Tissue Organization ✓✓Learning Objectives Describe the embryonic development of the divisions of the brain Compare and describe the organization of gray and white matter in the brain The brain is composed of four major regions: the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum Figure 15.1 shows the major parts of the adult brain from several views Our discussion in this chapter focuses on these major brain regions When viewed superiorly, the cerebrum is divided into two halves, called the left and right Anterior Posterior Central sulcus Parietal lobe Frontal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus Gyrus Sulcus Lateral sulcus Cerebrum Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Pons Cerebellum Brainstem Medulla oblongata Spinal cord (a) Left lateral view Figure 15.1 The Human Brain The brain is a complex organ that has several subdivisions (a) An illustration and a cadaver photo show left lateral views of the brain, revealing the cerebrum, cerebellum, and portions of the brainstem; the diencephalon is seen in (c) (a-c) © McGraw-Hill Education/Photo and Dissection by Christine Eckel 437 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves cerebral hemispheres Each hemisphere may be further subdivided into five functional areas called lobes Four lobes are visible superficially, and one is seen only internally (see figure 15.11) The outer surface of an adult brain exhibits folds called gyri (jī′rī; sing., gyrus; gyros = circle) and shallow depressions between those folds called sulci (sŭl′sī; sing., sulcus; furrow, ditch) The brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial nerves (see figure 15.24) Two directional terms are often used to describe brain anatomy Anterior is synonymous with rostral (meaning “toward the nose”), and posterior is synonymous with caudal (meaning “toward the tail”) By the fifth week of development, the three primary vesicles further develop into a total of five secondary brain vesicles (figure 15.2b): 15.1a Embryonic Development of the Brain To understand how the structures of the adult brain are named and connected, it is essential to know how the brain develops In the human embryo, the brain forms from the cranial (superior) part of the neural tube, which undergoes disproportionate growth rates in different regions By the late fourth week of development, this growth has formed three primary brain vesicles, which eventually give rise to all the different regions of the adult brain The names of these vesicles describe their relative positions in the developing head: The forebrain is called the prosencephalon (pros′en-sef′ă-lon; proso = forward, enkephalos = brain); the midbrain is called the mesencephalon (mes-en-sef′ă-lon; mes = middle); and the hindbrain is called the rhombencephalon (rom′ben-sef′ă-lon; rhombo = rhomboid) (figure 15.2a) The telencephalon (tel-en-sef′ă-lon; tel = head end) arises from the prosencephalon and eventually forms the cerebrum ■ The diencephalon (dī-en-sef′ă-lon; dia = through) arises from the prosencephalon and eventually forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus ■ The mesencephalon is the only primary vesicle that does not form a new secondary vesicle It is renamed the midbrain ■ The metencephalon (met′en-sef′ă-lon; meta = after) arises from the rhombencephalon and eventually forms the pons and cerebellum ■ The myelencephalon (mī′el-en-sef′ă-lon; myelos = medulla) also derives from the rhombencephalon, and it eventually forms the medulla oblongata ■ Table 15.1 summarizes the embryonic brain structures and their corresponding structures in the adult brain During the embryonic and fetal periods, the telencephalon grows rapidly and envelops the diencephalon As the future brain develops, its surface becomes folded, especially in the telencephalon, leading to the formation of the adult sulci and gyri (see figure 15.1a) The bends and creases that occur in the developing brain determine the boundaries of the brain’s cavities Together, the bends, creases, and folds in the telencephalon surface are necessary to fit the massive Central sulcus Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Gyrus Parieto-occipital sulcus Sulcus Lateral sulcus Cerebrum Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Brainstem Pons Cerebellum Medulla oblongata Spinal cord (continued on next page) 438 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves Cerebral hemispheres Anterior Eye Olfactory bulb Frontal lobe Olfactory tracts Optic chiasm Optic nerve Pituitary gland Optic tract Temporal lobe Mammillary bodies Cerebrum Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Brainstem Cranial nerves Cerebellum Occipital lobe Posterior Cerebral hemispheres Olfactory bulb Frontal lobe Olfactory tracts Optic chiasm Cerebrum Optic nerve Infundibulum Optic tract Temporal lobe Mammillary bodies Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Brainstem Cranial nerves Occipital lobe Cerebellum (b) Inferior view Figure 15.1 The Human Brain (continued) (b) An inferior view illustration and cadaver photo best illustrate the cranial nerves arising from the base of the brain (c) Internal structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus are best seen in midsagittal view 439 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves Anterior Posterior Central sulcus Parietal lobe Frontal lobe Diencephalon Parieto-occipital sulcus Corpus callosum Interthalamic adhesion Thalamus Occipital lobe Pineal gland Tectal plate Hypothalamus Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Fourth ventricle Temporal lobe Midbrain Brainstem Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Frontal lobe Central sulcus Parietal lobe Diencephalon Corpus callosum Interthalamic adhesion Thalamus Parieto-occipital sulcus Occipital lobe Pineal gland Hypothalamus Tectal plate Temporal lobe Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Midbrain Brainstem Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord (c) Midsagittal view 440 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves amount of brain tissue within the confines of the cranial cavity Most of the gyri and sulci develop late in the fetal period, so that by the time the fetus is born, its brain closely resembles that of an adult (figure 15.2c–e) 15.1b Organization of Neural Tissue Areas in the Brain (kōr′teks; bark), covers the surface of most of the adult brain The white matter lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex Finally, within the masses of white matter, the brain also contains discrete internal clusters of gray matter called cerebral nuclei, which are oval, spherical, or sometimes irregularly shaped clusters of neuron cell bodies Two distinct tissue areas are recognized within the brain and spinal cord: gray matter and white matter The gray matter houses motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, terminal arborizations, and unmyelinated axons (Origin of gray color described in section 14.2a.) The white matter derives its color from the myelin in the myelinated axons During brain development, an outer, superficial region of gray matter forms from migrating peripheral neurons As a result, the external layer of gray matter, called the cerebral cortex Learning Strategy When reviewing the embryonic development of the brain, note that during the fifth week of development, five secondary brain vesicles form Rhombencephalon Prosencephalon Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Prosencephalon Rhombencephalon Spinal cord Spinal cord (a) weeks Myelencephalon Telencephalon Optic vesicle Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Mesencephalon Optic vesicle Diencephalon Telencephalon Metencephalon Spinal cord Myelencephalon Spinal cord (b) weeks Figure 15.2 Structural Changes in the Developing Brain (a) As early as weeks, the growing brain is curled because of space restrictions in the developing head (b) At weeks, the secondary brain vesicles appear (c) By 13 weeks, the telencephalon grows rapidly and envelops the diencephalon (d) Some major sulci and gyri are present by 26 weeks (e) The features of an adult brain are present at birth 441 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves Central sulcus Cerebrum Outline of diencephalon Cerebrum Outline of diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Lateral sulcus Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Spinal cord (c) 13 weeks (d) 26 weeks Cerebrum Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Thalamus Pituitary gland Cerebellum Spinal cord (e) Birth Brainstem 442 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves Table 15.1 Major Brain Structures: Embryonic Through Adult EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Neural Tube ADULT STRUCTURE Primary Brain Vesicles Cranial Secondary Brain Vesicles (future adult brain regions)1 Neural Canal Derivative2 Structure(s) Within Brain Region Telencephalon Lateral ventricles Cerebrum Prosencephalon (forebrain) Diencephalon Third ventricle Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus Mesencephalon (midbrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Cerebral aqueduct Cerebral peduncles, superior colliculi, inferior colliculi Metencephalon Fourth ventricle (superior part) Pons, cerebellum Fourth ventricle (inferior part); part of central canal Medulla oblongata Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Caudal Neural canal Myelencephalon Neural canal The embryonic secondary vesicles form the adult brain regions, and so they share the same names The neural canal in each specific brain region will form its own named “space.” Figure 15.3 shows the distribution of gray matter and white matter in various regions of the brain Table 15.2 is a glossary of nervous system structures Table 15.2 Glossary of Nervous System Structures Structure Description Ganglion Cluster of neuron cell bodies within the PNS Center Identify the primary vesicles that form during brain development Group of CNS neuron cell bodies with a common function Nucleus What is the name of a depression between two adjacent surface folds in the telencephalon? Center in the CNS that displays discrete anatomic boundaries Nerve Axon bundle extending through the PNS Nerve plexus Network of nerves in PNS Tract CNS axon bundle in which the axons have a similar function and share a common origin and destination Funiculus Group of tracts in a specific area of the spinal cord Pathway Centers and tracts that connect the CNS with body organs and systems Peduncle A stalklike structure composed of tracts connecting two regions of the brain W H AT D I D YO U LE A R N? ● ● 15.2 Support and Protection of the Brain ✓✓Learning Objectives Describe the characteristics of the cranial meninges and the cranial dural septa Identify and describe the origin, function, and pattern of cerebrospinal fluid circulation Describe the structure of the blood-brain barrier and how it protects the brain Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves Gray matter White matter Cortex Inner white matter 443 Corpus callosum Internal capsule Cerebral nuclei Lateral ventricle (a) Coronal section of cerebrum and diencephalon (a) Cortex (gray matter) Inner gray matter Cerebrum Cerebellum (b) Cerebellum Medulla oblongata (c) Fourth ventricle Brainstem Outer white matter Inner gray matter Gray matter Spinal cord (b) Cerebellum and brainstem Fourth ventricle Inner gray matter Outer white matter (d) Central canal Outer white matter (c) Medulla oblongata Inner gray matter (d) Spinal cord Figure 15.3 Gray and White Matter in the CNS The gray matter represents regions containing neuron cell bodies, dendrites, terminal arborizations, and unmyelinated axons, whereas the white matter derives its color from myelinated axons The distribution of gray and white matter is compared in (a) the cerebrum and diencephalon, (b) the cerebellum and brainstem, (c) the medulla oblongata, and (d) the spinal cord 444 Chapter Fifteen Brain and Cranial Nerves The brain is protected and isolated by multiple structures The bony cranium provides rigid support, whereas protective connective tissue membranes called meninges surround, support, stabilize, and partition portions of the brain Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) acts as a cushioning fluid Finally, the brain has a blood-brain barrier to prevent harmful materials from leaving the blood The arachnoid trabeculae extend through this space from the arachnoid mater to the underlying pia mater Between the arachnoid mater and the overlying dura mater is a potential space, the subdural space The subdural space becomes an actual space if blood or fluid accumulates there, a condition called a subdural hematoma (see Clinical View 15.2: “Epidural and Subdural H ematomas” in section 15.2c) 15.2a Cranial Meninges Dura Mater The cranial meninges (mĕ-nin′jēz, mē′nin-jēz; sing., meninx, men′ingks; membrane) are three connective tissue layers that separate the soft tissue of the brain from the bones of the cranium, enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the brain, and contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid In addition, some parts of the cranial meninges form some of the veins that drain blood from the brain From deep (closest to the brain) to superficial (farthest away from the brain), the cranial meninges are the pia mater, the arachnoid mater, and the dura mater (figure 15.4) The dura mater (dū′ră mā′tĕr; dura = tough) is an external tough, dense irregular connective tissue layer composed of two fibrous layers As its Latin name indicates, it is the strongest of the meninges Within the cranium, the dura mater is composed of two layers The meningeal (mĕ-nin′jē-ăl, men′in-jē′ăl) layer lies deep to the periosteal layer The periosteal (per′ē-os′tē-ăl; peri = around, osteon = bone) layer, the more superficial layer, forms the periosteum on the internal surface of the cranial bones The meningeal layer is usually fused to the periosteal layer, except in specific areas where the two layers separate to form large, blood-filled spaces called dural venous sinuses Dural venous sinuses are typically triangular in cross section, and unlike most other veins, they not have valves to regulate venous blood flow The dural venous sinuses are, in essence, large veins that drain blood from the brain and transport this blood to the internal jugular veins that help drain blood circulation of the head The dura mater and the bones of the skull may be separated by the potential epidural (ep′i-dū′răl; epi = upon, durus = hard) space, which contains the arteries and veins that nourish the meninges and bones of the cranium Under normal (healthy) conditions, the potential space is not a space at all However, it has the potential to become a real space and fill with fluid or blood as a result of trauma or disease (see Clinical View 15.2: “Epidural and Subdural Hematomas” in section 15.2c, for examples) Pia Mater The pia mater (pē′ă mah′ter, pī′ă mā′ter; pia = tender, delicate, mater = mother) is the innermost of the cranial meninges It is a thin layer of delicate areolar connective tissue that is highly vascularized and tightly adheres to the brain, following every contour of the surface Arachnoid Mater The arachnoid (ă-rak′noyd) mater, also called the arachnoid membrane, lies external to the pia mater (figure 15.4) The term arachnoid means “resembling a spider web,” and this meninx is so named because it is partially composed of a delicate web of collagen and elastic fibers, termed the arachnoid trabeculae Immediately deep to the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space Skin of scalp Periosteum Bone of skull Epidural space (potential space) Periosteal layer Dura mater Meningeal layer Subdural space (potential space) Arachnoid mater Subarachnoid space Arachnoid trabeculae Pia mater Cerebral cortex Arachnoid granulation Arachnoid villus Dural venous sinus (superior sagittal sinus) White matter Figure 15.4 Falx cerebri Cranial Meninges A coronal section of the head depicts the organization of the three meningeal layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater In the midline, folds of the inner meningeal layer of the dura mater form the falx cerebri, which partitions the two cerebral hemispheres The inner meningeal layer and the outer periosteal layer sometimes separate to form the dural venous sinuses, such as the dural venous sinus (superior sagittal sinus) (shown here), which drain blood away from the brain Nerve impulses, 421, 422 Nerve plexuses abdominal aortic, 541f, 547, 548f brachial, 484f, 491, 493–498, 494f, 495–497t cardiac, 541f, 543f, 546f, 547, 548f, 665, 666f celiac, 547, 548f, 784 cervical, 484f, 491, 492–493, 492f, 493t, 764f defined, 442t esophageal, 541f, 547, 548f hypogastric, 541f, 542, 543f, 547, 548f inferior mesenteric, 547, 548f, 784 injuries to, 498, 505 lumbar, 484f, 491, 498, 499f, 500–501t lumbosacral, 501 myenteric, 548, 783 organization of, 484f, 491 pulmonary, 541f, 543f, 547, 548f, 762 renal, 817 sacral, 484f, 491, 501–502f, 501–505 submucosal, 548, 782, 783f superior mesenteric, 547, 548f, 784 Nerves cranial (See Cranial nerves) defined, 424, 432, 442t disorders involving (See Nerve disorders) of GI tract, 784 of skeletal muscles, 291 spinal (See Spinal nerves) structure and function of, 424–425, 425f Nervous system aging and, 530, 533 autonomic (See Autonomic nervous system) central (See Central nervous system) communication in, 602, 602f comparison with endocrine system, 602, 602f, 602t development of, 420, 430–431f, 430–433 disorders (See Nervous system disorders) involuntary functions of, 413, 414 motor, 412, 412t, 413–414, 413f neural integration and neuronal pools in, 428, 428f, 430, 433 neuroplasticity of, 414 organization of, 412–414, 412t, 413f, 432 overview, 412 pathways in (See Motor pathways; Sensory pathways) peripheral (See Peripheral nervous system) sensory, 412–413, 412t, 413f somatic (See Somatic nervous system) structure and function of, 8f tissues of (See Nervous tissues) voluntary functions of, 413 Nervous system disorders acoustic neuroma, 592 ALS, 429, 429f demyelination, 429, 432 I-22 disconnect syndrome, 527 dyslexia, 527 Guillain-Barré syndrome, 429 hemiballismus, 532 MELAS syndrome, 42 multifocal motor neuropathy, 429 multiple sclerosis, 429, 429f neuritis, 432 neuropathy, 429, 432 Parkinson disease, 429, 461, 468, 468f Tay-Sachs disease, 40 Nervous tissues in brain, 440, 442, 442t, 443f, 478 cytology of, 414–420, 432 glial cells (See Glial cells) nerves (See Nerves) neurons (See Neurons) overview, 111, 116, 412 structure and function of, 6, 81t, 111, 112t Net movement, 32 Neural canal, 432, 508, 509f Neural crest cells, 70, 72f, 430, 430f, 432, 508, 553, 553f Neural folds, 67t, 70, 72f, 430, 430f, 432 Neural grooves, 67t, 70, 72f, 430, 430f Neural integration, 428, 428f, 430, 433 Neural layer of retina, 571f, 572, 573f, 574–575, 574t Neural plate, 70, 72f, 430, 430f Neural tissues See Nervous tissues Neural tube defects (NTDs), 431, 431f Neural tubes in nervous system development, 430, 430f, 432, 553, 553f neurulation and, 70, 71–72f in skeletal development, 215f in spinal cord development, 508, 509f Neural tunic of eye See Retina Neurilemma, 421 Neuritis, 432 Neuroectoderm, 430 Neuroepithelium, 82 Neurofibrillary tangles, 531 Neurofibril nodes, 422 Neurofibrils, 415, 415f, 416t Neurofilaments, 415, 416t Neurogenesis, 414 Neuroglia See Glial cells Neurohypophyseal bud, 625–627, 626f Neurohypophysis See Posterior pituitary gland Neurolemmocytes in axon regeneration, 423, 424f location of, 415f myelination by, 421, 421–423f structure and function of, 418t, 419f, 420 Neuromuscular diseases, 315, 315f Neuromuscular junctions, 297–298, 299f, 302f Neuronal convergence, 537 Neuronal divergence, 537 Neuronal pools, 428, 428f, 430, 433 Neurons adrenergic, 549 anaxonic, 414 axons (See Axons) bipolar, 416, 416f, 417t characteristics of, 414 cholinergic, 549 classification of, 416–417, 417t dendrites, 111, 112t, 414, 415–416f, 416t ganglionic, 537, 537f, 538, 539, 539f interneurons, 417, 417f, 417t location of, 81t, 111 motor (See Motor neurons) multipolar, 416, 416f, 417t postsynaptic, 426, 426–427f, 428 preganglionic, 537, 537f, 539, 539f presynaptic, 426, 426–427f, 428 primary, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f pseudounipolar, 416 secondary, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f sensory (See Sensory neurons) structure and function of, 25, 26t, 111, 414–415, 415f, 416t synapses of, 426–427f, 426–428, 432–433 tertiary, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f unipolar, 416, 416f, 417t Neuropathy, 429, 432 Neuroplasticity, 414 Neuropores, 432 Neurosecretory cells, 611 Neurotoxins, 300, 432 Neurotransmitters acetylcholine, 297, 299f, 427–428, 427f, 537, 537f, 548–549, 549f of autonomic nervous system, 548–549, 549f chemical synapses and, 427–428, 427f dopamine, 468 epinephrine, 545, 603f, 621, 621t norepinephrine, 537, 545, 548–549, 549f, 603f, 621, 621t Neurotubules, 416t Neurulation, 70, 70f, 72–73f, 430 Neutrophils nucleus of, 44 percentage in blood, 632f structure and function of, 99, 99t, 108t, 642, 643t in wound healing, 135, 135f Nevus (mole), 125 Nicotinic receptors, 549, 549f Nipples, 133, 398, 399f, 851, 854f Nissl bodies, 414 NK cells See Natural killer cells NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) imaging, 19 Nociceptors, 559t, 560, 561f Nocturia, 832, 863 Nodes atrioventricular, 664, 664f lymph (See Lymph nodes) primitive, 68, 68f Nodes of Ranvier, 422 Nodules lymphatic, 729, 730f, 732f, 735t skin, 134, 134f Noise, impact on hearing, 592 Nondisjunction, 59, 59f Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 727, 733 Nonidentical twins, 67 Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, 88, 89t, 90–91, 746, 775, 782, 785 Non-membrane-bound organelles, 27f, 29t, 41–44f Non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, 529 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 207, 282, 359 Norepinephrine, 537, 545, 548–549, 549f, 603f, 621, 621t Normoblasts, 646f, 647 Nose, 395f, 396, 744, 745f Nosebleed (epistaxis), 769 Nostrils (nares), 395f, 396, 744, 745f Notches cardiac, 757, 758f clavicular, 212, 212f costal, 212, 212f, 213 fibular, 240, 243f jugular, 189f, 190 mandibular, 198, 198f radial, 225, 228f sciatic, 232, 234–235f, 237f supraorbital, 178f, 186 suprascapular, 223, 224f suprasternal, 212, 212f, 395f, 397, 398, 399f tentorial, 445, 445f trochlear, 225, 228f ulnar, 225, 228f Notochord, 70, 70–72f, 215f NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), 207, 282, 359 NTDs (neural tube defects), 431, 431f Nuchal lines, 182f, 189f, 190 Nuchal region, surface anatomy of, 395f, 397, 401f Nuclear DNA, 45, 46f Nuclear envelope, 28t, 44, 45f, 48, 48–49f Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, 19 Nuclear pores, 27f, 28t, 44, 45f Nuclei of brain autonomic group, 464–465 caudate, 457f, 458, 522f cerebellar, 522f cerebral, 440, 443f, 457–458, 521, 522f cochlear, 593, 594f cuneatus, 462f, 464, 464f globus pallidus, 457f, 458, 522f gracilis, 462f, 464, 464f gray matter of, 457, 457f habenular, 458f, 459, 468 hypothalamic, 460–461, 460f, 460t lateral geniculate, 459f, 578, 579f lentiform, 457f, 458, 520f mammillary bodies, 438f, 460f, 460t, 462f, 467f, 468 medial geniculate, 594, 594f in motor pathways, 521, 522f olivary, 463–464f, 464 paraventricular, 460f, 460t, 610f, 611 pontine, 463f, 522–523f pretectal, 579, 579f putamen, 457f, 458, 522f red, 461, 463f, 520f, 522f septal, 467f, 468 superior olivary, 594, 594f supraoptic, 460f, 460t, 610f, 611 thalamic, 459, 459f, 467f, 468, 471t trigeminal, 463f vestibular, 522f, 589 Nuclei of spinal cord, 487–489, 488f Nucleoli in mitosis, 47, 48–49f of neurons, 414, 415f structure and function of, 27f, 28t, 44–45, 45f Nucleosomes, 45, 46f Nucleotides, 45, 46f Nucleus of cells chromatin in, 27f, 28t, 45, 46f DNA in, 45, 46f in mitosis, 47 in nervous system pathways, 514 neurons, 414, 415f neutrophils, 44 nuclear envelope in, 28t, 44, 45f, 48, 48–49f nucleoli in (See Nucleoli) structure and function of, 27, 27f, 28t, 44, 45f, 52 Nucleus pulposus, 205, 207, 266, 267f Nulliparous female, 851 Nurse cells, 723, 730 Nursemaid’s elbow, 273 Nutrient arteries, 162, 162f Nutrients in plasma, 632f, 634t Nutrient veins, 162 Nystagmus, 597 O OA (osteoarthritis), 245, 281, 282 Oblique fissure, 757, 758f Oblique fractures, 166f Oblique muscles external (See External oblique muscle) of eye, 326, 329f, 330t internal (See Internal oblique muscle) Oblique planes, 12, 12f Obliquus capitis inferior muscle, 335, 337f, 338t Obliquus capitis superior muscle, 335, 337f, 338t Obturator artery, 699, 699f, 704f Obturator externus muscle, 375, 376t Obturator foramen, 232–235f, 233, 237f Obturator internus muscle, 347–375f, 376, 377t Obturator nerve, 498, 499f, 500t Occipital artery, 687, 690f Occipital bone features of, 186t formation of, 201 location of, 174–175f, 179–182f, 184f structure and function of, 175–177, 189f, 190–191 Occipital condyle, 182f, 183, 189f, 190 Occipital lobe, 436–439f, 452, 452f, 453t Occipital region, 13f, 14t, 395f, 396 Occipital sinuses, 445, 445f, 691, 692f Occipital triangle of neck, 397, 397f Occipital vein, 690f Occipitofrontalis muscle, 321, 322–325f, 327t, 328f, 396 Occipitomastoid suture, 185 Occlusal surface of teeth, 778 Ocular conjunctiva, 569, 569f Oculomotor nerve eye muscles and, 326, 330t facial expression muscles and, 328t functions of, 470t, 472t injuries to, 330 location of, 469f, 539f in midbrain, 461, 463f in parasympathetic division of ANS, 540, 541f, 542t Odontoid process (dens), 207, 210f Odorants, 566, 568 Olecranal region, 13f, 14t Olecranon, 225, 227–229f, 402, 403–404f Olecranon fossa, 225, 227f Olfaction, 566–568, 567f, 598, 743, 804 Olfactory bulbs, 438f, 467f, 468, 469f, 471t, 567f, 568 Olfactory cortex, 468 Olfactory epithelium, 567–568, 567f, 743, 744 Olfactory glands, 567f, 568 Olfactory glomeruli, 567f, 568 Olfactory hairs, 567f, 568 Olfactory nerve, 469f, 470–471t, 567f, 568 Olfactory receptor cells, 567, 567f, 568 Olfactory tracts, 438f, 467f, 468, 469f, 471t, 567f, 568 Oligodendrocytes inhibition of axon growth by, 423 myelination by, 421–422, 422f structure and function of, 418–419f, 418t, 420 Olive, 462–464f, 464 Omenta, 781, 781–782f, 804, 805f Omental appendices, 794f, 796 Omohyoid muscles, 333, 334f, 335t, 336f Onychomycosis, 131, 131f Oocytes development of, 59–60 donor oocytes, 69 functions of, 25, 26t fusion with sperm membranes, 63 primary, 59, 839, 841f, 842, 842t, 843f secondary, 59–60, 62f, 64f, 841f, 842, 842t, 843f size of, 24, 24f Oogenesis, 59–60, 842–845 Oogonia, 59, 842, 843f Open-angle glaucoma, 578 Ophthalmic arteries, 687, 692f Ophthalmic veins, 692f Opponens digiti minimi muscle, 371, 372f, 373t Opponens pollicis muscle, 371, 372f, 373t Opposition of joints, 260t, 264f, 265 Optic canal, 177t, 183, 184f, 186t, 190f, 191, 200f Optic chiasm, 438f, 462f, 469f, 471t, 578, 579f Optic cup, 579, 580f Optic disc, 571f, 573f, 575, 575f Optic groove, 190f, 191 Optic nerve function of, 191, 470–471t location of, 329f, 438f, 469f, 474t, 573f Optic stalk, 579, 580f Optic tract, 438f, 462f, 469f, 471t, 578, 579f Optic vesicles, 440f, 579, 580f Oral cavity cheeks, lips, and palate, 775–776, 776f, 779t in digestive system, 775–779, 780f location of, 176f, 774f overview, 175, 779t, 807 salivary glands (See Salivary glands) surface anatomy of, 396 teeth (See Teeth) tongue (See Tongue) Oral contraceptives, 852f, 853 Oral region, 13f, 14t, 395f, 396 Ora serrata, 571f, 572 Orbicularis oculi muscle actions of, 328f, 328t location of, 322f, 324–325f, 329f structure and function of, 321 Orbicularis oris muscle actions of, 327t, 328f location of, 322f, 324–325f, 331f structure and function of, 306t, 321, 775 Orbital complex, 198, 200f Orbital fat, 569f, 570 Orbital part of frontal bone, 187, 200f Orbital plate, 192, 193f, 200f Orbital process, 195, 196f, 200f Orbital region, 13f, 14t, 395f, 396 Orbital surface of bone, 194, 194f, 195, 197f Orbits, 175, 176, 176f Organelles, 37–43 centrioles (See Centrioles) centrosomes, 27f, 29t, 42–43, 43f cilia (See Cilia) cytoskeleton (See Cytoskeleton) defined, 6, 37 endoplasmic reticulum, 27f, 28t, 37, 38f flagella (See Flagella) Golgi apparatus, 27f, 28t, 37–38, 39f lysosomes, 27f, 29t, 33–34, 38, 40f membrane-bound, 27f, 28–29t, 37–41 microvilli (See Microvilli) mitochondria, 27f, 29t, 40–41, 41f non-membrane-bound, 27f, 29t, 41–44f peroxisomes, 27f, 29t, 40, 40f ribosomes (See Ribosomes) structure and function of, 27, 27f, 28–29t Organisms and organismal level of organization, 5f, Organization of human body, 5–10, 5f, 7–10f Organ level of organization, 5f, Organ of Corti See Spiral organ Organogenesis, 55f, 56, 74 Organ systems, 5f, 6–11 Orifices cardiac, 787 external urethral, 827f, 828, 839f, 863, 864f pyloric, 787, 788f skeletal muscle sphincters at, 288 vaginal, 839f, 850, 851f, 869f Origin of muscles, 291, 291f Oropharynx, 745f, 746, 746t Orthodontic braces, 153, 254 Orthostatic hypotension, 686 Os coxae, 222f, 230, 232, 232f, 234–235f, 245 Osmosis, 32, 36t, 820 Osseous tissue See Bone Ossification, 156–162 age of death, determination of, 160, 160f, 160t blood supply and innervation in, 162, 162f bone growth and, 161–162, 162f bone remodeling and, 161–162, 165, 166f endochondral, 157, 159, 159f, 159t, 214, 215f, 245, 247 epiphyseal plate morphology and, 160–161, 161f intramembranous, 157, 158f, 159t, 214, 215f, 245, 247 overview, 156–157, 170 Ossification centers, 157, 158–159f Osteitis deformans, 154, 154f Osteoarthritis (OA), 245, 281, 282 Osteoblasts, 152, 152–153f, 153, 157, 158f Osteoclasts, 152–154, 157, 158f Osteocytes communication among, 105 in lacuna, 107t in ossification, 157 structure and function of, 152, 152–153f, 154, 155f Osteogenesis See Ossification Osteogenesis imperfecta, 169 Osteoids, 152, 157, 158f Osteolysis, 152 Osteoma, 169 Osteomalacia, 169 Osteomyelitis, 169 Osteonecrosis of jaw, 168 Osteons, 105, 107t, 153–156f Osteopenia, 168 Osteoporosis, 168–169, 168f, 205, 213, 230, 245, 865 Osteoprogenitor cells, 152, 152–153f Osteosarcoma, 169 Otic pit, 595f, 596 Otic placode, 595f, 596 Otic vesicles, 595f, 596 Otitis externa, 585 Otitis media, 585, 585f Otocysts, 595f, 596 Otolithic membrane, 586–587 Otoliths, 586, 586–587f Otosclerosis, 597 Otoscopes, 585 Oval window, 584f, 591f, 592, 593f Ovarian artery, 838, 840f Ovarian cancer, 847 Ovarian cycle, 60, 64f, 69, 842–845, 849t Ovarian follicles, 839, 841f, 842–845, 842t, 843–844f Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, 69 Ovarian ligament, 838, 840–841f, 846f Ovarian vein, 838, 840f Ovaries cancer of, 847 endocrine functions of, 603f, 609f, 624t, 625, 629 follicles of, 839, 841f, 842–845, 842t, 843–844f as homologue structure, 837t oogenesis and ovarian cycle, 842–845, 849t structure and function of, 838–840f I-23 Overeversion of joints, 281 Overinversion of joints, 281 Oviducts See Uterine tubes Ovulation, 60, 64f, 69, 843–844f, 845, 849t Ovum (ova), 60 Oxygenation of blood, 636 Oxygen binding, 636–637 Oxyphil cells, 616, 616f Oxytocin, 603f, 604, 611, 612t, 855 P Pacemaker (sinoatrial node), 664, 664f Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles, 562, 563f, 564t Paget disease, 154, 154f Pain anesthesia and, 491, 498 angina pectoris, 662 in dysmenorrhea, 870 in dysuria, 828, 863 of kidney stones, 826 of otitis externa, 585 phantom, 560 referred, 560–562f referred visceral, 491 sensation of, 514 sensory receptors for, 559t, 560–562f of ulcers, 790 Paired tracts, 514 Palates cleft, 196, 196f hard, 179, 182f, 199f, 776, 776f, 779t soft, 776, 776f, 779t structure and function of, 775–776 Palatine bones features of, 195t location of, 181–182f, 192f structure and function of, 175, 177, 179, 195, 196f Palatine folds, 776, 776f Palatine foramen, 177t, 182f, 195, 195t Palatine process, 196, 197f, 199f Palatine tonsils, 729, 730f, 737, 745f, 746, 776, 776f Palatoglossal arch, 776, 776f Palatoglossus muscles, 331, 332f, 332t, 776 Palatopharyngeal arch, 776, 776f Palatopharyngeus muscle, 333t, 776 Pallor, 124t Palmar aponeuroses, 366f Palmar arches, 688–689f, 699, 700–701f, 703 Palmar interossei muscles, 371, 372f, 373t Palmaris longus muscle, 322f, 365–366f, 368, 370t Palmaris longus tendon, 367f, 372f, 404f Palmar region, 13f, 14t Palpation, 20, 395, 731, 731f Palpebrae See Eyelids Palpebral commissure, 569, 569f Palpebral conjunctiva, 569, 569f Pampinform plexus, 856f, 857 Pancreas cystic fibrosis and, 802 development of, 804, 805f disorders of, 623, 623t location of, 774f I-24 secretions by, 603f, 604, 605f, 623t, 624 structure and function of, 621, 622f, 629, 802–803, 803f Pancreatic acini, 621, 622f Pancreatic buds, 804, 805f Pancreatic ducts, 622f, 801f, 802–803, 803f Pancreatic islets, 603f, 621, 622f, 802, 803f Pancreatic juice, 802 Pancreatic polypeptide, 603f, 623t, 624 Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, 848, 848f Papillae dermal, 119f, 126, 126f duodenal, 622f, 791, 801f, 802, 803, 803f hair, 129, 130f, 140, 141f renal, 815, 815f of tongue, 563, 565, 565f, 776 Papillary layer of dermis, 102t, 119f, 126, 126f, 128t Papillary muscles, 657f, 658, 660, 667 Papilledema, 597 Papules, 134 Parafollicular cells, 612, 613f, 614, 615t Parahippocampal gyrus, 466, 467f Parallel-after-discharge circuits, 428f, 430 Parallel lamellae, 155f, 156 Parallel muscles, 305, 307t Paralysis defined, 478 of deltoid muscle, 501 diaphragm, 341, 341f facial nerve, 326, 326f neurotoxins and, 300 spinal cord injuries and, 307 types of, 509 winged scapula, 355 Paramesonephric ducts, 867f, 868 Paranasal sinuses location of, 176f overview, 175 in respiratory system, 744, 745–746f, 750 structure and function, 198, 200f Paranephric fat, 814f, 815 Paraplegia, 509 Parasympathetic division of ANS, 538–542 comparison with sympathetic division, 539–540, 539f, 540t cranial nerves associated with, 539f, 540–542, 541f, 542t functions and effects of, 538–539, 542, 542t, 551t innervation by, 540–542, 542t, 667, 762, 784, 826, 839, 863 neurotransmitters in, 548–549, 549f overview, 540, 554 pathways of, 561 pelvic splanchnic nerves of, 539f, 541f, 542 Parathyroid glands disorders of, 615t, 617 secretions of, 163, 603f, 615t sources of, 615t structure and function of, 616, 616f, 628 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) bone growth and, 163, 163t disorders involving, 615t, 617 functions of, 616, 617f sources of, 603f, 615t Paraventricular nuclei, 460f, 460t, 610f, 611 Paraxial mesoderm, 71, 71–72f Parenchyma, 93–94, 94f Paresthesia, 367 Parietal bone features of, 186t location of, 174–175f, 178–181f, 184f structure and function of, 175–177, 187, 187f Parietal cells, 788, 789f Parietal eminence, 179–180f, 187, 187f Parietal foramen, 176, 177t, 179f, 186t, 187, 187f Parietal layer of serous membranes, 14–15, 16f, 108 of serous pericardium, 653, 653f of tunica vaginalis, 857f, 858 Parietal lobe, 436–437f, 439f, 451, 451–452f, 453t Parietal pericardium, 15, 16f Parietal peritoneum, 16, 16f, 781, 781f, 812f Parietal pleura, 15, 16f, 756, 757f Parieto-occipital sulcus, 436–437f, 439f, 451, 452f Parkinson disease, 429, 461, 468, 468f Parotid ducts, 776, 777f Parotid salivary glands, 774f, 776, 777f, 778t Parous female, 851 Pars distalis, 607, 607–608f, 626f Pars intermedia, 607, 607–608f, 626f Pars nervosa, 607–608f, 610, 610f, 626f Pars tuberalis, 607, 607f, 626f Partial-thickness burns, 136 Passive transport, 32–33, 36t Patella classification of, 150 dislocation of, 248 location of, 222f, 379f structure and function of, 240, 240f, 380 surface anatomy of, 405, 406–407f Patellar ligament, 275, 278f, 379f, 380, 406–407f Patellar reflex, 505, 507, 508t Patellar region, 13f, 14t Patellar surface of femur, 238f, 240 Patellofemoral joint, 274–275t, 275, 278f Patellofemoral syndrome, 248, 284 Patent ductus arteriosus, 713 Patent process vaginalis, 346 Pathologic anatomy, Pathologic fractures, 165, 166f Pathologic unconsciousness, 530 Pathways See Motor pathways; Sensory pathways PCL (posterior cruciate ligament), 277, 279, 279f PCTs See Proximal convoluted tubules Pectinate muscles, 657f, 658 Pectineal line, 233, 235f, 239f, 240 Pectineus muscle, 322f, 374f, 375, 376t, 379f Pectoral girdle bones of, 221–225, 249 joints of, 268–269t, 268–273 muscles of, 352–356f, 357t, 391 Pectoralis major muscle actions of, 357, 359t location of, 322f, 344f, 352f, 355f structure of, 306t surface anatomy of, 399f, 402, 402f Pectoralis minor muscle actions of, 353, 357t location of, 322f, 344f, 352f, 355f in respiration, 761, 762f in scapular movement, 354f Pectoral nerve, 494f Pectoral region, 13f, 14t Pedicels, 819f, 820 Pedicles, 205, 206f, 210f, 442t Peduncles, 461, 462–463f, 464, 466 Pelvic brim, 233, 236f Pelvic cavity, 15f, 16, 17t Pelvic diaphragm, 346, 847 Pelvic floor muscles, 346, 347f, 348t, 349 Pelvic girdle bones of, 222f, 230, 232–236, 237t, 249 joints of, 274–275t, 274–281 muscles of, 374–375f, 374–378t, 392 Pelvic inflammatory disease, 69, 865 Pelvic inlet, 232–233f, 233, 236f Pelvic kidney, 831 Pelvic outlet, 233, 236f Pelvic region, 13f, 14t, 838, 839f, 855, 855f Pelvic splanchnic nerves, 539f, 541f, 542, 561, 784, 826 Pelvis renal, 815, 815f, 817f sexual dimorphism of, 233, 236, 237t structure and function of, 230, 232–233, 236 systemic circulation to, 699, 699f true and false, 233 Penis, 837t, 855–856f, 861f, 863–864, 864f, 869f Pennate muscles, 306, 306t Pepsin, 791 Peptic ulcers, 790, 790f Peptide hormones, 604 Percussion, 395 Perforating canals, 154, 155f Perforating fibers, 152, 152f, 155f Perforation of stomach wall, 790, 790f Performance-enhancing compounds, 305, 305f Periaqueductal gray matter, 461, 463f Pericardial cavity, 15, 15–16f, 17t, 653, 653f Pericarditis, 653 Pericardium, 15, 16f, 652–653 Perichondrium, 101, 103, 104, 148, 149f Periderm, 139, 140f Perikaryon, 415, 416t Perilymph, 584f, 585, 592 Perimenopause, 845 Perimetrium, 846f, 848 Perimysium, 289, 289f, 290t, 291 Perineal body, 346, 347f, 837, 838f Perineal region, 13f, 14t Perinephric fat, 814f, 815 Perineum, 233, 346, 699, 837, 838f Perineurium, 425, 425f Period (menses), 845 Periodontal disease, 804 Periodontal ligaments, 778, 778f Periodontal membranes, 254 Periosteal arteries, 162, 162f Periosteal bone collar, 157, 159f Periosteal buds, 157 Periosteal layer of dura mater, 444, 444f, 449f Periosteal veins, 162 Periosteum, 101, 105, 151–152, 151f, 159f Peripheral nervous system (PNS) axon regeneration in, 423, 424f glial cells of, 418–419f, 418t, 420 myelination in, 421–422, 524 structure of, 8f, 412, 412t, 413f Peripheral process, 416, 416f Peripheral proteins, 30–31, 31f Peristalsis, 775, 775f, 796, 823 Peritoneal cavity, 16, 16f, 781, 781f Peritoneal dialysis, 823 Peritoneal ligament, 782 Peritoneum, 16, 16f, 781, 781f, 812f, 838 Peritonitis, 795 Peritubular capillaries, 816, 816f, 818f Perivascular feet, 419f, 420, 450, 450f Permanent teeth, 779, 780f Pernicious anemia, 638 Peroxisomes, 27f, 29t, 40, 40f Perpendicular plate, 177, 178f, 181f, 192, 193f, 195, 196f, 199f Persistent vegetative state (PSV), 530 Pes cavus, 246, 246f Pes planus, 246, 246f Pes region, 13f, 14t Petalias, 524 Petit mal seizures, 468 PET (positron emission tomography), 19, 19f Petrosal nerve, 474t Petrosal sinuses, 691, 692f Petrous part of temporal bone, 184f, 187, 188f, 194f, 581f, 583 Peyer patches, 729, 730f, 784, 793 pH, 633 Phacoemulsification, 577 Phagocytosis, 33–34, 35f, 36t, 420 Phalanges location of, 222f structure and function of, 230, 231f, 241, 244f surface anatomy of, 403, 408 Phantom limb syndrome, 560 Phantom pain, 560 Pharyngeal artery, 687, 690f Pharyngeal cleft, 594, 595f Pharyngeal constrictors, 331, 779, 781, 786–787 Pharyngeal membrane, 595f, 596 Pharyngeal phase of swallowing, 786–787, 787f Pharyngeal pouches, 594, 595f, 737, 737f Pharyngeal tonsils, 729, 730f, 745f, 746 Pharynx in digestive system, 774f, 779, 781 laryngopharynx, 745f, 746, 746t muscles of, 331, 333f, 333t nasopharynx, 745f, 746, 746t oropharynx, 745f, 746, 746t regions of, 745f, 746, 746t structure and function of, 744, 745f, 746, 779, 781, 807 Phasic receptors, 558–559, 559f Phenotypic sex, 866 Pheochromocytoma, 621t Pheomelanin, 123, 396 Pheromones, 130, 133 Philtrum, 395f, 396 Phlebectomy, 684 Phocomelia, 248, 248f Phosphate storage in bones, 150 Phospholipid bilayers, 30, 31f, 32, 37, 44 Phospholipids, 30, 31f Photoablation procedure, 583 Photoreceptors, 559t, 560, 572, 573f, 574, 578 Photorefractive keratotomy (PRK), 583 Phrenic arteries, 617, 618f, 693f, 695 Phrenic nerve, 492f, 493, 762, 764f Phrenic veins, 694f Physiology, comparison with anatomy, 3, 4t Pia mater, 444, 444f, 448–449f, 486f, 487 Pigmented layer of retina, 571f, 572, 573f, 574, 574t PIH (prolactin-inhibiting hormone), 606t Pilus See Hair Pineal gland blood-brain barrier in, 450 location of, 439f, 458f, 462f secretions of, 603f, 624 structure and function of, 459, 624, 629 Pinealocytes, 624 Pink eye, 570 Pinocytosis, 34, 35f, 36t Piriformis muscle, 323f, 375f, 376, 377t Pisiform bone, 230, 231f, 403 Pitch of sound, 749 Pituitary dwarfism, 610 Pituitary gland, 607–611 anterior, 603f, 607–610, 612t development of, 625–627, 626f location of, 438–439f, 441f, 445f posterior, 603f, 607–610f, 610–611, 612t secretions of, 603f, 608–610, 609f, 611, 614t structure and function of, 607, 607f, 628 surgical removal of, 614 thyroid-pituitary gland negative feedback, 613, 614f Pivot joints, 254t, 258, 259f Placenta, 65–67, 66f Placental barrier, 66 Plagiocephaly, 183, 183f, 336 Plane joints, 254t, 258, 259f Planes, anatomic, 11–12 Plantar aponeuroses, 383, 388 Plantar arches, 703, 704f Plantar arteries, 703, 704f Plantar fasciitis, 388 Plantar flexion of foot, 391t of joints, 260t, 264, 264f, 307 sacral plexuses in, 501 Plantaris muscle, 382, 386f, 387t Plantaris tendon, 383f Plantar nerve, 502f Plantar reflex, 508t Plantar region, 13f, 14t Plantar veins, 703, 705f Plasma comparison with interstitial fluid, 634 composition of, 633, 634t overview, 633, 647 percentage in blood, 632f, 633 proteins in, 632f, 633, 634t structure and function of, 108, 108t Plasma cells, 99, 99t, 725, 725f, 728t Plasma membrane, 30–36 factors affecting permeability of, 32 in fertilization, 60, 62f, 63 protein-specific functions of, 31–32 structure and function of, 27, 27f, 28t, 30–31, 31f, 51 transport across, 32–36, 36t Plasma proteins, 632f, 633, 634t Plastination, 2, 3f Platelets in blood clotting, 645, 645f formation of, 644, 644f percentage in blood, 632, 632f, 634 production of, 646f, 647 structure and function of, 105, 108t, 634t thrombopoiesis and, 646f, 647 Plates alar, 508, 509f basal, 508, 509f cribriform, 183, 184f, 192, 193–194f, 199f epiphyseal, 151, 157, 159, 159f, 160–161, 161f horizontal, 195, 196f, 199f neural, 70, 72f, 430, 430f orbital, 192, 193f, 200f perpendicular, 177, 178f, 181f, 192, 193f, 195, 196f, 199f pterygoid, 182f, 191, 191f tarsal, 568, 569f tectal, 439f, 461, 462f vertical, 194 Platysma muscle actions of, 328f, 328t location of, 322f, 324–325f, 336f structure and function of, 326 Pleura, 15, 16f, 756, 757f Pleural cavities, 15, 15–16f, 17t, 756, 757f Plexuses See Nerve plexuses; Vascular plexuses Pluripotent stem cells, 64, 92, 92f Pneumatic retinopexy, 574 Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, 726 Pneumonia, 726, 760, 760f Pneumothorax, 757 PNS See Peripheral nervous system Podocytes, 819f, 820 Polar bodies, 60, 61t, 62–63f, 843f, 845 Polarity of epithelial tissues, 81, 83f Pollex (thumb), 14t, 229f, 230 Polycystic ovarian syndrome, 69 Polycythemia, 638 Polydactyly, 248 Polyhedral cells, 84 Polyps in colon, 796, 796f Polysaccharides, 33, 37 Polyspermy, 63 Polysynaptic reflexes, 505–507, 506f Polyuria, 832, 863 Pons, 436–439f, 441f, 461–464 Pontine respiratory center, 461, 463f, 464, 762, 764f, 765 Popliteal artery, 407f, 687–688f, 703, 704f Popliteal fossa, 406, 406f Popliteal ligament, 278f Popliteal region, 13f, 14t Popliteal surface of femur, 239f, 240 Popliteal vein, 689f, 703, 705f Popliteus muscle, 279, 382, 386f, 387t Pores, 83, 83f, 132f, 133 Porta hepatis, 798, 798f Portal triads, 798, 799f Port wine stains, 125 Positive feedback, 604, 605f Positron emission tomography (PET), 19, 19f Postcapillary venules, 682, 683f, 684 Posterior aspect, 14, 15f, 17t Posterior cavity of eye, 570, 571f, 573f, 576, 578f Posterior chamber of eye, 571f, 576, 578f Posterior cord of brachial plexus, 493, 494f, 495–497t, 498 Posterior cranial fossa, 193, 194f Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), 277, 279, 279f Posterior division of brachial plexus, 493, 494f Posterior drawer test, 277 Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve, 501–502f, 504t Posterior fontanelles, 201, 203f Posterior funiculus-medial lemniscal pathway, 515, 515–516f, 516, 517f Posterior lobe of cerebellum, 465, 465f Posterior neck muscles, 335, 337f, 338t Posterior pituitary gland, 603f, 607–610f, 610–611, 612t Posterior (position), 11, 13f, 437 Posterior triangle of neck, 397, 397f Postganglionic axons, 537, 537–539f, 538–540, 542 Postganglionic sympathetic nerve pathway, 545, 546f, 547t Postsynaptic neurons, 426, 426–427f, 428 Posttraumatic amnesia, 529 Postural hypotension, 686 Postural muscles, 288 Posture, 288, 466 Potency of stem cells, 92, 92f Potential spaces, 15, 444, 444f, 653, 756 Pott fractures, 165, 166f, 241, 281 Preauricular sulcus, 233, 237f Precapillary sphincter, 682, 683f Pre-embryo, 845, 847 Pre-embryonic period, 60–67 bilaminar germinal disc and membrane formation, 65, 65–66f chronology of events in, 60, 61t cleavage in, 61t, 63–64 fertilization in, 60, 61t, 62–63, 62f, 64f implantation in, 64–65 overview, 55, 55f, 76–77 placental development in, 65–67, 66f twinning in, 67 I-25 Pre-embryos, 60, 64, 64–65f Preganglionic axons, 537, 537–538f, 538–540, 542 Preganglionic neurons, 537, 537f, 539, 539f Pregnancy cellular changes in aging and, 50 ectopic, 69, 76 gestational diabetes during, 623 length of, 55, 55n miscarriages, 62 Rh incompatibility and, 641, 641f Premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), 666 Premolars, 779, 780f Premotor cortex, 452f, 454 Prenatal period, 54–77 embryonic (See Embryonic period) fetal period, 55, 55f, 74, 75t, 77 gametogenesis (See Gametogenesis) oogenesis during, 59–60, 842–845 overview, 55–56, 55f, 55n, 76 pre-embryonic (See Pre-embryonic period) Prepatellar bursae, 258f Preprogrammed responses, 505 Prepuce of clitoris, 851, 851f of penis, 863, 864f Presbyopia, 583 Preserved specimens, Presynaptic neurons, 426, 426–427f, 428 Pretectal nuclei, 579, 579f Prevertebral ganglia, 543f, 544–545, 546f PRH (prolactin-releasing hormone), 606t Primary auditory cortex, 452f, 454, 594, 594f Primary follicles, 839, 842t, 843, 843–844f Primary germ layers, 68, 70f Primary gustatory cortex, 452f, 454 Primary intestinal loop, 804, 806f Primary mammary buds, 140, 141f Primary motor cortex, 452, 452f, 454f, 521, 522f Primary neurons, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f Primary olfactory cortex, 452f, 454 Primary oocytes, 59, 839, 841f, 842, 842t, 843f Primary ossification centers, 157, 159f Primary plexus of hypothalamohypophyseal portal system, 607, 608f Primary somatosensory cortex, 452, 452f, 454, 454f Primary spermatocytes, 60, 858, 859f, 860t Primary spinal curvatures, 204 Primary tumors, 420 Primary visual cortex, 452f, 454, 471t Primary (woven) bone, 157, 158f Prime mover (agonist), 307 Primitive node, 68, 68f Primitive pit, 68, 68f Primitive streak, 67t, 68, 68f, 70f Primordial follicles, 839, 841f, 842t PRK (photorefractive keratotomy), 583 Procallus, 165, 166f I-26 Procerus muscle, 321, 324f, 327t Processes of bone alveolar, 178f, 195–198f articular, 205, 206f, 209, 211f characteristics of, 167f clinoid, 184f, 190f, 191 condylar, 196, 198f coracoid, 221, 223–224f coronoid, 196, 198f, 225, 228f frontal, 194, 194f, 196, 197f, 200f mastoid, 177, 179–180f, 182f, 187, 188f, 396 maxillary, 194, 194f orbital, 195, 196f, 200f palatine, 196, 197f, 199f pterygoid, 179, 181–182f, 191, 191f radius, 403–404f spinous, 205, 206f, 208–209t, 210f, 401f, 486f styloid, 180–182f, 187, 188f, 225, 228–229f, 403, 403f temporal, 180f, 182f, 190, 194, 194f transverse, 205, 206f, 208–209t, 210f ulna, 403–404f xiphoid, 212f, 213, 398, 399f zygomatic, 180f, 182f, 185f, 187, 188f, 196, 197f, 200f Proerythroblasts, 646f, 647 Progesterone aging and, 625, 865 effects of, 624t in ovarian cycle, 844f, 849t pregnancy and, 851 secretion of, 842 sources of, 603f, 625 in uterine cycle, 848–849, 849t Progestins, 853 Prognathism, 610 Projection tracts, 456f, 456t, 457, 518 Prolactin, 602–604, 603f, 608–609, 609f, 612t, 851 Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), 606t Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), 606t Prolapse of uterus, 848 Proliferative phase of uterine cycle, 844f, 849, 849t Promonocytes, 646f, 647 Promontory, sacral, 209, 211f, 236f Pronation of forearm bones, 229f, 230 of joints, 260t, 262, 263f Pronator quadratus muscle, 363, 363f, 364t, 366f, 370t Pronator teres muscle actions of, 363, 364t, 368, 370t location of, 322f, 363f, 366f naming of, 308 Pronephros, 829, 830f Pronuclei, 61t, 62f, 63, 64f Prophase in meiosis I, 56f, 58 in meiosis II, 57f, 58 in mitosis, 47–48 Proprioception, 466, 515, 516 Proprioceptors, 559t, 560 Prosencephalon (forebrain), 437, 440f, 458 Prostate gland cancer of, 863 development of, 867f, 868 enlargement of, 866 location of, 855f, 861f secretions of, 862 structure of, 862, 862f Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 862, 863 Prostatic concretions, 862, 862f Prostatic urethra, 828, 861, 861f Proteasomes, 27f Protein fibers, 96, 96f, 97t, 99–100 Protein hormones, 604 Proteins See also specific proteins in erythrocyte life cycle, 637, 637f as macromolecules, in plasma, 632f, 633, 634t in plasma membranes, 30–32, 31f, 32, 36 Proteoglycans, 100 Protraction of joints, 260t, 264, 264f of scapulae, 353, 354f Protuberances of bone external occipital, 176–177, 179f, 182f, 189f, 190, 202t, 396 internal occipital, 184f, 189f, 191 mental, 176, 178f, 180f, 196, 198f, 202t Proximal attachment, 291, 291f, 321, 352 Proximal convoluted tubules (PCTs), 817, 818–819f, 820, 821f, 822t Proximal epiphysis, 151, 151f Proximal interphalangeal joints, 403, 404f, 408, 408f Proximal phalanx, 230, 231f, 244f Proximal (position), 13f Pruritis, 142 PSA (prostate-specific antigen), 862, 863 Pseudohermaphroditism, 866 Pseudopodia, 33, 35f Pseudostratified epithelium, 84, 88, 88t, 743, 746, 751, 753, 828 Pseudounipolar neurons, 416 Psoas major muscle, 342f, 374, 374f, 376t, 379f Psoas minor muscle, 374f Psoriasis, 140, 140f PSV (persistent vegetative state), 530 Pterion, 177, 180f Pterygoid canal, 191, 191f Pterygoid muscles, 330, 331f, 331t Pterygoid plates, 182f, 191, 191f Pterygoid processes, 179, 181–182f, 191, 191f PTH See Parathyroid hormone Ptosis, 472t, 550, 550f Puberty, 837, 842, 858, 865 Pubic crest, 233, 234f Pubic ramus, 233, 234–235f Pubic region, 13f, 14t, 130, 133 Pubic symphysis, 232–233f, 233, 236f, 245, 256, 256f, 274–275t Pubic tubercle, 232–235f, 233, 400, 400f Pubis bone, 232f, 233–235f, 400 Pubococcygeus muscle, 346, 347f, 348t Pubofemoral ligament, 274, 276f Puborectalis muscle, 346, 348t Pudendal artery, 699, 699f Pudendal nerve, 501–502f, 504t Pulled elbow, 273 Pull-out method of contraception, 852 Pulmonary arteries, 655–657f, 659, 703, 706, 707–708f Pulmonary arterioles, 755f Pulmonary capillaries, 707–708f Pulmonary circulation, 651, 651f, 678, 703, 706, 707f, 715 Pulmonary embolism, 769 Pulmonary embolus, 685 Pulmonary lymph nodes, 759, 759f Pulmonary plexuses, 541f, 543f, 547, 548f, 762 Pulmonary surfactant, 754, 769 Pulmonary trunk, 654, 655f, 657f, 703, 707–708f Pulmonary veins, 655–657f, 658–659, 706, 707–708f Pulmonary ventilation See Breathing Pulmonary venules, 755f Pulp cavity, 778, 778f Pulp of teeth, 778 Pulse, 685, 687 Pulse points, 687, 687f Pulvinar nuclei, 459f Pupillary light reflex, 597 Pupils (eyes) constriction of, 540, 550, 572, 572f dilation of, 544, 550, 572, 572f location of, 569f, 571f, 578f structure of, 572 Purkinje fibers, 664–665, 664f Pus, 134 Pustules, 134, 134f Putamen, 457f, 458, 522f PVCs (premature ventricular contractions), 666 P wave, 665, 665f Pyelonephritis, 828 Pyloric antrum, 787, 788f Pyloric canal, 787, 788f Pyloric orifice, 787, 788f Pyloric sphincter, 787, 788f Pylorus, 787, 788f Pyramidal decussation, 462f, 464, 464f Pyramidal lobe, 626 Pyramidal pathways See Direct motor pathways Q QRS complex, 665, 665f Quadratus femoris muscle, 323f, 375f, 376, 377t Quadratus lumborum muscles, 338, 339f, 341t, 342f Quadratus plantae muscle, 383, 389f, 390t Quadriceps femoris muscle actions of, 380 location of, 278f naming of, 309f, 310 rectus femoris (See Rectus femoris muscle) surface anatomy of, 405, 406f vastus intermedius, 322f, 378–379f, 380, 382t vastus lateralis, 322f, 374f, 378–379f, 380, 382t, 406–407f vastus medialis, 248, 322f, 378–379f, 380, 382t, 406–407f Quadriceps femoris tendon, 278f Quadriceps tendon, 379f, 380, 406–407f Quadriplegia, 509 Quiet breathing, 760 R Radial artery, 403, 404f, 687–688f, 699, 700–701f, 848 Radial collateral ligament, 271f, 272 Radial deviation, 262 Radial fossa, 225, 226f Radial groove, 225, 227f Radial keratotomy (RK), 583 Radial nerve, 493, 494f, 496t, 498 Radial notch, 225, 228f Radial region, 14t Radial tuberosity, 225, 228f Radial veins, 689f, 700f, 703 Radical prostatectomy, 863 Radiocarpal joint, 261–262f, 268–269t, 273, 273f Radiographic anatomy, Radiography, 18, 18f Radiopaque substances, 18 Radioulnar joint, 225, 228–229f, 268–269t Radius fracture of, 166f, 168, 230 location of, 222f structure and function of, 225, 227–229f, 230 subluxation of head of, 273 Rami of brachial plexus, 493, 494f characteristics of, 167f gray, 544, 544f, 546f ischiopubic, 232f, 233 of ischium, 233, 234–235f of mandible, 180f, 196, 198f pubic, 233, 234–235f of spinal cord, 489, 490f white, 544, 544f, 546f Range of voice, 749 Raphe, 306, 856f, 857 Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 529, 529f Rapid responses, 505 RA (rheumatoid arthritis), 282, 282f, 737 RAS (reticular activating system), 528, 528f Raynaud syndrome, 548 Receiving region of Golgi apparatus, 38, 39f Receptive fields, 558, 558f Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 35f, 36, 36t Receptors See also specific types of receptors function of, 412 olfactory, 567, 567f, 568 in plasma membrane, 30 in reflex arc, 505, 506f sensory (See Sensory receptors) Rectal artery, 696f, 697, 699, 699f Rectal examination, 863 Rectal valves, 794, 794f Rectouterine pouch, 838, 839f Rectum, 794, 794f, 839f Rectus abdominis muscle actions of, 343, 345t location of, 322f, 344f naming of, 309, 309f structure of, 306t surface anatomy of, 399f, 400 Rectus capitis posterior major muscle, 335, 337f, 338t Rectus capitis posterior minor muscle, 335, 337f, 338t Rectus femoris muscle actions of, 376t, 380, 382t location of, 322f, 374f, 378–379f naming of, 309 structure of, 306t surface anatomy of, 406f Rectus sheath, 343, 344f, 349 Red blood cells See Erythrocytes Red bone marrow, 148, 150, 719f Red nuclei, 461, 463f, 520f, 522f Red pulp, 733, 734f Reduction division (meiosis I), 56f, 57–58 Reed-Sternberg cells, 733, 733f Referred pain, 560–562f Referred visceral pain, 491 Reflex arc, 505–507, 506f Reflexes autonomic, 550, 551f autonomic dysreflexia, 552 clinical testing of, 507, 508t defined, 505, 510 gastrocolic, 796 gastroileal, 796 hyperactive, 507 hypoactive, 507 micturition, 826 monosynaptic, 505, 506f motor pathways and, 521 polysynaptic, 505–507, 506f reflex arc components, 505–507, 506f spinal, 507, 507f Reflex response, 505, 507 Reflux esophagitis, 786 Regeneration of axons, 423, 424f, 432 defined, 135 epithelial, 81–82, 135 integumentary, 134–135, 135f, 137, 143 stem cells and, 82 Regeneration tubes, 423, 424f Regional anatomy, 5, 13, 13f, 14t Regulatory hormones, 604, 606f, 606t Regulatory mechanisms, Regulatory proteins, 633, 634t Regulatory T-lymphocytes, 724–725, 728t Relative polycythemia, 638 Releasing hormones, 604, 606f, 606t, 609f REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 529, 529f Renal agenesis, 831 Renal arteries, 617, 618f, 688f, 693f, 699, 812f, 815, 816f Renal calculi, 817, 826, 826f Renal columns, 815, 815f Renal corpuscle, 817, 818–819f, 819–820, 821f, 822t Renal cortex, 815, 815f, 818f Renal failure, 823 Renal lobes, 815, 815f Renal medulla, 815, 815f, 818f Renal pelvis, 815, 815f, 817f Renal plexus, 817 Renal pyramids, 815, 815f Renal sinuses, 814, 815f Renal tubules, 817, 818–819f, 820, 821f, 822t Renal veins, 618f, 689f, 694f, 699, 812f, 816f, 817 Renin, 625, 822 Renin-angiotensin pathway, 822 Replicated chromosomes, 47, 48–49f, 56–57f, 57, 58, 58t Replication of DNA, 57 Reposition of joints, 265 Representational hemisphere, 524, 525f Reproduction, 6, 55 Reproductive system, 836–871 aging and, 865–866, 871 development of, 866–868, 867f, 869f, 871 effects of ANS on, 551t female (See Female reproductive system) intersex conditions, 866 male (See Male reproductive system) overview, 837 structure and function of, 10f Resectoscope, 863 Resident cells, 98–99, 99t Resistance arm, 307, 308f Resorption lacunae, 152, 153f Respiration See Breathing Respiratory centers, 461, 463–464f, 464, 465, 762, 764–765, 764f Respiratory diverticulum, 768, 768f Respiratory gases, 632f, 634t Respiratory membrane, 754, 756f Respiratory pump, 684, 685f Respiratory system, 741–771 See also Breathing aging and, 765, 768, 771 conducting portion of, 742, 742f development of, 768–769, 768f, 769t, 771 disorders of (See Respiratory system disorders) effects of ANS on, 551t innervation of, 762, 764–765, 764f, 771 lower respiratory tract, 742f, 747–756, 770 lungs (See Lungs) overview, 742 respiratory portion of, 742, 742f structure and function of, 9f, 742–743, 742f, 770 upper respiratory tract, 742f, 744–746, 746t, 770 Respiratory system disorders asthma, 765, 765f bronchitis, 754, 768 cystic fibrosis, 6, 33, 743, 743f, 802 decompression sickness, 769 pneumonia, 726, 760, 760f sudden infant death syndrome, 183, 768 tuberculosis, 769 Response-to-injury hypothesis, 702 Responsiveness, as characteristic of living things, Rete testis, 857f, 860 Reticular activating system (RAS), 528, 528f Reticular fibers, 96, 100, 103t Reticular formation, 463–464f, 520f, 522f, 527–528, 528f Reticular lamina, 82 Reticular layer of dermis, 104t, 119f, 126, 126f, 128t Reticular tissues, 100t, 101, 103t Reticulocytes, 646f, 647 Reticuloendothelial cells, 798, 799f Reticulospinal tracts, 518f, 520, 521f, 521t Retina, 571f, 572–575, 573f, 574t, 575f Retinacular fibers, 274, 276f Retraction of joints, 260t, 264f, 265 of scapulae, 353, 354f Retrograde amnesia, 529 Retromandibular vein, 690f Retroperitoneal organs, 781, 781f, 783, 814, 824 Retroverted uterus, 847 Reverberating circuits, 428f, 430 Rh blood types, 639f, 641, 641f Rheumatic heart disease, 659 Rheumatism, 284 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), 282, 282f, 737 Rh factor (surface antigen D), 639f, 641, 641f Rhombencephalon (hindbrain), 437, 440f Rhomboid major muscle actions of, 354, 357t location of, 323f, 353f, 356f in scapular movement, 354f in triangle of auscultation, 400 Rhomboid minor muscle actions of, 354, 357t location of, 323f, 353f, 356f in scapular movement, 354f Rhythm method of contraception, 852 Ribosomes bound, 27f, 29t, 42, 42f in endoplasmic reticulum, 37, 38f free, 27f, 29t, 40f, 42, 42f of nuclear envelope, 44 structure and function of, 27f, 29t, 41–42, 42f Ribs location of, 174f structure and function of, 150, 212f, 213, 214f surface anatomy of, 398, 399f variations in development of, 216 Rickets, 164, 164f Right border of heart, 652, 652f Right lower quadrant (RLQ), 17f, 18 Right upper quadrant (RUQ), 17f, 18 Rigidity of muscles, 302 Rigor mortis, 302 Rima glottidis, 748, 749, 749f, 750 Rima vestibuli, 748 Risorius muscle, 324f, 326, 327t RK (radial keratotomy), 583 RLQ (right lower quadrant), 17f, 18 Rods, 573f, 574–575 Roentgen rays, 18 Root canal, 778 Root hair plexuses, 562, 563f, 564t Roots of hair, 129, 130, 130f of lung, 757, 758f of penis, 863, 864f of teeth, 778, 778f I-27 Rosacea, 142 Rotation of hip and thigh, 378t of joints, 260t, 262, 263f of scapulae, 354, 354f Rotator cuff injuries, 359 Rotator cuff muscles, 269, 271, 358, 358f, 359t Rotatores thoracis muscle, 340f, 340t Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 27f, 28t, 37, 38f Rouleau, 635f, 636, 680 Round ligaments, 346, 713, 713f, 797, 798f, 840f, 846f, 847 Round window, 581f, 584f, 591f Rubella, 125 Rubrospinal tracts, 518f, 520, 520f, 521t Ruffini (bulbous) corpuscles, 562–563, 563f, 564t Rugae gastric folds, 787, 788f mucosal folds, 824, 825f Rule of nines, 136f, 137 RUQ (right upper quadrant), 17f, 18 S Saccular aneurysm, 709 Saccule, 584f, 585, 586, 586f, 592t, 595f, 596 Sacral artery, 693, 693f Sacral canal, 209, 211f Sacral cornua, 209, 211f Sacral crest, 209, 211f Sacral curvature, 204, 204f Sacral foramen, 209, 211f, 212 Sacral hiatus, 209, 211f Sacral part of spinal cord, 483, 484f, 485t Sacral plexuses, 484f, 491, 501–502f, 501–505 Sacral promontory, 209, 211f, 236f Sacral region, 13f, 14t Sacral splanchnic nerve, 543, 544f Sacroiliac joint, 212, 232, 232–233f, 274–275t Sacrotuberous ligament, 375f Sacrum (sacral vertebrae) formation of, 204 location of, 174f in pelvis, 230, 232–233f structure and function of, 209, 211f, 212 Saddle joints, 254t, 259f, 260 Sagittal plane, 11–12 Sagittal sinuses groove for, 189f, 190 inferior, 445, 445f, 691, 692f superior, 445, 445f, 691, 692f Sagittal suture, 176, 179f, 185, 187f Sagittal synostosis, 183, 183f Saliva, 776, 777t, 778 Salivary glands extrinsic, 776–778, 777f, 778–779t intrinsic, 776 parotid, 774f, 776, 777f, 778t secretions of, 540, 776, 777t, 778 structure and function of, 776–778, 777t sublingual, 774f, 777f, 778, 778t submandibular, 397, 774f, 777f, 778, 778t I-28 Salpingitis, 870 Salpingopharyngeus muscle, 333t Saltatory conduction, 422 Salt tastes, 565 Saphenous nerve, 499f Saphenous veins, 406, 689f, 703, 705–706f Sarcolemma, 292, 292t, 293f, 663f Sarcomeres, 290f, 294–295, 296f, 297, 297t, 298f Sarcoplasm, 292, 292f, 293f Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 292, 292t, 293f, 663, 663f Sartorius muscle actions of, 374–375, 376t, 378–379f, 380, 382t location of, 322f, 374f surface anatomy of, 405, 406f SA (sinoatrial) node, 664, 664f Satellite cells, 289f, 292, 293f, 418t, 419f, 420 Scala tympani, 589, 590–591f, 592 Scala vestibuli, 589, 590–591f, 592 Scalene muscles in head and neck region, 334f, 335, 336f, 338t in respiration, 341, 342f, 343t, 761, 762f Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 24, 25, 25f Scaphocephaly, 183 Scaphoid bone, 230, 231f, 403 Scapulae classification of, 150 movements of, 353, 354, 354f structure and function of, 221, 222–224f, 223–225 surface anatomy of, 400, 401f winged, 355 Scapular muscles, 357–358 Scapular region, 14t Scar tissue, 122, 134, 423 Schizophrenia, 125 Schwann cells See Neurolemmocytes Sciatica, 207, 505 Sciatic nerve, 405, 405f, 501, 501–502f, 503t Sciatic notch, 232, 234–235f, 237f Scientific method, 3–4 Sclera blood supply to, 570 development of, 580, 580f location of, 569f, 571f, 573f structure and function of, 572, 574t Scleral buckle, 574 Scleral venous sinus, 576, 578f Scleroderma, 737 Sclerotherapy, 684 Sclerotome, 214, 215f, 216, 311 Scoliosis, 205, 205f, 315 Scrotum development of, 868, 869f as homologue, 837t location of, 855–856f structure of, 855–857, 856f Sebaceous glands aging and, 137 development of, 140, 141f as holocrine glands, 94 plugged, 134, 134f structure and function of, 119f, 132, 132f, 133, 133t Sebum, 133 Secondary follicles, 839, 841f, 842t, 843, 843–844f Secondary (lamellar) bone, 157, 158f Secondary mammary buds, 140, 141f Secondary neurons, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f Secondary oocytes, 59–60, 62f, 64f, 841f, 842, 842t, 843f Secondary ossification centers, 157, 159f Secondary plexus of hypothalamohypophyseal portal system, 608, 608f Secondary spermatocytes, 60, 858, 859f, 860t Secondary spinal curvatures, 204 Secondary tumors, 420 Second-class levers, 307, 308f Second-degree burns, 136, 136f Second impact syndrome (SIS), 447 Second meiotic division (meiosis II), 57f, 58–59 Secretin, 603f, 793, 803 Secretions See also Hormones adrenal glands, 603f, 619–621, 621t bicarbonate, 802 of digestive system, 775 encodrine glands, 91, 602–604, 603f epithelial tissues, 82 exocrine glands, 82, 94–95, 95f gastric, 788, 791 hypothalamus, 603f, 604, 606f, 606t, 607, 609f mammary glands, 133t, 134, 609f pancreatic, 603f, 604, 605f, 623t, 624 parathyroid glands, 163, 603f, 615t pineal gland, 603f, 624 pituitary gland, 603f, 608–610, 609f, 611, 614t of prostate gland, 862 salivary, 540, 776, 777t, 778 skin, 120 sweat glands, 133 thyroid gland, 163, 603f, 609f, 613–614, 615t tubular, 817, 818f Secretory phase of uterine cycle, 844f, 849, 849t Secretory vesicles, 38, 39f, 94, 95f Sections, anatomic, 11–12 Segmental arteries, 815, 816f Segmental bronchi, 753, 753f, 768f, 769 Seizures, 468, 528 Selective permeability, 30, 32, 82, 120 Self-renewal of stem cells, 92 Sella turcica, 181f, 184f, 190f, 191, 194f, 199–200f Semen, 862–863 Semicircular canals, 475t, 584f, 585, 587–588, 592t Semicircular ducts, 585, 586, 586f, 588f, 592t, 595f, 596 Semilunar valves, 657–659f, 658t, 659, 660, 661f Semimembranosus muscle, 323f, 374f, 376, 377t, 378f, 380, 381f, 406f Semimembranosus tendon, 406f Seminal fluid, 861, 862 Seminalplasmin, 862 Seminal vesicles, 855f, 861–862, 867f Seminiferous tubules, 857f, 858, 859f Semipermeable membranes, 30, 32 Semispinalis capitis muscle, 323f, 335, 336–337f, 339f Semispinalis cervicis muscle, 339f Semispinalis thoracis muscle, 339 Semitendinosus muscle, 323f, 375f, 376, 377t, 378f, 380, 381f, 406f Semitendinosus tendon, 406f SEM (scanning electron microscope), 24, 25, 25f Sensation, defined, 558 Senses, 557–599 general, 558, 559–560, 559t gustation, 563, 565–566, 597, 804 hearing (See Hearing) olfaction, 566–568, 567f, 598, 743, 804 sensory receptors (See Sensory receptors) special, 558, 559t, 560 vision (See Vision) Sensible perspiration, 120 Sensorineural deafness, 597 Sensory areas of cerebrum, 452, 452f, 454, 454f Sensory homunculus, 452, 454, 454f, 514 Sensory memory, 527, 527f Sensory nervous system, 412–413, 412t, 413f Sensory neurons of autonomic nervous system, 536f, 537 classification of, 515, 515t in reflex arc, 505, 506f of somatic nervous system, 536, 536f structure and function of, 416, 417f, 417t of synovial joints, 257 Sensory nuclei, 487, 488f, 489 Sensory pathways, 514–518 anterolateral, 515–516, 515f, 517f, 518t auditory, 593–594, 594f functional anatomy of, 515 neurons of, 515, 515t overview, 514, 532 posterior funiculus-medial lemniscal, 515, 515–516f, 516, 517t spinocerebellar, 515f, 516–517, 517f, 518t visual, 578, 579f Sensory receptors, 558–562 classification of, 559–561, 559t, 561–562f defined, 558 distribution of, 559–560, 559t hair cells of inner ear, 586, 586f modality of stimuli in, 559t, 560–562f origin of stimuli in, 559t, 560 phasic, 558–559, 559f properties of, 558–559, 597 receptive fields of, 558, 558f in reflex arc, 505 in skin, 119f, 120, 126, 126f tactile, 562–563, 563f, 564t, 597 tonic, 558, 559f as transducers, 558 transmission of nerve impulses from, 416 Septa aorticopulmonary, 673 cranial dura, 445–446, 445f, 607 of exocrine glands, 93, 93f interalveolar, 755–756f interatrial, 657f, 658, 671, 672f interventricular, 657f, 658, 673 nasal, 176, 178f, 199f, 744 primum and secundum, 671, 672f septum pellucidum, 446, 447f of testes, 857f, 858 urorectal, 829, 832f Septal cells, 754 Septal nasal cartilage, 744, 745f Septal nuclei, 467f, 468 Septicemia, 647 Serosa of GI tract, 783, 783f parietal, 14–15, 16f, 108 of stomach, 788, 789f structure of, 85 of uterine tubes, 847 visceral layer, 15, 16f, 108 Serous cavity, 15 Serous cells, 777f, 778 Serous fluid, 15, 108 Serous glands, 94 Serous membranes See Serosa Serous pericardium, 653, 653f Serratus anterior muscle actions of, 353, 357t location of, 322–323f, 344f, 352–353f, 355f paralysis of, 355 in scapular movement, 354f surface anatomy of, 399f, 402f Serratus posterior inferior muscle actions of, 341, 343t location of, 322–323f, 339f, 353f in respiration, 761, 762f Serratus posterior superior muscle, 339f, 341, 343t, 761, 762f Serum, 633 Sesamoid bones, 150, 240, 240f, 241, 244–245f Sex cells, 25, 26t Sex chromosomes, 56, 59, 866 Sex-determining region Y (SRY) gene, 866 Sex development disorders, 866 Sex hormones, 132, 163, 163t, 165, 837 Sex-influenced traits, 132 Sexual dimorphism of pelvis, 233, 236, 237t of skull, 201, 202t, 217 Sexual intercourse, 837 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 726, 864, 865 Shafts of femur, 236, 238f of fibula, 241, 242–243f of hair, 119f, 129, 130, 130f of humerus, 225, 226f of radius, 225, 228–229f of ribs, 213, 214f of tibia, 241, 242–243f of ulna, 225, 228–229f Sharpey’s fibers See Perforating fibers Shingles, 142, 490, 490f Shin splints, 388 Shipping region of Golgi apparatus, 38, 39f Short bones, 150, 150f Short-term memory (STM), 527, 527f Shoulder, surface anatomy of, 399f, 401f, 402, 409 Shoulder blades See Scapulae Shoulder dislocation, 269, 272, 272f Shoulder joint See Glenohumeral joint Shoulder separation, 272, 272f SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), 183, 768 Sigmoid arteries, 696f, 697 Sigmoid colon, 794, 794f Sigmoid flexures, 794 Sigmoid mesocolon, 794, 794f Sigmoidoscopy, 796 Sigmoid sinuses in cranial dura septa, 445f groove for, 187, 188f, 189f, 190 left and right, 691, 692f Signal transduction, 32 Simian crease, 125 Simple columnar epithelium characteristics of, 85–88, 85f, 87t examples of, 81t of GI tract, 782 of small intestine, 792f, 793 of stomach, 788, 788–789f of uterine tube, 846f Simple cuboidal epithelium, 85, 85f, 86t, 802, 820 Simple diffusion, 32, 36t Simple epithelium, 81t, 84–85f, 84–88 Simple fractures, 165, 166f Simple glands, 94, 94f Simple squamous epithelium, 84–85, 85f, 86t, 820 Single chromosomes, 48, 49f, 57f, 58, 58t Sinoatrial (SA) node, 664, 664f Sinuses anal, 794f, 795 cavernous, 691, 692f characteristics of, 167f confluence of, 445f coronary, 656–657f, 658, 661, 661f cortical, 731, 732f dural venous, 444, 444–445f, 445, 449f, 691, 692f ethmoidal (See Ethmoidal sinuses) frontal (See Frontal sinuses) lactiferous, 851, 854f marginal, 691, 692f maxillary (See Maxillary sinuses) medullary, 731, 732f occipital, 445, 445f, 691, 692f paranasal (See Paranasal sinuses) petrosal, 691, 692f renal, 814, 815f sagittal (See Sagittal sinuses) scleral venous, 576, 578f sigmoid (See Sigmoid sinuses) sphenoidal (See Sphenoidal sinuses) straight, 445f, 691, 692f transverse, 189f, 190, 445, 445f, 691, 692f urogenital, 829, 832f Sinusitis, 216 Sinusoids capillaries, 682, 683f hepatic, 697f, 699, 798, 799f splenic, 733, 734f Sinus venosus, 671, 672f, 672t SIS (second impact syndrome), 447 Sister chromatids in meiosis, 56–57f, 57, 58–59, 58t in mitosis, 47–49f Skeletal muscle pump, 684, 685f Skeletal muscles, 288–310 actions of, 307–308 attachments, 291, 291f, 321 blood vessels and nerves of, 291 in breathing, 761, 762f cells of, 25, 26t cerebellar coordination of, 465–466 characteristics of, 109, 110t, 312–313t, 316 circular, 305, 306t comparison with cardiac muscles, 662, 662t connective tissues in, 289, 289f, 290t, 291, 313t contraction of, 297–303, 316–317 convergent, 306, 306t development of, 292, 293f exercise and, 303, 303f, 307, 317 fiber types and organization, 303–306, 304f, 304t, 306t, 317 functions of, 109, 288 gross anatomy of, 288–291, 289f, 290t, 291f levers and joint biomechanics, 307, 308f, 317 location of, 81t microscopic anatomy of, 291–297, 292t, 293–294f, 296f, 297t naming of, 308–310, 309f, 317 overview, 288 parallel, 305, 307t pennate, 306, 306t striations in, 109, 110t, 288 Skeletal system, 146–170 aging of, 168–170, 213–214, 217, 245, 249 appendicular (See Appendicular skeleton) axial (See Axial skeleton) bones (See Bones) cartilage (See Cartilage) overview, 147, 169 structure and function of, 7f, 147 Skin See also Integumentary system blood supply to, 127, 137 color of, 120, 121, 123–124, 123f, 124t, 647 dermatomes, 311, 489–491 dermis (See Dermis) development of, 139, 140f disorders (See Skin disorders) epidermal cells of, 26t epidermis (See Epidermis) hypodermis, 102t, 119, 119f, 128, 128t, 142 immune response by, 120, 137 markings on, 125, 125f, 126–127, 127f secretions by, 120 sensory receptors in, 119f, 120, 126, 126f structure and function of, 109, 119–120, 119f, 142 subcutaneous layer of, 102t, 119, 119f, 128, 128t, 142 thick v thin, 123, 123f would healing of, 135, 135f Skin cancer, 138, 139t Skin disorders acne, 134, 134f burns, 120, 136–137, 136f cancer, 138, 139t psoriasis, 140, 140f Skin grafting, 137 Skin markings, 125, 125f, 126–127, 127f Skull, 175–203 aging of, 201, 203f, 217 anterior view of, 176, 178f bones associated with, 198–199, 201f cranial bones of, 175, 175f, 177t, 186–193, 186t, 187–194f disorders of, 183, 183f facial bones of, 175, 175f, 177t, 193–198, 195t inferior (basal) view of, 179, 182f, 183 internal view of cranial base, 183, 184f landmark features and views of, 176–183, 177t, 178–184f lateral view of, 177, 180f nasal complex, 198, 199f orbital complex, 198, 200f overview, 175, 216–217 posterior view of, 176–177, 179f sagittal sectional view of, 177, 179, 181f sexual dimorphism of, 201, 202t, 217 superior view of, 176, 179f sutures (See Sutures) Skullcap, 186 Sleep, 528–530, 529f Sleep apnea, 529–530 SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus), 101, 101f, 737 Sliding filament theory, 297, 298f Slipped elbow, 273 Slow oxidative (SO) fibers, 304–305, 304f, 304t Small-cell carcinoma, 767, 767f Small intestine anatomy vs physiology of, 4t development of, 804, 806f epithelium of, 26t, 85, 87t gross anatomy and regions, 791, 791–792f histology, 792f, 793 location of, 774f lymphatic capillaries of, 720, 784 overview, 791, 808 smooth muscle of, 111t structure and function of, 5f, three-dimensional images of, 12, 12f Small saphenous vein, 406, 703, 705f Smoking, 766–767, 766f, 768 I-29 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 27f, 28t, 37, 38f Smooth muscles of bronchial tree, 753 characteristics of, 310–311, 311f, 312–313t, 317 connective tissues in, 313t contraction of, 311 in digestive tract, 542 of esophagus, 785, 785f location of, 81t of muscularis mucosae, 782 of small intestine, 111t structure and function of, 109, 111t, 310–311, 311f Sneeze reflex, 747 SNS See Somatic nervous system Sodium ions, 427, 427f, 820 Sodium-potassium pumps, 33, 34f Soft palate, 776, 776f, 779t Soleus muscle, 323f, 382, 383f, 385–386f, 387t, 407f Solutes, 33 Solvents, 32–33 Somatic cells, 46, 56 Somatic motor neurons, 291, 487, 536, 536f Somatic motor nuclei, 488f, 489 Somatic nervous system (SNS) comparison with ANS, 536–537, 538t, 553 motor portion of, 412t, 413, 413f, 536, 536f neurons of, 291, 487, 536, 536f, 537, 538t sensory portion of, 536, 536f Somatic receptors, 559–560, 559t Somatic sensory nervous system, 412t, 413, 413f Somatic sensory nuclei, 487, 488f Somatocrinin, 606t Somatomedin, 163, 610 Somatosensory association area, 452f, 454 Somatosensory pathways, 514–518t Somatostatin, 603f, 606t, 623t, 624 Somatotopy, 514 Somatotropic cells, 609–610 Somatotropin, 163, 610 Somites, 71, 71–72f, 214, 215f, 311, 314 Sonography, 18, 18f SO (slow oxidative) fibers, 304–305, 304f, 304t Sound production, 742, 747, 749–751 Sounds, 592, 593f Sour tastes, 565 Spasms, muscle, 316 Spasticity, 300 Special senses, 558, 559t, 560 See also specific senses Speculum, 848 Speech disorders of, 478, 524–525 motor speech area, 452, 452f, 524, 525–526f sound production and, 742, 747, 750–751 Sperm anti-sperm antibodies, 62, 69 capacitation of, 60 development of, 858–860, 859f, 860t I-30 in fertilization, 60, 61t, 62–63, 62f, 64f flagella of, 29t, 43, 44f, 60, 62f functions of, 25, 26t polyspermy, 63 production of, 857 Spermatic cord, 856–857f, 857 Spermatids, 60, 857f, 858, 859f, 860t Spermatocytes, 60, 858, 859f, 860t Spermatogenesis, 60, 62f, 858–860, 859f, 860t Spermatogonia, 60, 857f, 858, 859f, 860t Spermatozoa See Sperm Sperm count, 858, 863 Spermicidal foams and gels, 852f, 853 Spermiogenesis, 60, 858, 859f SPF (sun protection factor), 124 S phase, 46–47, 47f Sphenoidal fontanelles, 201, 203f Sphenoidal sinuses body of, 191, 191f function of, 177 location of, 181f, 199–200f in respiratory system, 744, 745–746f Sphenoid bone classification of, 150 features of, 186t location of, 175f, 178f, 180–182f, 184f, 192f, 199f structure and function of, 175, 177, 190–192f, 191 Sphenomandibular ligament, 265, 265f Spheno-occipital synchondrosis, 255 Sphincter pupillae muscle, 540, 571f, 572, 572f Sphincters anal, 346, 347f, 348t, 794f, 795, 837, 838f esophageal, 785–786, 785f function of, 288 of GI tract, 783 precapillary, 682, 683f pyloric, 787, 788f structure of, 305, 306t urethral, 346, 347f, 348t, 825f, 826, 827, 827f Sphygmomanometer, 685–686 Spina bifida, 431, 431f Spinal cord, 482–510 autonomic centers in, 552, 552f cervical part of, 483, 484f, 485t coccygeal part of, 483 development of, 440–441f, 508, 509f, 510 disorders of, 509 gray matter of, 483, 486f, 487–489, 488f, 489n gross anatomy of, 483, 484f, 485t, 510 inflammation of, 509 lumbar part of, 483, 484f, 485t lumbar puncture, 401, 487, 487f meninges of, 485–487, 486f, 510 nerves of (See Spinal nerves) nuclei of, 487–489, 488f overview, 483 sacral part of, 483, 484f, 485t sectional anatomy of, 487–489, 488f, 510 structure and function of, 412, 412f, 412t thoracic part of, 483, 484f, 485t white matter of, 483, 486f, 488f, 489, 489n Spinal cord injuries diaphragmatic paralysis due to, 341, 341f paralysis from, 307 treatment of, 425 Spinal curvatures, 163, 204, 204–205f, 205 Spinal fusion, 216 Spinalis group muscles, 338, 339f, 340t Spinal nerve pathway, 545, 546f, 547t Spinal nerves, 489–505 dermatomes and, 489–491 development of, 508, 509f disorders involving, 490, 490f distribution of, 489–491 intercostal, 492, 492f location of, 486f nerve plexuses (See Nerve plexuses) overview, 483, 489, 510 roots and rootlets, 486f, 488f, 489, 490f structure and function of, 412, 412f, 412t trunks of, 493, 494f, 543–544f, 544, 546f Spinal reflexes, 507, 507f Spinal tap, 401, 487, 487f Spindle fibers, 48, 48–49f, 56–57f, 58 Spines of bone characteristics of, 167f iliac, 232, 232f, 234–235f, 399f, 400 ischial, 232, 232f, 234–236f nasal, 176, 178f, 195, 197f scapular, 221, 224f, 400, 401f Spinocerebellar pathway, 515f, 516–517, 517f, 518t Spinocerebellar tracts, 517, 517f, 518t Spinothalamic tracts, 516, 517f, 518t Spinous process, 205, 206f, 208–209t, 210f, 401f, 486f Spiny layer See Stratum spinosum Spiral arteries, 848 Spiral fractures, 166f Spiral organ, 584f, 589–591, 592t Splanchnic nerve pathway, 545, 546f, 547t Splanchnic nerves lumbar, 543, 544f pelvic, 539f, 541f, 542, 561, 784, 826 sacral, 543, 544f thoracic, 543, 544f, 548f Spleen development of, 737 enlargement of, 737 location of, 622f, 719f reticular fibers in stroma of, 101, 103t structure and function of, 733, 734f, 735, 735t Splenic artery, 695, 695–696f, 698f, 733, 734f Splenic cords, 733, 734f Splenic vein, 695f, 697–698f, 698, 733, 734f Splenius capitis muscle, 323f, 335, 336–337f, 338t, 339f Splenius cervicis muscle, 323f, 335, 337f, 338t, 339f Splenomegaly, 737 Spongy bones, 105, 153, 154–156f, 156 Spongy urethra, 828, 861, 861f, 864f Spontaneous abortion, 62 Spoon nails, 131, 131f Sprains, 281 Squamous alveolar cells, 754 Squamous cell carcinoma, 139t, 767, 767f Squamous cells, 84, 84f Squamous part of bone frontal, 185f, 186 occipital, 189f, 190 temporal, 187, 188f Squamous suture, 180–181f, 185, 187–188f SRY (sex-determining region Y) gene, 866 Stapedius muscle, 583, 584f Stapes, 198, 581f, 583, 584f, 591f, 595f Staphylococcus, 113 Static equilibrium, 586 Stem cells in appositional cartilage growth, 148, 149f defined, 92 embryonic vs adult, 92, 92f functions of, 26t harvesting, 92, 98 lymphoid, 646f, 647, 728, 728f myeloid, 646f, 647 regeneration capacity and, 82 types and characteristics of, 92, 92f from umbilical cord, 98 Stereocilia, 586, 586f, 588, 588–590f, 593 Stereoscopic vision, 578 Sternal angle, 212f, 213, 398, 399f Sternal bars, 214, 215f Sternal end of clavicle, 221, 223f Sternal foramen, 213, 213f Sternal region, 13f, 14t Sternoclavicular joint, 264, 268, 268–269t, 269f, 395f Sternoclavicular ligament, 268, 269f Sternocleidomastoid muscle actions of, 335, 338t in breathing, 761, 762f location of, 322–323f, 334f, 336–337f, 355f, 477t naming of, 309, 309f surface anatomy of, 397, 397f, 399f Sternocostal joint, 255, 256f, 266–267t Sternohyoid muscle actions of, 333, 335t location of, 322f, 334f, 336f in muscular triangle, 397 Sternothyroid muscle, 333, 334f, 335t, 336f, 397 Sternum, 150, 174f, 212–213, 212f, 398, 399f Steroids anabolic, 305, 305f characteristics of, 604 cholesterol, 30, 31f therapeutic, 429, 765 Stimuli defined, 558 modality of, 559t, 560–562f origin of, 559t, 560 reflexes and, 505 types of, 416 STIs (sexually transmitted infections), 726, 864, 865 STM (short-term memory), 527, 527f Stomach development of, 804, 805f gross anatomy of, 787, 788f histology of, 788, 789f location of, 774f overview, 787, 807 secretions of, 788, 791 ulcers in, 766, 790, 790f Stomodeum, 625, 626f Strabismic amblyopia, 330 Strabismus, 330, 472t Straight sinuses, 445f, 691, 692f Strains, muscle, 316 Strangulated intestinal hernia, 346 Stratified columnar epithelium, 85f, 90t, 91, 828 Stratified cuboidal epithelium, 85f, 90t, 91 Stratified epithelium, 81t, 84, 84–85f, 88–91, 119 Stratified squamous epithelium characteristics of, 85f, 88–91, 89t of esophagus, 785, 785f examples of, 81t of GI tract, 782 integumentary, 119 of oral cavity, 775 of pharynx, 746 of urethra, 828 Stratum basale (epidermis), 121, 121f, 123f, 128t Stratum basalis (endometrium), 64, 848 Stratum corneum, 121f, 122, 123f, 124, 128t, 140 Stratum functionalis, 64, 848 Stratum granulosum, 121f, 122, 123f, 124, 128t Stratum lucidum, 121f, 122, 123, 123f, 128t Stratum spinosum, 121–122, 121f, 123f, 128t Streptococcus, 113, 729 Streptococcus pneumoniae, 735 Stress fractures, 165, 166f Stress incontinence, 828 Stretch marks, 127 Stretch receptors, 559t, 560, 826 Stretch reflex, 507, 507f Striae of cardiac muscles, 310, 662, 663f of dermis, 127 of skeletal muscles, 109, 110t, 288 Stroke, 42, 520 Stroma of exocrine glands, 93, 93f reticular fibers of, 100, 103t Stupor, 530 Styloglossus muscles, 331, 332f, 332t Stylohyoid muscle, 332, 332f, 334f, 335t, 336f Styloid process, 180–182f, 187, 188f, 225, 228–229f, 403, 403f Stylomandibular ligament, 265, 265f Stylomastoid foramen, 177t, 182f, 186t, 187, 474t Stylopharyngeus muscle, 333f, 333t Subarachnoid space, 444, 444f, 447, 449f, 486f, 487 Subcapital fractures, 275 Subcardinal veins, 710, 712f Subclavian artery, 221, 687, 688f, 690f, 693f, 699, 700–701f Subclavian trunks, 721, 722f Subclavian vein, 221, 689–691f, 694f, 700–701f, 703, 759f Subclavius muscle, 352f, 353, 355f, 357t Subcostal nerve, 492, 499f Subcutaneous fat, 128 Subcutaneous layer of skin See Hypodermis Subdural hematomas, 446, 446f Subdural space, 444, 444f, 486f, 487 Sublingual ducts, 777f, 778 Sublingual salivary glands, 774f, 777f, 778, 778t Subluxation, 273, 281 Submandibular ducts, 777f, 778 Submandibular salivery glands, 397, 774f, 777f, 778, 778t Submandibular triangle of neck, 397, 397f Submental triangle of neck, 397, 397f Submucosa of esophagus, 785, 785f of GI tract, 782, 783f of stomach, 788, 789f of urinary bladder, 824, 825f Submucosal glands, 793, 793t Submucosal plexuses, 548, 782, 783f Subpubic angle, 232f, 233, 237f Subscapular artery, 700–701f Subscapular fossa, 223–224f, 224–225 Subscapularis muscle, 271, 352f, 355f, 358, 358f, 359t Subscapular nerve, 494f Substantia nigra, 461, 463f, 468 Sudden cardiac death, 660 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 183, 768 Sudoriferous glands See Sweat glands Sulci of bone, 167f in brain, 436–437f, 437, 451, 451–452f development of, 437, 440, 441f of heart, 654, 655–656f intertubercular, 225, 226f posterior median, 486f, 488f preauricular, 233, 237f in spinal cord, 483, 484f, 508, 509f Sunburns, 120 Sunless tanners, 124 Sun protection factor (SPF), 124 Sunscreens, 124, 138 Superciliary arches, 176, 178f, 185f, 186, 202t, 395f, 396 Superficial fascia, 289 See also Hypodermis Superficial fibular nerve, 501, 503–504t Superficial inguinal ring, 346, 400, 400f, 856f Superficial layer of forearm muscles, 368, 370 leg muscles, 382 urogenital triangle, 346 Superficial temporal artery, 396 Superficial transverse perineal muscle, 346, 347f, 348t, 837, 838f Superior attachment, 291, 321, 352 Superior border of heart, 652, 652f Superior border of scapula, 221, 224f Superior constrictor muscle, 333f, 333t Superior gemellus muscle, 375f, 376, 377t Superior gluteal nerve, 501–502f, 504t Superior lateral quadrant, 405, 405f Superior mesenteric artery, 548f, 618f, 784 Superior mesenteric plexuses, 547, 548f, 784 Superior nasal conchae location, 176f, 193f, 199f in respiratory system, 744, 745f structure and function of, 192 Superior oblique muscle, 326, 329f, 330t, 472t Superior orbital fissure, 176, 177t, 178f, 186t, 191f, 200f Superior palpebral fissure, 396 Superior pole of kidney, 814 Superior (position), 11, 13f Superior rectus muscle, 326, 329f, 330t, 472t Superior tarsal muscle, 544 Superior trunk of brachial plexus, 493, 494f, 498 Superior vena cava, 655–657f, 658, 687, 689f, 694, 694–695f, 708f Supernumerary kidneys, 831 Supination of forearm bones, 225, 229f of joints, 260t, 262, 263f, 273 Supinator muscle, 363, 363f, 364t, 369f, 371t Supporting cells See also Glial cells in gustation, 565, 565f in inner ear, 586, 586f in olfaction, 567, 567f Supporting connective tissues, 98f, 102–107t See also Bones; Cartilage Supracardinal veins, 710, 712f Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 460f, 460t Supraclavicular nerve, 492f, 493t Supraclavicular triangle of neck, 397, 397f Supracondylar line, 239f, 240 Supraglenoid tubercle, 224, 224f Suprahyoid muscles, 332, 334f, 335t Supraoptic nuclei, 460f, 460t, 610f, 611 Supraorbital foramen, 177–178t, 185f, 186, 186t Supraorbital margin, 178f, 185f, 186, 202t Supraorbital notch, 178f, 186 Suprapatellar bursae, 258f Suprarenal arteries, 617, 618f, 693f, 699 Suprarenal glands See Adrenal glands Suprarenal veins, 618f, 619, 694f, 699 Suprascapular artery, 700f Suprascapular foramen, 223 Suprascapular notch, 223, 224f Supraspinatus muscles, 269, 323f, 353f, 356f, 358, 358f, 359t Supraspinous fossa, 224f, 225 Supraspinous ligament, 266, 267f Suprasternal notch, 212, 212f, 395f, 397, 398, 399f Sural nerve, 502f Sural region, 13f, 14t Surface anatomy, 394–409 CPR and, 398, 398f defined, 5, 395 of head and neck region, 395–397, 395f, 397f, 408 of lower limb region, 405–409 lumbar puncture and, 401 regional approach to, 395, 408 of shoulder and upper limb, 399f, 401–404f, 409 techniques in examination of, 395 of trunk region, 398–401, 399f, 401f, 408 Surface antigens, 638, 639f Surface mucous cells, 788, 789f Surgical anatomy, Surgical methods of contraception, 852f, 853 Surgical neck, 225, 226–227f Surrogacy, 69 Suspensory ligament of eye, 571f, 572, 575, 577–578f, 580 of mammary glands, 851, 854f of ovaries, 838, 840–841f, 846f Sustentacular cells, 567, 567f, 857f, 858, 859f Sutural (Wormian) bone function of, 177, 185 location of, 175f, 179–180f Sutures characteristics of, 254t, 255, 255f, 266–267t coronal, 176, 179–181f, 185, 185f, 187f disorders of, 183, 183f lambdoid, 176, 179–182f, 185, 187f, 189f metopic, 186 occipitomastoid, 185 sagittal, 176, 179f, 185, 187f squamous, 180–181f, 185, 187–188f Swallowing process (deglutition), 786–787, 787f, 807 Sweat, 133, 137 Sweat glands anhydrosis and, 550 apocrine, 95, 95f, 132–133, 132f, 133t, 134 development of, 140, 141f ducts of, 119f, 132–133, 132f epithelium of, 90t, 91 merocrine, 94, 95f, 119f, 132–133, 132f, 133t secretions by, 133 I-31 Sweat pores, 132f, 133 Sweet tastes, 565 Swimmer’s ear, 585 Sympathetic division of ANS, 542–547 comparison with parasympathetic division, 539–540, 539f, 540t disorders of, 550 functions and effects of, 539, 545, 547t, 551t innervation by, 665–667, 666f, 762, 826, 864 neurotransmitters in, 548–549, 549f organization and anatomy of, 542–545 overview, 542, 554 pathways of, 545, 546f, 547t, 561 prevertebral ganglia of, 543f, 544–545, 546f splanchic nerves of, 543f, 544 systems controlled by, 550, 551t trunks and ganglia of, 543–544f, 544, 546f white and gray rami of, 544, 544f, 546f Symphyses characteristics of, 254t, 256, 256f intervertebral, 256, 256f pubic, 232–233f, 233, 236f, 245, 256, 256f, 274–275t Symphysial surface of pubis, 235f Synapses, 426–427f, 426–428, 432–433 Synapsis, in meiosis, 56f, 58 Synaptic cleft, 297, 299f, 426, 427f, 428 Synaptic communication, 420, 427–428 Synaptic delay, 428 Synaptic fatigue, 430 Synaptic knobs in chemical synapses, 428 in neuromuscular junction, 297, 299f structure and function of, 415, 415f, 416t, 426, 426f Synaptic vesicles, 297, 299f, 427f, 428 Synarthroses, 253, 254t Synchondroses, 254t, 255–256, 256f Syncope (fainting), 530 Syncytiotrophoblasts, 61t, 65, 65f Syndactyly, 248 Syndesmoses, 254t, 255, 255f Synergistic muscles, 308 Syngenetic grafts, 114 Synostoses, 183, 183f, 255 Synovial fluid, 109, 257, 257f, 281–282 Synovial joints, 256–265 anatomy of, 256–258 angular motion of, 260t, 261–263f ball-and-socket, 254t, 259f, 260 biaxial, 254t, 258, 259f characteristics of, 253, 254t classification of, 254t, 258–260, 259f condylar, 254t, 259f, 260 gliding motion of, 260t, 261, 265f hinge, 254t, 258, 259f, 265f movements at, 260–265, 260t, 261–264f multiaxial, 254t, 258, 259f overview, 256, 284 pivot, 254t, 258, 259f I-32 plane, 254t, 258, 259f rotation of, 260t, 262, 263f saddle, 254t, 259f, 260 special movements of, 262, 264–265, 264f uniaxial, 254t, 258, 259f Synovial membranes, 109, 257, 257f, 284 Synovitis, 284 Synthesis stage of interphase, 46–47, 47f Syphilis, 865 Systemic anatomy, Systemic capillaries, 708f Systemic circulation, 686–706 in abdominal and thoracic walls, 691, 693–695f arterial flow out of heart, 686–687, 688f in gastrointestinal tract, 695–699 in head and neck region, 687, 690–692f, 691 in lower limbs, 703, 704–706f path of, 651–652, 651f, 678, 714–715 in pelvis, perineum, and abdominal organs, 699, 699f in thoracic organs, 693–694f, 694–695 in upper limbs, 699, 700–701f, 703 venous return to heart, 687, 689f Systemic gas exchange, 760 Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 101, 101f, 737 Systole, 667, 668f, 670f Systolic blood pressure, 685–686, 686f T Tachycardia, 662 Tactile cells, 120, 121, 127, 562 Tactile discs, 562, 563f, 564t Tactile (Meissner) corpuscles, 563, 563f, 564t Tactile receptors, 562–563, 563f, 564t, 597 Tail of epididymis, 857f, 860 of pancreas, 802, 803f of sperm, 858, 859f Tailbone See Coccyx Talipes equinovarus, 246, 246f Talocrural joint, 264, 264f, 274–275t, 280, 280f Talonavicular joint, 280 Talus bone, 241, 244–245f Tanning, 124 Target cells, 602 Target organs, 602 Tarsal bones, 150, 222f, 241, 244–245f Tarsal glands, 568, 569f Tarsal plate, 568, 569f Tarsal region, 13f, 14t Tarsometatarsal joints, 274–275t, 281, 281f Tastants, 565 Taste See Gustation Taste buds, 560, 563, 565, 565f Taste hairs, 565, 565f Taste pores, 565, 565f Taste sensations, 565–566 Tattoos, 122 Tay-Sachs disease, 40 TBI (traumatic brain injury), 447, 529 TB (tuberculosis), 769 T-cells See T-lymphocytes TDF (testis-determining factor) region, 866 Tears, 570, 570f Tectal plate, 439f, 461, 462f Tectorial membrane, 590–591f, 591 Tectospinal tracts, 518f, 521, 521t Tectum, 461, 463f, 522f Teeth aging and, 804 braces for, 153, 254 deciduous, 778–779, 780f dental attrition, 201 in digestive system, 774f numbering system for, 779, 780f permanent, 779, 780f structure and function of, 778–779, 779t wisdom teeth, 779 Tegmentum, 461, 463f Telencephalon, 437, 440f, 450 Telogen phase of hair growth, 131 Telophase in meiosis I, 56f, 58 in meiosis II, 57f, 59 in mitosis, 47f, 48, 49f Temperature sensation, 514 Temporal artery, 687, 687f, 690–691f Temporal bone features of, 186t inner ear and, 583 location of, 174–175f, 178–182f, 584f structure and function of, 175, 177, 183, 187, 188f, 190 Temporalis muscle actions of, 330, 331t, 396 as lever, 307 location of, 322f, 325f, 331f Temporal lines, 180f, 185f, 187, 187f Temporal lobe, 436–439f, 451–452, 452f, 453t, 526 Temporal lobectomies, 526 Temporal process, 180f, 182f, 190, 194, 194f Temporal region of cranium, 395f, 396 Temporal veins, 687, 690f Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) characteristics of, 265–266, 265f, 266–267t disorders of, 267 function of, 177, 196 as lever, 307 location of, 198f movement of, 264, 264f Temporomandibular ligament, 265, 265f TEM (transmission electron microscope), 24, 25f Tendinous intersections, 343, 344f, 399f, 400 Tendonitis, 291 Tendons See also specific tendons dense connective tissues of, 101, 104t disorders involving, 365, 367 of forearm muscles, 365 inflammation of, 291 muscle attachments by, 291, 291f of synovial joints, 258, 258f, 269, 270f Tendon sheaths, 257, 258f, 365, 372f Teniae coli, 796 Tennis elbow, 248, 365, 365f Tension lines, 126, 127f Tension pneumothorax, 757 Tensor fasciae latae muscle, 322f, 374f, 375, 377t, 379f Tensor tympani muscle, 583, 584f Tensor veli palatini muscle, 333f, 333t Tentorial notch, 445, 445f Tentorium cerebelli, 445, 445f Teratogens, 74 Teratology, 74 Teres major muscle, 323f, 352–353f, 356f, 357–358, 359t, 401–402f, 402 Teres minor muscle, 269, 323f, 353f, 356f, 358, 358f, 359t Terminal arborizations, 415, 415f, 416t, 426f Terminal branches of brachial plexus, 493, 494f, 495–497t Terminal bronchioles, 754 Terminal cisternae, 292, 292t, 293f, 298 Terminal hair, 129 Tertiary neurons, 515, 515t, 516, 516–517f Testes blood-testis barrier, 62, 858 cryptorchidism and, 870 development of, 867f ducts within, 860, 861f endocrine functions of, 603f, 609f, 624t, 625, 629 as homologue structure, 837t location of, 855–856f overview, 855 in sperm development, 858–860, 859f, 860t structure of, 856–857f, 857, 857–858 Testicular artery, 856f, 857 Testicular nerve, 856f Testicular vein, 698f, 856f Testis-determining factor (TDF) region, 866 Testosterone, 163, 163t, 625 Tetanus, 300 Tetany, 164, 617 Tetrads, 56f, 58 Tetraiodothyronine, 612 Tetralogy of Fallot, 673 TEWL (transepidermal water loss), 120 TGB (thyroglobulin), 612 TH See Thyroid hormone Thalamic nuclei, 459, 459f, 467f, 468, 471t Thalamus in auditory pathway, 594, 594f location of, 439f, 441f, 458f, 462f structure and function of, 459–460, 459f, 459t Thalidomide, 248 Thecal cells, 839, 841f Thenar eminence, 403, 404f Thenar group muscles, 371, 373t Thermoreceptors, 559t, 560 Thermoregulation blood in, 633 hair in, 130 hypothalamic control of, 461 muscles in, 288 skin in, 120 sweat glands in, 133 Thick filaments, 292t, 293, 294f, 296f, 298, 298f, 300 Thick skin, 123, 123f Thigh injuries to, 380 muscles of, 374–375f, 374–380, 381f, 382t, 392 surface anatomy of, 405–406, 406f Thin filaments, 292t, 294–295, 294f, 296f, 298, 298f, 300 Thin skin, 123, 123f Third-class levers, 307, 308f Third-degree burns, 136, 136f Third ventricle, 446, 447f Thoracic aorta, 687, 688f, 693f, 695f Thoracic artery, 688f, 691, 693f, 700f Thoracic cage, 212–213, 217 See also Ribs; Sternum Thoracic cavity, 14–16f, 17t, 761, 763f Thoracic curvature, 204, 204f Thoracic duct, 719f, 721, 722f, 735, 736f, 759f, 784 Thoracic muscles, 352–356f, 357t Thoracic part of spinal cord, 483, 484f, 485t Thoracic region, 13f, 14t Thoracic splanchnic nerve, 543, 544f, 548f Thoracic vein, 693, 694f Thoracic vertebrae, 204, 204f, 208–209, 208t Thoracic wall, systemic circulation in, 691, 693–695f Thoracoacromial artery, 700f Thoracodorsal nerve, 494f Thorax, 340, 398, 399f Thoroughfare channel, 682, 683f Throat See Pharynx Thrombocytopenia, 645 Thrombopoiesis, 646f, 647 Thrombopoietin, 645, 646f Thrombus, 520, 685 Thumb See Pollex Thymic corpuscles, 730, 731f Thymine, 45, 46f, 47 Thymopoietin, 603f, 624 Thymosins, 603f, 624 Thymus development of, 737, 737f functions of, 603f, 624, 629, 735t hormones of, 730 location of, 719f in maturation of T-lymphocytes, 728, 728f, 729–730 structure of, 624, 729, 731f Thyrocervical trunk, 690f, 693, 693f, 700f Thyroglobulin (TGB), 612 Thyroglossal cysts, 626 Thyroglossal duct, 627, 627f Thyrohyoid muscle, 333, 334f, 335t, 336f Thyroid artery, 687, 690–691f Thyroid cancer, 615t Thyroid cartilage, 395f, 397, 399f, 690f, 748, 748–749f Thyroid diverticulum, 627, 627f Thyroid follicles, 611–612, 613f Thyroid gland, 611–615 See also Thyroid hormone (TH) development of, 627, 627f disorders of, 615, 615f, 626 in muscular triangle, 397 parafollicular cells of, 612, 613f, 614, 615t pituitary-thyroid gland negative feedback, 613, 614f secretions of, 163, 603f, 609f, 613–614, 615t structure and function of, 611, 613f, 628 synthesis of thyroid hormone, 611–612 Thyroid hormone (TH) bone growth and, 163, 163t disorders of, 615, 615f release of, 613 sources of, 603f, 615t synthesis of, 611–612 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 603f, 608, 609f, 612t, 613 Thyroid vein, 690f Thyrotoxicosis, 628 Thyrotropic cells, 608 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 606t, 613 Tibia classification of, 150 fracture of, 166f, 241 location of, 222f shin splints and, 388 structure and function of, 240–243f Tibial arteries, 406, 407–408f, 687–688f, 703, 704f Tibial collateral ligament, 275, 277, 277–279f Tibialis anterior muscle actions of, 382, 387t location of, 322f, 383–385f naming of, 309, 309f surface anatomy of, 407f Tibialis anterior tendon, 406, 407f Tibialis posterior muscle, 382, 383f, 386f, 387t Tibial nerve, 501, 502f, 503t Tibial region, 14t Tibial tuberosity, 240, 242f, 406, 406–407f Tibial veins, 689f, 703, 705f Tibiofemoral joint, 274–275t, 275 Tibiofibular joint, 240, 242–243f, 274–275t Tibiofibular ligaments, 280, 280f Tics, 316 Tight junctions, 82, 83f, 450, 450f, 859f Tinnitus, 597 Tissue level of organization, 5f, Tissues, 80–116 See also specific types of tissues aging and changes in, 112, 116 body membranes, 108–109 connective (See Connective tissues) defined, 6, 81 disorders of, 113, 113f epithelial (See Epithelial tissues) lymphatic, 719f, 729, 730f, 735t, 737, 784 muscle (See Muscles) nervous (See Nervous tissues) organization in human body, 5f, overview, 81, 81t repair and regeneration of, 81–82, 135, 135f, 137, 143 transplantation of, 114 T-lymphoblasts, 646f, 647 T-lymphocytes cytotoxic, 723, 724, 724f, 728t development and maturation of, 728, 728f, 729–730 function of, 642, 719 helper, 723–725f, 726, 727f, 728t in HIV/AIDS, 726, 727f in lymphatic nodules, 732f memory, 725, 728t regulatory, 724–725, 728t of spleen, 733 TMJ See Temporomandibular joint Tobacco use, 766–767, 766f, 768 Toenails See Nails Toes bones of, 241, 244f muscles that move, 330–331, 332f, 332t Tongue in digestive system, 774f papillae of, 563, 565, 565f, 776 structure and function of, 776, 776f, 779t taste buds on, 560, 563, 565, 565f Tonic receptors, 558, 559f Tonsillectomy, 729 Tonsillitis, 729, 729f Tonsils infections of, 729, 729f lingual, 729, 730f, 745f, 746, 776, 776f location of, 719f palatine, 729, 730f, 737, 745f, 746, 776, 776f pharyngeal, 729, 730f, 745f, 746 structure and function of, 729, 735t, 779t Totipotent stem cells, 92, 92f Trabeculae arachnoid, 444, 444f carneae, 657f, 658, 659–660 of exocrine glands, 93 of lymph nodes, 730–731, 732f septomarginal, 657f, 658 of spleen, 733, 734f of spongy bone, 153, 155–156f, 156 of thymus, 729, 731f Trabecular bones See Spongy bones Trabecular vessels, 733 Trachea, 397, 747t, 751–752, 751f Tracheal cartilages, 751, 751f Trachealis muscle, 751, 751f Tracheobronchial lymph nodes, 759, 759f Tracheostomy, 752 Tracheotomy, 752, 752f Trachoma, 570 Tracts association, 455, 456f, 456t commissural, 455–457, 456f, 456t corticobulbar, 519, 521t corticospinal, 518–519f, 519–520, 521t defined, 514 iliotibial, 323f, 374–375f, 375, 378–379f, 381f, 405, 406–407f olfactory, 438f, 467f, 468, 469f, 471t, 567f, 568 optic, 438f, 462f, 469f, 471t, 578, 579f paired, 514 projection, 456f, 456t, 457 pyramidal, 463f reticulospinal, 518f, 520, 521f, 521t rubrospinal, 518f, 520, 520f, 521t spinocerebellar, 517, 517f, 518t spinothalamic, 516, 517f, 518t tectospinal, 518f, 521, 521t vestibulospinal, 518f, 521, 521t of white matter, 450–451, 489 Transducers, 558 Transepidermal water loss (TEWL), 120 Transferrin, 637, 637f Transitional cells, 84 Transitional epithelium, 81t, 85f, 91, 91t, 828 Transmembrane proteins, 31 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 24, 25f Transplants kidneys, 823, 823f tissue, 114 Transport function of blood, 633 Transport proteins, 32, 33, 34f Transport vesicles, 33, 35f, 37, 38, 39f Transudate (serous fluid), 15, 108 Transurethral resection of prostate (TURP), 863 Transverse arch of foot, 241, 245f Transverse cervical ligaments, 846f, 847 Transverse cervical nerve, 492f, 493t Transverse colon, 782, 782f, 794, 794f Transverse element of vertebrae, 215f, 216 Transverse folding, 70, 71f Transverse foramen, 207, 208t, 210f Transverse fractures, 166f Transverse ligament, 210f Transverse mesocolon, 781–782, 782f, 794, 794f Transverse plane, 11, 11f Transverse process, 205, 206f, 208–209t, 210f Transverse ridges, 209, 211f Transverse sinuses, 189f, 190, 445, 445f, 691, 692f Transverse tubules (T-tubules), 292, 292f, 293f, 298, 663, 663f Transversospinalis muscles, 338, 339f, 340t Transversus abdominis muscle, 322f, 343, 344f, 345t, 762f Transversus thoracis muscle, 341, 342f, 343t, 761, 762f Trapezium bone, 230, 231f Trapezius muscle actions of, 354, 357t location of, 322–323f, 336f, 352–353f, 356f, 477t in scapular movement, 354f surface anatomy of, 399f in triangle of auscultation, 400, 401f Trapezoid bone, 230, 231f Traumatic brain injury (TBI), 447, 529 Tremor, 478 Treponema pallidum, 865 TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone), 606t, 613 Triad, 292, 293f Triangle of auscultation, 400, 401f I-33 Triceps brachii muscle actions of, 307, 308, 359t, 362–363, 364t development of, 316 location of, 322–323f, 360–362f surface anatomy of, 401–403f, 402 Triceps reflex, 508t Triceps surae muscle, 382, 387t Trigeminal nerve function of, 470t, 473t location of, 469f mastication muscles and, 330, 331t in pons, 463f, 464 Trigeminal neuralgia, 473t Trigone, 824, 825f Triiodothyronine, 612 Triquetrum bone, 230, 231f Trisomy 21, 59, 59f, 74, 125 Trochanters of bone characteristics of, 167f greater, 233f, 237, 238–239f, 276f, 405 lesser, 233f, 237, 238–239f, 276f Trochlea of bone characteristics of, 167f humerus, 225, 226–227f in orbit of eye, 326, 329f Trochlear nerve eye muscles and, 329, 330t functions of, 470t, 472t location of, 469f in midbrain, 461 Trochlear notch, 225, 228f Trophoblasts, 61t, 63–65f, 64, 65 Tropic hormones, 608 Tropomyosin, 292t, 294, 294f, 298, 300 Troponin, 292t, 294, 294f, 298, 300 True capillaries, 682, 683f True gonadal intersex, 866 True pelvis, 233, 236f True ribs, 212f, 213 Truncus arteriosus, 671, 672f, 672t, 709, 710f Trunk region, surface anatomy of, 398–401, 399f, 401f, 408 Trunks of spinal nerves, 493, 494f, 543–544f, 544, 546f TSH See Thyroid-stimulating hormone Tubal ligation, 852f, 853 Tubercles of bone adductor, 238–239f, 240 articular, 188f, 190 of atlas, 207, 210f characteristics of, 167f conoid, 221, 223f humerus, 225, 226–227f infraglenoid, 224, 224f pubic, 232–235f, 233, 400, 400f ribs, 213, 214f supraglenoid, 224, 224f Tuberculosis (TB), 769 Tuberculum sellae, 190f, 191 Tuberosities of bone characteristics of, 167f costal, 221, 223f deltoid, 225, 226–227f gluteal, 239f, 240 ischial, 233, 233–235f, 376, 405 radial, 225, 228f tibial, 240, 242f, 406, 406–407f ulnar, 225, 228f Tubotympanic recess, 594, 595f Tubular fluid, 817, 820, 822 I-34 Tubular glands, 94, 94f, 133 Tubular pole of kidney, 819f, 820 Tubular reabsorption, 817, 818f Tubular secretion, 817, 818f Tubuloacinar glands, 94, 94f Tubuloalveolar glands, 862, 862f Tumors benign, 50, 51, 621t of central nervous system, 420, 420f dedifferentiation in, 50 gliomas, 420, 420f malignant, 50, 51 primary and secondary, 420 Tunica albuginea, 839, 840–841f, 857f, 858, 863, 864f Tunica externa, 678, 679–682f Tunica intima, 678, 679–682f, 684 Tunica media, 678, 679–682f Tunics of blood vessels, 678, 679–682f, 684 of eye, 570–572, 571f, 574t of GI tract, 782–783, 783f of testes, 857f, 858 of ureters, 822 of urinary bladder wall, 824, 825f of uterine wall, 848 of vaginal wall, 850 TURP (transurethral resection of prostate), 863 T wave, 665, 665f Twins, 67 Tympanic cavity, 475t, 581f, 582, 584f, 595f, 596 Tympanic membrane, 475t, 581, 581f, 582–583, 584f, 591f, 592 Tympanic part of temporal bone, 188f, 190 U Ulcerative colitis, 802 Ulcers, 766, 790, 790f Ulna, 222f, 225, 227–229f, 230 Ulnar artery, 403, 404f, 688f, 699, 700–701f Ulnar collateral ligament, 271f, 272 Ulnar deviation, 262 Ulnar nerve, 402, 493, 494f, 497, 497t, 498 Ulnar notch, 225, 228f Ulnar region, 14t Ulnar tuberosity, 225, 228f Ulnar veins, 689f, 700f, 703 Ultrasounds, 18, 18f Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 120, 121, 124, 137–138 Umami, 566 Umbilical arteries, 713, 713f Umbilical cord, 66, 66f, 67t, 97t, 98 Umbilical ligaments, 713, 713f, 824, 825f, 829 Umbilical region, 14t, 16, 17f Umbilical venous system (prenatal), 709–711, 711f Umbilicus (navel), 399f, 400 Unconsciousness, 530 Unencapsulated tactile receptors, 562, 563f, 564t Unhappy triad of injuries, 277, 277f Uniaxial joints, 254t, 258, 259f Unicellular exocrine glands, 93, 93f Unilateral contraction, 335 Unipennate muscles, 306, 306t Unipolar neurons, 416, 416f, 417t Unipotent stem cells, 92, 92f Unmyelinated axons, 422, 423f Upper limbs bones of, 222f, 225–230, 231f, 249 development of, 247, 247f elbow joint/forearm movement, 360–363, 364t, 391 glenohumeral joint/arm movement, 357–358, 358f, 359–360t, 391 hand/finger movement, 364–371, 372f, 373t, 392 joints of, 268–269t, 268–273 surface anatomy of, 399f, 401f, 402–404f, 409 systemic circulation in, 699, 700–701f, 703 wrist movement, 364–371t, 392 Upper respiratory tract, 742f, 744–746, 746t, 770 Urachus, 829, 832f Ureteral openings, 824, 825f, 827f Ureteric bud, 829, 829t, 830f, 832f Ureteroscopy, 826 Ureters bifid (duplicated), 831, 831f blood flow to, 824 development of, 829, 829t, 830f female, 839–840f, 846f innervation of, 824 intravenous pyelogram of, 817, 817f male, 855–856f, 861f structure and function of, 812, 812–813f, 813t, 822–823, 824f Urethra development of, 829 epithelium of, 90t, 91 external orifice of, 827f, 828, 839f, 863, 864f female, 827, 827f, 839f male, 827–828, 827f, 855f, 861, 861f membranous, 828, 861, 861f, 864f mucosa of, 826 prostatic, 828, 861, 861f spongy, 828, 861, 861f, 864f structure and function of, 812, 812–813f, 813t, 826–827, 827f Urethral opening, 851, 851f Urethral sphincters, 346, 347f, 348t, 825f, 826, 827, 827f Urethritis, 828 Urge incontinence, 828 Urinalysis, 828 Urinary bladder aging and, 828 autonomic reflexes of, 550, 551f blood flow to, 826 development of, 829, 832f epithelium of, 91, 91t female, 839–840f intravenous pyelogram of, 817, 817f male, 855–856f, 861f referred pain from, 561, 562f structure and function of, 812, 812–813f, 813t, 824–826, 825f Urinary system, 811–833 aging and, 828, 833 development of, 829, 829t, 830f, 832f, 833 effects of ANS on, 551t kidneys (See Kidneys) overview, 812 structure and function of, 10f, 812, 812–813f, 813t, 832 urinary tract, 812, 813f, 822–828, 827f, 833 Urinary tract, 822–828 bladder (See Urinary bladder) components of, 812, 813f, 833 infections of, 828 ureters (See Ureters) urethra (See Urethra) Urination, 812, 826, 828, 863 Urine, 812, 817–820, 821f, 826, 828 Urogenital diaphragm, 346, 347f, 827f, 847, 855f, 861f Urogenital folds, 868, 869f Urogenital membrane, 829, 832f Urogenital ridge, 625, 829 Urogenital sinuses, 829, 832f Urogenital triangle, 346, 347f, 348t, 837, 838f Urolithiasis, 826 Uterine artery, 699, 699f, 840f, 848 Uterine cycle, 844f, 848–849, 849t Uterine glands, 846f, 848 Uterine tubes ampullae of, 60, 64f development of, 867f epithelium of, 87t, 88 location of, 839–840f structure of, 845, 846f Uterine vein, 840f Uterosacral ligaments, 846f, 847 Uterus blood flow to, 848 endometriosis and, 69, 849 location of, 839–840f lumen of, 64, 65f menstrual cycle and menstruation, 844f, 845, 848–849, 849t, 870 postnatal contraction of, 855 prolapse of, 848 structure and function of, 846f, 847 support of, 847–848 wall of, 846f, 848 Utricle, 584f, 585, 586, 586f, 592t, 595f, 596 Uvea See Vascular tunic of eye UV radiation See Ultraviolet radiation Uvula, 776, 776f, 779t V Vaccinations, 726, 735, 848 Vacuoles, 33, 35f Vagal trunk nerve, 476t Vagina blood flow to, 849–850 development of, 867f epithelium of, 89t, 91 location of, 839–840f structure and function of, 849, 850f Vaginal artery, 699, 699f Vaginal condoms, 853 Vaginal orifice, 839f, 850, 851f, 869f Vagotomy, 553 Vagus nerve function of, 470t, 476t GI tract and, 784 in heart innervation, 666f, 667 location of, 469f, 539f, 548f in medulla oblongata, 464, 464f in parasympathetic division of ANS, 541f, 542, 542t pharynx muscles and, 331, 333t, 781 in respiratory system innervation, 762, 764f Vallate papillae, 563, 565f Valsalva maneuver, 747 Valves of heart, 654, 657–659f, 658–660, 658t, 661f of lymphatic vessels, 720, 721f of veins, 684, 685f Valvular insufficiency, 659 Valvular stenosis, 659 Varicella zoster, 490 Varicose veins, 684, 684f Vasa recta, 816, 816f, 820 Vasa vasorum arteries, 678, 679f Vascular plexuses brachial, 701f choroid, 446–449f, 450 pampinform, 856f, 857 primary, 607, 608f secondary, 608, 608f Vascular pole of kidney, 819f, 820 Vascular tunic of eye, 571f, 572, 574t Vasculitis, 714 Vasculogenesis, 708–713, 715 Vasectomy, 62, 852f, 853 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), 603f Vasoconstriction, 127, 678, 680, 686 Vasodilation, 127, 642, 678, 686 Vasomotion, 682 Vasomotor centers, 464f, 465 Vasopressin See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Vastus intermedius muscle, 322f, 378–379f, 380, 382t Vastus lateralis muscle, 322f, 374f, 378–379f, 380, 382t, 406–407f Vastus medialis muscle, 248, 322f, 378–379f, 380, 382t, 406–407f Veins See also specific veins abdomen, return of blood to, 697 comparison with arteries, 680f, 680t, 681f, 684 development of, 709–710, 711f disorders of, 684, 684f, 685, 806 epiphyseal, 162 functions of, 651 in head and neck region, 687, 690–692f, 691 heart, return of blood to, 687, 689f in hepatic portal system, 697–698f, 697–699 in lower limbs, 703, 705–706f metaphyseal, 162 nutrient, 162 overview, 684 in pelvis, perineum, and abdominal organs, 699, 699f periosteal, 162 structure of, 684, 685f in thoracic and abdominal walls, 693–694, 694f in upper limbs, 700–701f, 703 venules, 682, 683f, 684, 707–708f Vellus hair, 129, 140 Vena cava See Inferior vena cava; Superior vena cava Venipuncture, 402, 703 Venous spaces of penis, 863, 864f Ventral cavity, 14–16, 15f Ventral group nuclei, 459f Ventral muscle mass, 314, 314f, 316 Ventral respiratory group (VRG), 764–765, 764f Ventricles of brain fourth, 439f, 446, 447f lateral, 443f, 446, 447f third, 446, 447f Ventricles of heart in diastole, 667, 669–670f left, 654, 655–657f, 659–660, 660f primitive, 671, 672f, 672t right, 654, 655–657f, 658–659, 660f role in blood pressure, 685–686 in systole, 667, 668f, 670f Ventricular fibrillation, 666 Ventricular septal defects, 673 Ventromedial nucleus, 460f, 460t Venules, 682, 683f, 684, 707–708f Vermiform appendix, 793, 794f Vermis, 465, 465f Vernix caseosa, 139, 140f Vertebrae, 205–212 atlas, 207, 210f axis, 207, 210f cervical, 204, 204f, 206–208, 208t, 210f classification of, 150 coccygeal, 204, 204f, 211f, 212 costal element of, 215f, 216 location of, 174f lumbar, 204, 204f, 209, 209t sacral, 204, 204f, 209, 211f, 212 structural features of, 205–206, 206f, 208–209t thoracic, 204, 204f, 208–209, 208t transverse element of, 215f, 216 in vertebral column, 204 Vertebral arch, 205, 206f, 215f Vertebral arteries, 690f, 691, 692f, 700f Vertebral canal, 14, 15f, 17t, 205 Vertebral column See also Vertebrae divisions of, 204, 204f functions of, 204 herniated discs, 207, 207f muscles of, 338–341t, 349 overview, 204, 217 spinal curvatures, 163, 204, 204–205f, 205 surface anatomy of, 400, 401f Vertebral foramen, 205, 206f, 215f Vertebral region, 13f, 14t Vertebral veins, 690f, 691 Vertebra prominnens, 207–208, 401f Vertebrocostal joint, 266–267t Vertical plate, 194 Vertical ridging of nails, 131 Vertigo, 597 Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), 702 Vesalius, Andreas, Vesical artery, 699f Vesicles brain, 437, 442t lens, 579–580, 580f optic, 440f, 579, 580f otic, 595f, 596 secretory, 38, 39f, 94, 95f seminal, 855f, 861–862, 867f structure and function of, 27f synaptic, 297, 299f, 427f, 428 transport, 33, 35f, 37, 38, 39f Vesicouterine pouch, 838, 839f Vestibular apparatus, 586, 588 Vestibular folds, 748, 749f Vestibular glands, 837t Vestibular ligaments, 748, 749f Vestibular membrane, 589, 590–591f Vestibular pathway, 588–589 Vestibule of inner ear, 581f, 584f, 585, 586f, 592t of nasal cavity, 744, 745f of oral cavity, 775, 776f, 779t of vagina, 851, 851f Vestibulocochlear nerve function of, 470t, 475t location of, 469f, 581f in medulla oblongata, 464, 464f in pons, 464 in vestibular pathway, 588 Vestibulospinal tracts, 518f, 521, 521t Vibrissae, 744 Villi arachnoid, 444f, 448, 449f, 450 chorionic, 66, 66f of small intestine, 792f, 793, 793t VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide), 603f Virilization, 620 Viscera, 15 Visceral (autonomic) reflexes, 550, 551f Visceral layer of glomerular capsule, 819f, 820 of serous membranes, 15, 16f, 108 of serous pericardium, 653, 653–654f, 654 of tunica vaginalis, 857f, 858 Visceral muscle tissues See Smooth muscles Visceral pericardium, 15, 16f Visceral peritoneum, 16, 16f, 781, 781f Visceral pleura, 15, 16f, 756, 757f Visceral receptors, 559, 559t, 560 Visceral sensory nervous system, 412t, 413, 413f Visceral sensory nuclei, 487, 488f, 489 Visceroceptors, 560 Viscerosensory pathways, 514 Visible Human Project, Vision, 568–581 See also Eyes binocular, 579f functional impairment of, 582–583 laser correction of, 583, 583f loss of visual acuity, 576, 576f monocular, 579f overview, 568, 598 stereoscopic, 578 visual pathways, 578–579, 579f Visual association area, 452f, 454 Visual inspection of surface anatomy, 395 Vitamin A, 163t, 165 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 163t, 165 Vitamin D, 163t, 164, 165 Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), 120, 137 Vitamins and bone growth, 163t, 165 Vitelline duct, 804, 805–806f Vitelline venous system (prenatal), 709–710, 711f Vitreous body, 580, 580f Vitreous humor, 570, 571f, 574, 578, 578f VLDLs (very-low-density lipoproteins), 702 Vocal folds, 748, 749, 749f Vocal ligaments, 748, 749f Voice box See Larynx Volkmann (perforating) canals, 154, 155f Voluntary functions of nervous system, 413 Voluntary muscles, 109, 291 Voluntary phase of swallowing, 786, 787f Volvulus, 806 Vomer features of, 195t location of, 175–176f, 178f, 181–182f, 192f, 199f structure and function of, 175, 194, 195f von Hagens, Gunther, VRG (ventral respiratory group), 764–765, 764f Vulva, 850–851, 851f W Wallerian degeneration, 423 Wandering cells, 98–99, 99t Warts, 142 Waste products in plasma, 632f, 634t Water hypothalamic control of intake of, 461 in plasma, 632f, 633, 634t skin as barrier to, 120, 122 Weight of fetus, 74, 75t Wernicke area, 452f, 455, 524, 525–526f Wet gangrene, 113 Wharton’s jelly, 96, 97t Whiplash, 207 White blood cells See Leukocytes White commissure, 488f, 489, 516 White fibers See Collagen fibers Whiteheads, 134, 134f White matter in cerebellum, 465, 465f in cerebrum, 450, 455–457, 456f, 456t functions of, 440 location of, 443f of spinal cord, 483, 486f, 488f, 489, 489n tracts of, 450–451, 489 White pulp, 733, 734f Whole blood, 632, 632f Winged scapula, 355 Wisdom teeth, 779 Withdrawal method of contraception, 852 Withdrawal reflex, 507 Wolffian ducts See Mesonephric ducts Wound healing, 135, 135f Woven bone, 157, 158f Wrist drop, 498 Wrists bones of, 230, 231f carpal tunnel syndrome in, 367, 367f, 498 muscles in movement of, 364–371t, 392 radiocarpal joint of, 261–262f, 268–269t, 273, 273f Wryneck, 336, 336f I-35 X Z Xenografts, 114 Xiphoid process, 212f, 213, 398, 399f X-rays, 18, 18f Z discs (lines), 294, 295, 296f, 297, 297t, 298f, 663, 663f Zona fasciculata, 619–620, 619f Zona glomerulosa, 619, 619f Zona pellucida, 60, 62, 62–63f, 63, 64, 839, 841f, 842 Zona reticularis, 619, 619f, 620 Zone of calcified cartilage, 161, 161f Zone of hypertrophic cartilage, 161, 161f Zone of ossification, 161, 161f Y Y chromosome, 866 Yellow bone marrow, 150 Yellow fibers See Elastic fibers Yellow nail syndrome, 131, 131f Yolk sac, 65, 65–66f, 68f, 70, 70–71f I-36 Zone of proliferating cartilage, 160, 161f Zone of resting cartilage, 160, 161f Zonula adherens, 82 Zonula occludens, 82 Zygomatic arch, 177, 180f, 182f, 190, 194, 395f, 396 Zygomatic bone features of, 195t location of, 174–176f, 178–180f, 200f structure and function of, 175, 177, 190, 194, 194f surface anatomy of, 396 Zygomatic process, 180f, 182f, 185f, 187, 188f, 196, 197f, 200f Zygomaticus major muscle actions of, 327t, 328f location of, 322f, 324–325f structure and function of, 326 Zygomaticus minor muscle, 324–325f, 326, 327t Zygotes, 60, 61t, 63, 63–64f Zymogenic cells, 788 ... Brodmann areas 40 44 10 45 22 11 39 41 42 19 37 38 18 17 21 20 Area(s) Function Area(s) Function 1, 2, Primary body sensation (somatosensory) in parietal lobe 20 , 21 Visual association area in... colliculi, inferior colliculi Metencephalon Fourth ventricle (superior part) Pons, cerebellum Fourth ventricle (inferior part) ; part of central canal Medulla oblongata Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)... there, a condition called a subdural hematoma (see Clinical View 15 .2: “Epidural and Subdural H ematomas” in section 15.2c) 15.2a Cranial Meninges Dura Mater The cranial meninges (mĕ-nin′jēz,