(BQ) Part 2 book The masters athlete has contents: Understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport, masters sport as a strategy for managing the aging process, injury epidemiology, health, and performance in masters athletes,.... and other contents.
CHAPTER SEVEN UNDERSTANDING MASTERS ATHLETES’ MOTIVATION FOR SPORT NIKOLA MEDIC The objective of this chapter is to discuss motivational processes underlying lifelong involvement in sports Information pertaining to the topic will be mainly derived from survey data on over 600 Masters Athletes and on archived records from over 40,000 Masters Athletes of different sports; however, additional insights will be provided from other existing motivational research on Masters Athletes The motivational themes will be discussed with respect to the following: n n n The importance of understanding motivational processes underlying lifelong involvement in sport; The question of whether relative age effects exist in Masters sports; The question of what motivates Masters Athletes THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATIONAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING LIFELONG INVOLVEMENT IN SPORT Over the last three decades, an impressive body of literature has focused on the concept of motivation in sport settings Various research strategies have been utilized successfully in pursuit of clarifying the complexity of this concept, and over 30 different theories have been proposed to explain and predict what motivates athletes to behave the way they (Paskevich et al., 2006; Roberts, 2001) This research has been valuable because it provided the basis for understanding the choice, effort, and persistence tendencies, and their relationship to human behaviour This research has also facilitated the development of strategies for maximizing positive outcomes in sport and physical activity settings in general Sport motivational literature available to date offers many insights regarding the development of motivational factors until the time athletes reach 105 understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport peak performance in their sports However, our knowledge is much more limited, but emerging, with regards to the motivational processes of Masters Athletes; that is, individuals who either continue to compete beyond their peak performance, or, at some later time in their life, start or resume training on a daily basis and compete at events available to middle- to older-aged adults (e.g., Master’s tournaments, Senior Olympics) Numerous studies throughout the developed world have shown that, in our aging society, physical activity and sport participation decrease as individuals progress through middle-age and beyond (Dishman, 1994; Grant, 2001) In concert with this, there is convincing evidence that the numerous physiological (Bouchard et al., 2007) and psychological (Biddle et al., 2000) benefits of physical activity and sport involvement outweigh the risks associated with physical activity and sport involvement in older people Considering that physical inactivity has been highlighted as one of the most important areas for disease-risk-factor reduction in middle- to older-aged adults, efforts have been directed at understanding how to increase and maintain physical activity and sport participation in this population One approach toward this aim involves trying to understand the motivational processes of a proportionally small, but very unique, sample of the population: Masters Athletes who continue to train for and compete at various sporting disciplines available to older adults Masters Athletes thus provide us with an exceptional cohort to study motivation for physical activity and sport because they devote a large amount of time to sport and have a lifetime of valuable experience As such, Masters Athletes are of particular interest because they may have developed and adopted motivational strategies that allow them to maintain sport involvement across the lifespan in spite of age-related performance declines Moreover, a benefit of utilizing Masters Athletes in research on sport motivation is that they represent the most physically fit and healthy individuals of their cohort, thereby limiting the influence of chronic disease or other physical disability as a barrier to participation Finally, understanding motivational processes of Masters Athletes is important because extensive evidence suggests that, in order to maintain highly skilled levels of athletic performance, individuals need to engage in adequate amounts of high-quality sport-specific training (e.g., Weir et al (2002) showed that national-level Masters Athletes trained 6.5 hours per week on average) and must be motivated to overcome setbacks in training and competition over time Thus, in an attempt to broaden the vision of what constitutes high-performance sport, Masters Athletes should be acknowledged as being representative of the physical elite of an aging population, and select Masters should be recognized as experts who have a lifetime of valuable experience Spirduso et al (2005) stated that Masters Athletes: 106 nikola medic are an important group to study and to emulate because they reveal the limits of human physical potential They are an inspiration because they epitomize optimal physical aging and because they inspire an upward look, provide a standard, and give hope (p 316, see also Horton, Chapter 8) DO RELATIVE AGE EFFECTS EXIST IN MASTERS SPORTS? A motivational strategy aimed at establishing a fair playing field in Masters sports involves the use of ‘age categories’ that generally progress in five-year intervals (e.g., 35–39, 40–44, etc.) The value of this motivational approach is that athletes get to compete against those close to their own age Age categories are determined by the governing bodies for each Masters sport and are gender specific However, anecdotal evidence from Masters Athletes suggests that motivational differences exist within each of the five-year age categories Masters Athletes report that, as they start approaching the upper end of their age category, they feel less motivated to train and compete because of their relative-age disadvantage For example, in a recent interview in a Masters sports’ magazine, Philippa Raschker, a Masters track and field athlete (who, at the time of the interview, held ten world age-group records), was asked the following question: ‘Masters Athletes talk a lot about moving into the next age group How anxious are you about turning sixty?’ Her response was: I turn 59 in February, and due to the injury, this is the perfect time to rest and heal And yes, I am very anxious to turn 60 and go after the records in that age group For me, if there were no new goals to achieve, I would change gears and go into another sport The records are the incentives that have kept me in this program, because they present the challenges I need to pursue after so many years of training (Houlihan, 2006, p 43) Likewise, a 60-year-old competitive Masters swimmer acknowledged the following: I had been active in Masters swimming for 20 years and had always managed to establish world records each time I moved into a new age category (every years) and was wondering how I would at the 60-year-old level I did just that I had gone faster than the old record and I was only a half-second slower than my current world record in the 55–59 year bracket I had set years previously I was very pleased and relieved that I had been able to meet my expectations and the crowd’s Each time I “age up”, I look forward to setting new standards, and the thrill is always there 107 understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport to race and put myself in the high-pressure zone of tough competition I don’t really know why I this, but perhaps it is only to gain the recognition of peers and the self-satisfaction of accomplishing a difficult goal (Crocker et al., 2004, p 336–337) This anecdotal evidence implies that, in addition to the physiological declines related to aging, lack of motivation to train during later stages of the five-year age categories may also contribute to the decline in Masters Athletes’ athletic performance The motivational effect of age categories in Masters sports, and the influence of Masters Athletes’ relative-age advantage/disadvantage within constituent age categories, were systematically examined in a recent study by our research group (Medic et al., 2007) We reasoned that, based on Masters Athletes’ birth dates, five-year age categories can be used to identify relatively-older and relatively-younger cohorts of Masters Athletes in the same manner in which relatively-older and relatively-younger individuals have been identified in youth sport settings, which generally use one-year age categories In this study we tested whether a relative age effect was reflected in participation rates (i.e., participation-related relative age effect) and the performance achievements (i.e., performance-related relative age effect) of Masters Athletes across each constituent and successive year within the five-year age categories We analyzed archived data on 24,831 participation entries from 1996 to 2005, and 1,160 national records set from 1998 to 2005 at USA Masters championships in track and field and swimming Based on five-year age categories in which Masters Athletes compete, participation-entry and record-setting ages were each scored separately as frequencies in five separate categories (i.e., Year 1, Year 2, Year 3, Year 4, or Year 5) and were collapsed across all five-year age categories ‘Year 1’ included Masters Athletes who were in their first year of any five-year age category when they participated or set a record (i.e., those who were either 35, 40, 45, etc.) Likewise, ‘Year 2’, ‘Year 3’, ‘Year 4’, and ‘Year 5’ comprised frequencies for participation entries and records set by Masters Athletes who were in the second, third, fourth, and fifth years, respectively, in any five-year age category Results of this study (Medic et al., 2007) provided preliminary but strong evidence that relative age effects exist in Masters swimming and track and field The likelihood of participating in the national championships was significantly higher for Masters Athletes who were in their first or second year, and was lower if they were in their fourth or fifth year of any age category We also found that the probability of setting a USA Masters record was significantly higher if athletes were in the first year of any five-year age category, and was lower if they were in the third, fourth, or fifth year of an age category 108 nikola medic The relative age effects among Masters Athletes can be explained in several ways One of the explanations relates to the physical capabilities of aging athletes Research conducted with elderly athletes and healthy sedentary individuals suggests that muscular strength and cardiorespiratory efficiency decline with aging (Donato et al., 2003) Although research has attempted to quantify age-related performance changes for Masters Athletes beyond the age of peak performance (see Chapters 3–6), the actual extent and rate of performance decline seem to depend on many factors including the sport type, event, gender, and experimental design However, most experts would agree that there is an inevitable agerelated decline in performance even when the domain-specific daily training is maintained over many years If we assume that the extent of the decline is generally one per cent per year after the age of peak performance (Evans et al., 1995; Nessel, 2004), then with each five-year increase in age, we would expect a five per cent increase in performance time For example, at the 2008 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships, the winning time for men between ages 60–64 in the 800m track event was 2:23.05 Coincidently, this individual was 60 years old, and in the first year of his age category In five years, theoretically his time would be five per cent slower, or 2:30.20, which would have placed him in seventh place rather than first This example provides insight into a potential reason why relatively younger Masters Athletes are more likely to achieve more national records than their older peers It is also possible that Masters Athletes’ expectations regarding age-related performance decline influence their actual performance and/or willingness to participate in competitions In particular, those who not expect to perform well either not perform well, or not even take the opportunity to participate in competition Another potential explanation of relative age effects in Masters sports relates to Masters Athletes’ motivational regulations Considering that relatively younger Masters Athletes are much more likely to participate in national-level competitions and to set a national record, it is possible that, in comparison to peers within the age category, their intrinsic motivation and perceived competence are higher, and/or their amotivation is lower during that period As a consequence of this more adaptive motivational profile, relatively younger Masters Athletes may be more likely to participate in national competitions and/or set more national records compared to the relatively older cohort How are relative age effects in Masters sports influenced by gender? The results of our recent study of Masters Athletes from track and field and swimming (Medic et al., in press a) showed that relative age effects in 109 understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport Masters sport are robust across genders However, a participation-related relative age effect seems to be stronger for males than females (see Figure 7.1a) A potential reason for why a participation-related relative age effect in Masters sports is stronger in males than females may be that male Masters sports are more competitive; that is, the more competitive the sporting environment, the more likely a relative age effect is to occur Medic et al (in press a) suggested that the men’s Masters sporting environment is more competitive than women’s since the total number of male participants at Masters national-level competitions was about 220 per cent higher than the number of female participants Thus, having fewer individuals (i.e., a smaller competitive ‘pool’) competing for the same number of awards would make it less difficult for female Masters Athletes to win awards Another explanation for why a participation-related relative age effect is stronger in male Masters Athletes may be that male Masters Athletes are more concerned with winning and are more likely to compare their performance with the performance of others (i.e., in normative terms) than female Masters Athletes Research has shown that male Masters Athletes have a less 3rd decade Males 30 60 4th decade Females 25 50 20 40 5th decade % of sample % of sample 6th decade 15 10 7th decade 8th decade 30 9th decade 20 10 0 Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year within the 5-year age category Year within the 5-year age category Track and field 30 Swimming % of sample 25 20 15 10 Year Year Year Year Year Year within the 5-year age category Figure 7.1 Percentage of Masters Athletes who participated in USA national competitions across gender, decades of life, and sport types 110 nikola medic self-determined motivational profile and are more ego-oriented than females (Medic et al., 2004; Tantrum & Hodge, 1993) Therefore, because of their stronger emphasis on winning and higher need for social comparison, male Masters Athletes are probably less likely to participate in competitions when chances of setting a record or placing higher in a competition are diminished, as is the case when they are in one of the later years of a five-year age category How are relative age effects in Masters sports influenced by age? The results of our two studies (Medic et al., under review; Medic et al., 2008) showed that participation-related relative age effects in Masters sport begin at the age of 40 years and get progressively stronger with each successive decade of life (see Figure 7.1b) One probable explanation for why this effect becomes more pronounced with age may be because extrinsic rewards are more important and/or more available for older Masters Athletes than for younger ones Our research has shown that Masters Athletes who are 65 years and older have higher external regulation (i.e., are more likely to be motivated by extrinsic rewards) than Masters Athletes who are between 35 and 64 years (Medic et al., 2004) Also, given that the number of participation entries at Masters national competitions decreases after the fourth decade, and that, at the same time, the number of awards available stays the same, awards are more available to Masters competitors in their 50s and beyond Thus, because of their stronger emphasis on winning and/or actual and/or perceived chances of winning, older Masters Athletes seem to be more likely to compete at organized nationallevel events when the chances of setting a record or winning awards are highest — that is, during the time when they are in their first year of an age category How are relative age effects in Masters sports influenced by sport type? Relative age effects exist in Masters-level track and field and swimming However, after controlling for participation rates of Masters Athletes, a performance-related relative age effect seems to be stronger in Masters-level swimming than in track and field (see Figure 7.2c) (Medic et al., 2008; Medic et al., in press a) One potential reason for this may relate to qualifying standards Specifically, the USA national swimming championships require that qualifying standards be met as a condition of participation (i.e., swimmers can enter up to three events without making qualifying times; however, qualifying times must be met 111 understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport 3rd decade Males 70 80 Females 60 % of sample % of sample 50 40 30 20 4th decade 70 5th decade 60 6th decade 7th decade 50 8th decade 40 9th decade 30 20 10 10 0 Year Year Year Year Year Year Year within the 5-year age category Year Year Year Year Year within the 5-year age category Track and field 30 Swimming 60 % of sample 50 40 30 20 10 Year Year Year Year Year Year within the 5-year age category Figure 7.2 Percentage of Masters Athletes who set a national record during USA national championships across gender, decades of life, and sport types if a swimmer is entering between four and six events), whereas the USA Masters track and field championships not This may mean that the Masters swimming environment is more competitive, and as such, one in which a relative age effect is more likely to occur In another study (Medic et al., in press b), we replicated prior findings which suggested that a participation-related relative age effect exists in Masters swimming and track and field However, no evidence for it was found in Masters weightlifting or rowing In this study, we analyzed 4,820 participation entries from the 2005 World Masters Games We found that the likelihood of participating in the swimming competition was higher if individuals were in the first year of an age category, and that the likelihood of participating in track and field was higher if individuals were in the first and second year, and lower if they were in the fourth and fifth year of an age category Participation data for Masters weightlifting and rowing showed that the probability of participating was equally distributed among individuals across all five constituent years of an age category The results of this 112 nikola medic study were novel because they showed that participation-related relative age effects may not generalize to all Masters sports; specifically, that such effects not seem to exist in sports where competitors are arranged by age and weight For example, in Masters sports such as weightlifting and rowing, in which competitions are arranged by age and weight class, this protocol might serve to ‘hide’ the perceived age disadvantage for relatively older individuals As such, the perceived disadvantage that discourages participation might be less evident for Masters competitors arranged by age and weight class than for Masters competitors arranged by chronological age only, as in the case of track and field and swimming What are the implications of relative age effect findings in Masters sport? The findings from studies on relative age effects in Masters sports have several important implications First, even though relative age differences in Masters sport not stay with the individuals throughout their athletic careers, as is the case for athletes within youth sports, the current Masters system which uses fiveyear age registration categories allows Masters Athletes to enjoy the relative age advantage every five years when they enter the next successive five-year age category Given that successive five-year categories were originally intended to even the playing field and provide an incentive for aging athletes to remain competitive and motivated as they age, our findings suggest that the motivational salience of five-year age categories in the context of older competitive sport seems to be much more questionable for males than females in sports where competitions are organized according to age only, and increasingly questionable as individuals progress from the fourth decade of life onwards Despite the benevolent intentions of the five-year age category system to motivate athletes and increase participation, there are still deficits in this system as evidenced by the irregular patterns of participation and performance achievements This irregular or intermittent pattern of participation is problematic since continued engagement in sport has been advanced as a primary reason for high-level sport performance, functionality, and maximal health benefits in middle- and older-aged athletes (Young & Starkes, 2005; Young et al., 2008) Thus, one implication may be that the use of more condensed age categories (e.g., threeor four-year age categories), or the use of age-grading systems in concert with five-year age categories should perhaps be given more serious consideration in terms of how Masters competitions are organised and how Masters Athletes are awarded prizes and recognized for their performances 113 understanding masters athletes’ motivation for sport WHY DO MASTERS ATHLETES PARTICIPATE IN SPORT? The subject of motivation in sport is concerned with questions such as: Why individuals participate or drop-out of sport? How can nonparticipants be motivated to start participating in a sport? How can active athletes be motivated to train harder or longer, and/or continue their participation? Deci and Ryan’s (2002) self-determination theory is one prominent framework for understanding the social conditions that facilitate or undermine a person’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Self-determination theory proposes that different types of motivation exist and that they differ by the degree to which they are self-determined, constituting what is called the self-determination continuum (see Table 7.1) Early research that examined Masters Athletes’ motives for sport were conducted with long-distance runners (e.g., Barrell et al.,1989; Carmack & Martens, 1979; Curtis & McTeer, 1981; Fung et al., 1992) and swimmers (e.g., Dodd & Spinks, 1995; Hastings et al., 1995; McIntyre et al.,1992; Newton & Fry, 1998; Tantrum & Hodge, 1993) These early studies relied heavily on open-ended questionnaire Table 7.1 Self-determination continuum (adapted from Deci and Ryan, 2002) Continuum Motivational regulations Self-determination High Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation Low 114 nikola medic Definition To experience stimulating sensations (e.g excitement) Intrinsic motivation to accomplish things For the pleasure and satisfaction experienced when one attempts to accomplish or create something Intrinsic motivation to know For the pleasure and satisfaction experienced while learning or trying to understand something new Integrated regulation Because it is coherent with other aspects of one’s self Identified regulation Because it is valued Introjected regulation Because it is reinforced through internal pressures such as guilt, or emotions related to self-esteem External regulation Because it is controlled by external sources (e.g rewards) Amotivation Absence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, such that one’s actions have no control over outcomes There have been many attempts to compare the course of the aging process in athletes and in sedentary individuals, collating cross-sectional and longitudinal data for various physiological measurements such as maximal oxygen intake and peak muscle force (Shephard et al., 1995), but the reported values have frequently been compromised by changes in the training schedules of the athletes due to age or specific interventions In general, the deterioration in maximal oxygen intake and muscle force seems to proceed a little more slowly in an active population, although there is a need to obtain more reliable data (Shephard et al., 1995; also see Chapters and of this volume) If such a benefit is confirmed, the question again arises whether the advantage is maximized through participation in Masters sport or through more general forms of physical activity Maintenance of skill and dexterity are other desiderata in older adults, although it is unclear how far Masters sport involvement helps in this regard Performance in sports that require considerable skill peaks at a later age than it does in disciplines dependent largely upon physiological characteristics, and skilldependent activities also seem conserved later into old age Possibly, as in other forms of physical activity such as piano playing and typing, Masters sport participation may help in the process, extensive practice (Krampe & Ericsson, 1996), and the development of compensating skills (Salthouse, 1984), serving to counteract the decline in physiological attributes In the future, this may be explored directly by longitudinal studies of Masters participants that divide performance at any given age between its skill and physiological components Another significant facet of the aging process is a progressive loss of cognitive function There are tantalizing suggestions, many derived from animal rather than human studies, that regular physical activity may delay such losses, whether through an increased synthesis of neurotrophic factors (Cotman & Berchtold, 2002), the genesis of additional neurons (van Praag et al., 1999) and an increased production of anti-oxidants (Soman et al., 1995), or more simply through increased social contacts and a broadening of interests The friendships formed and the travel associated with competing in Masters sport seem likely to be helpful in this regard (Shephard et al., 1995), although there remains a need for careful studies comparing Masters participation with other forms of physical activity and mental gymnastics (such as solving crossword puzzles) Injuries and infections A final issue is the potential risks of musculoskeletal injury and upper respiratory infection associated with intensive training and competition 190 roy j shephard Injuries Some studies of young adults have suggested that the social costs of medical services and injury-related work loss are greater for sports participants than for the sedentary population (Nicholl et al., 1991; Reijnen & Velthuijsen, 1989) Likewise, many exercise programs for middle-aged patients have been plagued by a high incidence of musculoskeletal injuries; in some cases, as many as half of the class sustained a serious injury within the first six months of conditioning (Mann et al., 1969; Pate & Macera, 1994) The risk rises with both age and the rate of progression of the exercise program; there is thus a need to compare the risk of injury at various ages between Masters Athletes and those engaged in more pedestrian programs In a more long-term context, the strengthening of muscles and bones, a quickening of reflexes, and an improvement of balance seem likely to reduce the risks of injury in the elderly, although the question again arises whether a more general exercise program would have advantages relative to preparation for a specific Masters sport Infections The increased risk of upper respiratory infections associated with extreme training and competition has been well documented for younger individuals (Nieman, 2000; Shephard, 2000) Given the deterioration of immune function with aging (Shinkai et al., 1998), the likelihood of such problems is increased in the senior Again, the risk is probably greater for Masters involvement than for more general types of physical activity program, although many Masters competitors are aware of a weekly training ceiling beyond which the risk of upper respiratory infection increases (Shephard et al., 1995) CONCLUSIONS Much more research is required before we can assert categorically either that Masters sport has a major positive impact on community health, or that this benefit is greater than could be obtained through the advocacy of simpler noncompetitive forms of physical activity Nevertheless, investigators have claimed a wide variety of advantages for those participating in Masters sport Reported benefits include enhanced personal survival and quality of life, amelioration of various aspects of the aging process, and the setting of a positive example to inactive peers Certainly, Masters sport has a positive impact on most of those 191 the future of masters games who participate, encouraging their regular physical activity, providing increased social contacts, and offering them a substantial broadening of interests Adverse consequences also seem remarkably few Governments should thus welcome Masters sport as a valuable tactic in campaigns to enhance the fitness of their populations REFERENCES Cotman, C.W., & Berchtold, N.C (2002) Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity Trends in Neuroscience, 25, 295–301 Karvonen, M.J., Klemola, H., Virkajarvi, J., & Kekkonen, A (1974) Longevity of endurance skiers Medicine & Science in Sports, 6, 49–51 Kavanagh, T., Lindley, L.J., Shephard, R.J., & Campbell, R (1988a) Health and socio-demographic characteristics of the Masters competitor Annals of Sports Medicine, 4, 55–64 Kavanagh, T., Mertens, D.J., Matosevic, V., Shephard, R.J., & Evans, B (1988b) Health and aging of Masters athletes Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 1, 72–88 Krampe, R.T., & Ericsson, K.A (1996) Maintaining excellence: Deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 331–359 Levy, B.R., & Banaji, M.R (2002) Implicit ageism In T.D Nelson (Ed.), Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons (pp 27–48) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Linsted, K.D., Tonstad, S., & Kuzma, W.J (1991) Self-report of physical activity and patterns of mortality in Seventh-Day Adventist men Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 44, 355–364 Lockwood, P., Chasteen, A., & Wong, C (2005) Age and regulatory focus determine preferences for health-related role models Psychology and Aging, 20, 376–389 Mann, G.V., Garrett, H.L., Murray, H., & Billings, F.T (1969) Exercise to prevent coronary heart disease American Journal of Medicine, 46, 12–27 Montoye, H.J., Van Huss, W.D., Olson, H.W., Pierson, W.O., & Hudec, A.J (1957) The longevity and morbidity of college athletes Lansing, MI: Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, Michigan State University Nicholl, J.P., Coleman, P., & Williams, B.T (1991) Pilot study of the epidemiology of sports injuries and exercise-related morbidity British Journal of Sports Medicine, 25, 61–66 Nieman, D.C (2000) Special feature for the Olympics: Effects of exercise on the immune system: exercise effects on systemic immunity Immunology & Cell Biology, 78, 496–501 Ory, M., Hoffman, M.K., Hawkins, M., Sanner, B., & Mockenhaupt, R (2003) Challenging aging stereotypes: Strategies for creating a more active society American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 164–171 Paffenbarger, R.S., Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L., Lee, I.-M., & Kampert, J.B (1994) Some inter-relationships of physical activity, physical fitness health and 192 roy j shephard longevity In C Bouchard, R.J Shephard, & T Stephens (Eds.), Physical activity, fitness and health (pp 119–133) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Pate, R., & Macera, C (1994) Risks of exercising: Musculoskeletal injuries In C Bouchard, R J Shephard, & T Stephens (Eds.), Physical activity, fitness and health (pp 1008–1018) Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Paterson, D.H., Govindasamy, D., Vidmar, M., Cunningham, D.A., & Koval, J.J (2004) Longitudinal study of determinants of dependence in an elderly population Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 52, 1632–1638 Reijnen, J., & Velthuijsen, J.W (1989) Economic aspects of health through sport In Conference proceedings, Economic impact of sport in Europe Lilleshall UK, November 1989, 1–31 Salthouse, T (1984) Effects of age and skill in typing Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 345–371 Sarna, S., & Kaprio, J (1994) Life expectancy of former athletes Sports Medicine, 17, 149–151 Shephard, R.J (1974) Exercise and sudden death: A significant hazard of exercise? 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Effect of exercise training on antioxidant system in brain regions of rat Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 50, 635–639 van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F.H.(1999) Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus Nature Neurosciences, 2, 203–205 Vuori, I (1995) Exercise and sudden cardiac death: Effects of age and type of activity Sports Sciences Review, 4(2), 46–84 193 the future of masters games CONTRIBUTORS Joseph Baker School of Kinesiology & Health Science York University Canada Rylee A Dionigi School of Human Movement Studies Charles Sturt University Australia James Fell School of Human Life Sciences University of Tasmania Australia Steven A Hawkins Department of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine California Lutheran University USA Sean Horton Department of Kinesiology University of Windsor Canada Nikola Medic Centre for the Built Environment and Health University of Western Australia Australia William J Montelpare School of Kinesiology Lakehead University Canada 194 contributors Jörg Schorer Institute for Sport Science Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster Germany Roy J Shephard Professor Emeritus University of Toronto Canada Michael Stones Department of Psychology Lakehead University Canada Hirofumi Tanaka Department of Kinesiology and Health Education University of Texas at Austin USA Patricia Weir Department of Kinesiology University of Windsor Canada Andrew Williams School of Human Life Sciences University of Tasmania Australia INDEX Abernethy, B 68, 70 Aboulafia, J 90 Abwender, D 181 activity theory 139, 140, 142 activities of daily living (ADL) 161, 166 adaptation 79 Adelman, R.D 126 Ades, P.A 61 Adhihetty, P.J 86 aerobic capacity: and agerelated change 52–3; in Masters Athletes 56–60; in Masters Athletes versus sedentary adults 47–8, 57; in sedentary adults 53–6; mechanisms of 60–1; profile over the lifespan 53; training and 57–8, 61 age-related performance trends 1, 10; biological factors of 11, 23, 27–8; confound with cohorts 27–8; and disidentification 125–6; historical and longitudinal trends 19–22; interpretation of 22–3; peak performance and 23–8, 42; sex differences 17–18; skilled performance and 67–71; social factors of 10–11, 42, 48; sprint versus endurance events 17, 18, 19 ageism 123 agent 175 aging expectations: of Masters Athletes 109; of older adults 126, 132, 162 Aging in Manitoba Longitudinal Study 162 aging population: challenges of 8; factors of 7; in Canada 7, 159; in the United States 35; profile of 66, 122 aging stereotypes see stereotypes of aging aging well see successful aging Akima, H 84 Aktekin, B 90 Aktekin, M.R 90 Alameda County Study 165 Albert, M 160, 164 Albert, M.S 160 Alen, M 84 Alexis, J 126 Allard, F 70 Allen, C 52 Allen, W.K 2, 60 Allman, B.L 92 Almar, M 90 Alshami, A 85 Alzheimer’s 124 Amara, C.E 52, 91 American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) 182 amotivation 109, 117 Andersen, G.J 68 Anderson, C.S 165 Anderson, L.A 161, 162 Andersson, R 174 Andring, J.M 89 Anton, M.M 41, 44, 46 Aoyagi, Y 83, 89 Appell, H.J 85, 90 Ardern, C.I Arocha, J.F 70 Arnold, A.M 166 Arthur, B 12 As You Like It 123 Asp, S 89 association 178 Astrand, I 53 Astrand, P.-O 19, 53 Atchley, P 68 Atchley, R.C 140, 144 athletic records 12, 15, 16–22; advantages and disadvantages of 42 Atwood, J.E 52 Auman, C 125 Australian Institute of Sport 13 Australian Masters Games 138, 143 baby boom generation 122 badminton 68 Bailey, D.M 90 Baker, A.B 17, 18, 23, 28 Baker, J 68, 70, 71, 72, 74, 126, 127, 166, 167 Baker, J.L 159 Baltes, M 160 Baltes, P.B 160 Banaji, M.R 123, 124, 127, 133, 187 Bandura, A 130 Bangert, A 73 Barfield, W 70 Barlow, C.E 52 Barnard, R.J 52, 57, 58 Barr, S.I 89 Barrell, G 114 Bartlett, H 161 195 index baseball 34, 69 Bassett, D.R 86–7 Bauman, A 168 Bauman, P.A 1, 10, 66, 84, 126 Bauman, Z 142 Baumgartner, R.N 86, 87 Beijing 2008 Olympics 11–13, 26, 79, 186 Beijing 2008 Paralympics 186 Benade, A.J 52 Bennett, D 165 Berchtold, N.C 190 Bergstrom, J 88 Berkman, L.F 160 Berthon, P 85 Bevilacqua, L 85 Bhattacharyya, S 125 Biddle, S.J.H 106 Biggs, S 140, 141, 150, 152 Billings, F.T 191 bioenergic losses see agerelated performance trends, biological factors in Bishop, P.A 93 Blaikie, A 141, 152 Blair, S.N 52, 106 Blazer, D 160 Bled 10 Boag, A 114 Boeke, A.J.P 160 Bompa, T.O 80 Booth, M.L 168 Borer, K.T 88 Borgeaud, P 70 Borges, O 83, 85 Bortz, W.M., II 10, 56, 67, 70 Bortz, W.M., IV 10, 56, 67, 70 Bos, A.G 56, 57, 61 Bosman, E.A 72 Bouchard, C 106 Boutcher, S.H 106 Boveris, A 90 Bowling, A 126, 161 Boyer, J.L 47, 53 Braith, R.W 93 Brant, L.J 56, 57, 61 Brieger, K 16 Brisbane 186, 187 British Open 70 Brooks, S 116 Brooks, S.V 84, 89, 91, 94 Brooks, W.M 86, 87 Brown, M 44, 85 Bruce, R.A 53, 56, 57, 182 Bruunsgaard, H 93 Burchfiel, C.M 160 196 index Burke, G.L 166 Burke, L.M 88 Burwitz, L 68 Buskirk, E.R 53, 57 Butler, A.K 68 Camargo, C 126 Camp, S.P.V 47 Campbell, R 186 Campbell, W.W 93 Canadian Community Health Survey 166 Cappell, K.A 73 cardiovascular function: changes with aging 52 see also aerobic capacity Cardus, D 86 Carey, M.F 85 Carlsen, R.C 91, 92, 93 Carlson, B.M Carmack, M.A 114, 115 Carmeli, E Cartee, G.D 88 Cases, J.A 88 Caspi, A Castells, J 85 causation 178 Cavanagh, P cellular homeostasis 85 Centola, M 52 Cerretelli, P 44, 47 Chamberlain, A 114 Chapman, S.A 137, 138, 139, 142, 148, 151, 152 Charness, N 1, 70, 72, 75, 126, 160 Charpentier, P.A 160 Chase, W.G 69 Chasteen, A 125, 130, 131, 132, 133, 187 Chatard, J.C 85 Christiani, D 176 Christie, J 12 chronic disease 8, 159; differential attributions with older versus younger adults 126 Chusovitina, Oksana 11 citrate synthase 85 Clark, M 167–8, 186, 189, 190, 191 Clarkson, P.M 92, 94 Clavisi, O 168 Coakley, J.J 141 Cobbold, M 47 Coggan, A.R 44, 85, 94 cognitive abilities: disuse of 2; maintenance of 2; loss of 190 Cohen, R.D 160, 161, 163, 165 Colcombe, S 125 Coleman, D 114 Coleman, P 191 Coleman, R 91, 93 compensation theory 72–4; brain regions and 72–3 Conley, K.E 52, 61, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91 Constantino, N 57, 58 continuity models of aging 23–7, 35 continuity theory 139, 140, 142, 146, 148, 152 Conwit, R 83, 84 Cook, J.N 41 Cooper, A.J 13, 22, 42 Cooper, K.H 16 Cooper, L.W 160 Cortez-Cooper, M.Y 41 Cortright, R.N 88 Costill, D.L 47, 53, 56, 57, 89 Côté, J 68, 70, 127 Cotman, C.W 190 Courtney, T.K 176 Cox, G.R 88 Cox, J.H 88 Craig, B.W 88 Crawford, J.R 66 cricket 68 Cristea, A 84 Crocker, P.R.E 1, 105, 108 Cuda, A 79 Cuddy, T.E 159, 161, 162 Cuevas, M.J 90 Cullinane, E.M 60 Cumming, E 139 Cummings, N.K 88 Cunningham, D.A 87, 92, 189 Curnow, C 11, 12, 42, 44, 70, 71, 160 Curtis, J 114, 115 Cuskelly, G 114 Cyr, D 114, 115, 116 Dale, B 93 Daly, J 165 Darr, K.C 86–7 Daugaard, J.R 89 Davids, K 74 Davies, B 90 Davies, C.T 52 Davison, G.W 90 Davy, K.P 47, 48, 57, 58, 109 Dawson, T.E 68 de Groot, A 69 De Knop, P De Paz, J.A 90 Deakin, J 70, 71, 126 Deakin, J.M 127 Deci, E.L 114 decision making 69–70 Dedrick, M.E 92, 94 Deeg, D.J.H 160 deep old age 137, 149, 150, 152 DeFronzo, R.A 88 Dehn, M.M 53, 56, 57 deliberate practice 73–4 Dellman-Jenkins, M 127 denervation 84 Depner, C.M 89 Depp, C.A 161, 162, 165 Desbrow, B 88 DeSouza, C.A 47, 48, 57, 58 Desrichard, O 125 DeVan, A.E 41 Devito, G 47 Di Prampero, P.E 52 Dieppe, P 161 differential participation model 22–3 differential training model 23 Dinenno, F.A 44 Dionigi, R Dionigi, R.A 137, 141, 142 DiPietro, L 1, 180 discontinuity hypothesis 22, 29 disengagement theory 139–40 Dishman, R.K 106 disidentification 125 disuse see physical abilities, disuse of; cognitive abilities, disuse of Do, D 52 Dodd, J.R 114, 117 Dohm, G.L 88 Dolan, P.L 88 Donato, A.J 2, 18, 19, 48, 53, 57, 109 Donlon, E 87 Dorsch, K.D 105 Downs, D.S 181 Drinkwater, B.L 53 Duarte, J.A 85, 90 “Dumbledore hypothesis” 74 Dupont-Versteegden, E.E 93 Durstine, J.L 52 Dutta, C 44 Eagle, K 126 Earnest, C.P 87 Edmonton Edwards, J 88 ego integrity 139, 148, 150 Ehsani, A.A 2, 47, 53, 56, 57, 60, 88, 94 Elder, G.H 163 Einkauf, D.K 66 Engstrom, L.-M enjoyment 115, 116 Enomoto, Y 84 Enright, P 166 environment 175 epidemiological triad 174–5, 178 epidemiology 173 Ericsson, A.E 126 Ericsson, K.A 68, 73–4, 160, 190 Erikson, E 138, 141, 144, 150, 151, 152 Erikson’s nine-stage life cycle model 139 Erikssen, G 179 Erikssen, J 179 Eskurza, I 2, 18, 19, 48, 53, 57, 58, 109 Esselman, P.C 61, 86 Essen-Gustavsson, B 83, 85 Etnier, J.L 66 Evans, B 186 Evans, J 114 Evans, S.L 109 Evans, W 56 Evans, W.J 1, 41, 83, 85, 89, 93, 133 experiential theory 72–4 external regulation 111, 116, 117 extrinsic motivation 116, 117, 118 Fair, R 17, 18, 19, 28–9, 34 Fairbrother, J.T 29 Farrar, R.P 88 fatigue see recovery Faulkner, J.A 84, 89, 91, 93 Faulkner, R.A Febbraio, M 93 Fédération International de Natation (FINA) 15, 30 Fell, J 81, 82, 93, 94 female performance decline see sex differences in performance decline Ferguson, S 57 Fernstrom, M 86 Ferrando, A 41 Ferrari, A.U 52 Ferreira, R.M 85 Ferrell, R.E 94 Ferrington, D.A 83, 84 Ferrucci, L 165–6, 167 Fiatarone, M.A 1, 57, 83, 89, 133 Fielding, R.A 57, 83, 89 Figueiredo, P.A 85, 90 Fink, W.J 89 Fisher, B.J 161, 163 Fisher, E.C 88 FitzGerald, M.D 47, 48 Fleg, J.L 53, 56, 57, 61 flexibility 66 Foley, D.J 160 Folsom, D.P 161, 162 Forciea, M.A 87 Ford, David 12 Formikell, M 89, 94 Foster, C 48, 56, 57, 58 Fourth Age 141, 143, 146, 148 Fox, K.R 106 Fozard, J.L 66 Francis, K.L 106 French, K.E 69 Freyssenet, D 85 Fried, L.P 166 Fries, J.F 93, 160 Froelicher, V 52 Frontera, W.R 56, 83, 85, 88, 89 Fry, M.D 114 Fuchi, T 56 Fuchs, D 91, 93 Fujita, S 41, 44 Fullagar, S 141 Fun Run 144, 148 functional limitations 66 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 72, 83 Fung, L 114 Furst, P 88 Gaffney, P 93 Gage, F.H 190 Galloway, M.T 79, 94 Galvao, D.A 94 García-López, D 90 Gardner, A.W 61 Garland, T., Jr 86, 90 Garrett, H.L 191 gastrocnemius 85 Gates, P.E 2, 47, 48, 57, 82, 94 Gault, J.A 57 Gavigan, K.E 85 Gelman, A 31 Gentile, C.L 2, 47, 48, 57, 82, 94 197 index Geyssant, A 85 Giajnorio, A 111, 116, 117 Giamis, E.L 89, 94 Gibbons, L.W 52 Gibson, J 174, 176 Gilleard, C 123, 137, 148, 152 Gilligan, G 16 Gilmore, G.C 68 Giugliano, R.P 126 Gledhill, N 57 Glueck, D.H 18, 19, 109 goal achievement 115, 117 Gohdes, M.L 66 Goldberg, A.P 61 golf 10, 70–1, 126 Golshan, S 165 Gordon, L.K 89 Gorin, F.A 91, 92, 93 Govindasamy, D 189 Graham, S 70 Grant, B.C 106, 137 Grassi, B 44, 47 Graves, J.E 58 Greene, M.G 126 Greenwald, A 124 Grimby, G 43, 44, 84 Grimditch, G.K 52, 57, 58 Groen, G.J 70 Grounds, M.D Grove, J.R 109, 110, 111, 112 Gubrium, J.F 137 Guilmette, A.M 116 Gunduz, F 90 Gupta, G 88 Guralnik, J.M 164, 165–6, 167 Gutchess, A.H 73 Ha, A 114 Hack, L.M 87 Haddon, W 174, 176 Haddon’s injury matrix 176 Hadley, E.C 44 Hagberg, J Hagberg model of injury 176–8 Hagberg, J.M 2, 47, 53, 56, 57, 60, 61, 88 Hagberg, M 176 Hagen, J.L 85 Hagerman, F.C 57 Hagopian, K 85 Haida, M 87 Hakkinen, K 84, 93 Halkjaer-Kristensen, J 93 Hall, E.L 87 198 index Hall, J.L 88 Hallback, I 53 Halperin, W 176 Hamilton-Wessler, M Hammarqvist, F 86 Hancock, P.A 66 handball 68, 72 Harper, M.E 85 Harridge, S.D.R 56 Harris, M 116 Harrison, G 93 Harrison, G.J 94 Hartley, A 19 Hartley, J.T 19 Haseler, L 93 Hasher, L 125 Haskell, W.L 106 Hastings, D.W 114, 115, 116 Hausdorff, J.M 125 Havens, B 163, 164 Havighurst, R.J 140 Hawkes, L.M 68 Hawkins, M 122, 123, 126, 127, 164, 187 Hawkins, S.A 1, 2, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 160 Hayashi, K 41 Hayes, A 85 Health Canada Heart and Stroke Foundation 122 Heath, G.W 47, 56, 60 Heckhausen, J 160 Hedden, T 73 Hedman, R 52 Heimovitz, H 160 Hellstrom, K 88 Hencke, R 125 Henriksson-Larsen, K 83, 86, 89 Henry, F.M 17, 42 Henry, J.D 66 Henry, W.F 139 Hepple, R.T 85 Herland, J.C 88 Hess, T.M 125 Heymsfield, S.B 83, 89 Hickey, M.S 85 Hickner, R.C 88 Higgs, P 137, 148, 152 Higuchi, M 41, 43, 56 Hill, A.V 42 Hill, J 31 Hirsch, S.H 126, 132 Hoar, S 108 Hodge, K 111, 114, 115, 116 Hodges, N.J 2, 21, 23, 35, 48, 58, 60, 68, 106 Hodgson, J.L 53, 57 Hoffman, M.K 122, 123, 126, 127, 164, 187 Hogan, K 13 Holloszy, J.O 2, 44, 47, 53, 56, 57, 60, 88 Holmér, I 19 Holstein, J.A 137 Holt, T 114 Hood, D.A 86 Horhota, M 125 Horton, S 70, 71, 126, 127 Horvath, S.M 53 host 174 Houlihan, M 107 Houmard, J.A 85, 88 Howald, H 53, 56, 57 Howard, J.H 70 Hu, M 88 Hubert, H.B 93 Hudec, A.J 188 Hughes, S.M 83 Hughes, V.A 83, 88, 89 Hulkko, A 181–2 Hurlbut, D.E 94 Hurley, B 83, 84 Hurley, B.F 2, 60 Husom, A.D 83, 84 Hyde, R.T 52, 187–8 Hyslop, D 57, 58 Ibfelt, T 93 identified regulation 116 identity 115, 125, 137–42, 143, 150 Ihara, S.S.M 90 Illife, S 161 Implicit Association Test (IAT) 124 in vitro 85 in vivo 85 inactivity see physical inactivity incidence 173 infections 191 information processing model 67 injury: association of 178–9, 181; and causation of 178–9; data mining and 178–9, 181–2; database formation of 183–4; energy transfer and 175, 176, 177; epidemiology of 173–4; in Masters Athletes compared with older adults 191; models of 176–8; probability of 176, 179; protective factors of 179–80; risk factors of 179–80 injury surveillance 173, 183 Inokuchi, S 86, 89 instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) 166 integrated regulation 116 International Amateur Athletics Federation 25 International Masters Games Association (IMGA) 10 International Olympic Committee (IOC) 10 intrinsic motivation 109, 116, 117 Irrcher, I 86 Isaacs, L.D 133 Isaacson, R 90 Ishikawa, H 86, 89 Ishizu, M 84 Ivey, F.M 94 Ivy, J.L 88 Iwamoto, S 86, 89 Iwaoka, K 56 Jackson, A.W 87 Jackson, C.C 85 Jackson, M 89, 93 Jackson, M.J 90 Jamnik, V.K 57 Janssen, I 1, 83, 89 Jaque, S.V 2, 57, 58, 61 Jensen, G.M 66 Jensen, L.B 93 Jeste, D.V 161, 162 Jewell, M.J 66 Ji, L.L 86 Jiménez-Jiménez, R 90 Johansson, Jack Rabbit 187 Jokl, P 13, 22, 42, 79, 94 Jolanki, O 141 Jolton, A.J 116 Jones, J 53, 56, 57 Jones, P.P 47, 48, 57, 58 Joseph, A.M 86 Joyner, M.J 61 Jozsi, A.C 93 Jubrias, S.A 52, 61, 86, 91 Kadoko, R 79, 94 Kahn, R 160 Kahn, R.L 16, 140, 141, 146, 152, 159, 160, 163, 164, 168 Kalliainen, L.K 84 Kallman, D.A 66 Kalman, D 1, 10, 66, 84, 126 Kampert, J.B 52, 187–8 Kaneko, T 93 Kano, Y 84 Kao, J.C 66 Kaplan, G.A 164 Kaplan, G.K 160, 165 Kaprio, J 188 Karlsson, J 84 Karpakka, J 181–2 Karvonen, M.J 188 Kasch, F.W 47, 53 Kasl, S.V 127 Kasparov, Garry 29 Kasper, C 89 Katzel, L.I 53, 57, 58, 61 Katzmarzyk, P.T Kavanagh, T 167–8, 186, 189, 190, 191 Kawano, H 41 Kekkonen, A 188 Kelley, G.A 165 Kelley, K.S 165 Kempermann, G 190 Kent-Braun, J.A 85 Kern, M 88 Kerr, T 2, 21, 23, 35, 48, 58, 60, 106 Kerst, S.M 70 Kiens, B 89 Kilander, K 43 Kilbom, A 53 Kimura, T 86, 89 King, D.S 44, 85 Kirkendall, D.T 57 Kirwan, J.P 88 Kjaer, M 85 Kleiber, D.A 139, 140, 152 Klein, C 87, 92 Klemola, H 188 Knapp, D 48, 56, 57, 58 Knight, S.M 115, 140 Knight, T 161–2 Kobayashi, S 56 Koh, T.J 94 Kohl, H.W., III 52 Kohrt, W.M 44, 88, 94 Koning, P 68 Konishi, M 191 Kopetz, C 125 Korhonen, M.T 84 Korma, A Korpelainen, R 181–2 Kortebein, P 41 Koutedakis, Y 80, 81 Koval, J.J 189 Kowalski, K 108 Kozma, A 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 34, 42, 67 Kozusko, J 93 Kraemer, W.J 93 Krampe, R 126 Krampe, R.T 68, 73, 190 Krause, D.J 85 Kriegsman, D.M.W 160 Kristiansen, S 89 Krivickas, L.S Krum, H 85 Krustrup, P 85 Kunda, Z 131 Kungl, A.M 166, 167 Kunkel, S.R 127 Kurita, D 87 Kurth, S.B 114, 115, 116 Kuru, O 90 Kusnierkiewicz, J 88 Kutsuzawa, T 87 Kuzma, W.J 188 Kuzon, W.M., Jr 84 LaCroix, A.Z 161, 162 Lakatta, E.G 56, 57, 61 Land, M.F 68 Langer, E.J 122 Langley, D.J 115, 140 Langlois, J.A 165–6, 167 Larson, E.B 161, 162, 163, 182 Larsson, L 84 Laslett, P 141, 146 late starter 143, 144 Latham, N 165 Lavender, A.P 92, 94 Lazarus, N.R 56 Leamon, T 176 Lee, H.Y 89, 187–8 Leedine, L 159, 161, 162 Leedy, M.G 116 left ventricular hypertrophy 52 Lehman, H.C 11, 42 Lemmer, J.T 94 Lemon, P.W 83 Lemura, L.M 165 Lennon, S.L 93 Leslie, E 168 Leveille, S.G 165–6, 167 Levy, B 127 Levy, B.R 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 133, 187 Lexell, J 83, 86, 89 Lima, E 90 Limacher, M.C 58 Lindle, R 83, 84 Lindley, L.J 186 Linsted, K.D 188 Lipsitz, L.A 133 199 index Litwin, H 168 Liu, L.L 73 Liu, Y-T 67 Ljubicic, V 86 Lloyd-Jones, D 126 Lobley, G.E 86, 90 Lockwood, P 130, 131, 132, 133, 187 Logan, A.J 166, 167 Lombeida, J 41 Long, J.R 68 Longino, C.F 141 Louie, L 114 Lowe, D.A 83, 84 Lowenthal, D.T 58, 93 Lox, C.A 130 Luan, Jujie 12, 13 Lynch, N 83, 84 Ma, X.-H 88 Macaluso, A 47 McArdle, A 89, 93 McAuley, E McBride, T.A 91, 92, 93 McClure, R 161 McCormick, M 93 McCully, K.K 87 McDonough, M.H 105, 108 Macera, C 191 Macera, C.A 52 Machin, V.J 116 McIntyre, N 114 McKay, S.M 21, 23, 35, 48, 58, 60, 106 Mackean, J 114 McKean, K.A 180 MacLeod, M.S 66 McLeod, P 68 McLester, J.R 93 MacMahon, B 173 McPherson, S.L 69 MacRae, P.G 106 McTeer, W 114, 115 Magel, J.R 19 magnetic resonance spectroscopy 87 Maharam, L.G 1, 10, 66, 84, 126 male performance decline see sex differences in performance decline Malina, R.M 66 Malley, M.T 94 Manfredi, T.G 89 Mangione, C.M 126, 132 Mann, G.V 191 Manson, N.A 180 Marcell, T.J 1, 2, 57, 58, 61, 160 200 index Marcinek, D.J 52, 85, 89, 90, 91 Marconi, C 44, 47 Marks, E.C 133 Martens, R 114, 115 Marti, B 53, 56, 57 Martin, J.C 29, 34, 35 Martin, K.A 130 Martin, W.H., III 53, 56, 57 Masaki, K 160 Masters Athletes: adaptive potential in 93–4; agerelated physiological change in 2; as models of the aging process 189–90; as experts 10, 15, 16, 106, 130; as host 174–5; as role models 122, 127–32, 133; benefits of studying 42; causes of longer recovery in 81; definition of 1, 41, 106, 160; epidemiology and 180–2; identity and 144–5, 151–4; injury in 173–85; and motives for participation in sport 114–17, 143–4; as outliers 180; participation patterns of 188; participation rates of 22–3; and public awareness 187; strength compared with sedentary athletes 47–8; socioeconomic status of 10, 42, 143; strength training characteristics and 48; successful aging and 2, 3, 10, 106, 122, 129–30, 167–8; survival advantage of 188 Masters, K.S 115, 116, 117 Masters Mile masters sport: general benefits 145–6; historical development of 8–10; nature of involvement in 142–51; as a strategy for managing the aging process 137–54 Matosevic, V 186 maximal aerobic capacity see aerobic capacity Mayer-Kress, G.M 67 Mazzeo, R.S 1, 44, 88 Medic, N 17, 21, 23, 28, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117 Meisner, B.A 166, 167 Melbourne 186, 187 Melham, T 53, 56, 57 Meltzer, D.E 48 memory 66, 69 Menckel, E 174 Menec, V.H 166–7 Mengelkoch, L.J 58 Meredith, C.N 56, 85, 88, 89, 133 Mero, A 84 Mertens, D.J 167–8, 186, 189, 190, 191 Metsios, G.S 80, 81 Metter, E.J 83, 84 Michener, Roland 187 Mick, H 13 middle-old 133 Miles, M.P 89 Miller, H.S 56 Minear, M 73 mitochondria 52, 61, 62, 85, 86, 90, 91 Miyachi, M 41, 44 Mockenhaupt, R 122, 123, 126, 127, 164, 187 Mohs, R 160 Moller, P 88 Molnar, D.J 115, 137, 140 Montepare, J.M 123 Montoye, H.J 188 Montross, L.P 165 Mookerjee, S 165 Moore, D 165 Moore, D.H 17, 23 Moore, G.E 52 Mora, O.A 90 morbidity 1, 47, 173, 179, 180, 182–3 Moreau, K.L 2, 44, 48, 53, 57 Morgan, B.J 86–7 Morrell, C.H 56, 57, 61 mortality 1, 52, 166, 167, 173, 179, 180, 182–3 Mota, M.P 85, 90 motivation in Masters Athletes 105–18 motives for sport participation 114–18; by age 116–17; by gender 115–16, 146–8 motor performance 70–1 Mounts, W.S 34 Mujika, I 85 Mukamal, K 166 Mundal, R 179 Mundle, P 16 Murphy, J.W 141 Murray, H 191 muscle see skeletal muscle muscle fibres: endurance 175; glycolytic 83, 175; oxidative 83, 175 muscle glucose transporter levels (GLUT) 88–9 muscle quality 44, 84 muscular strength and power: age-related changes in Masters Athletes 82; in endurance-trained Masters Athletes 44; in sedentary adults 43–4, 66; in sedentary versus strengthtrained Masters Athletes 47–8; in strength-trained Masters Athletes 44–6; training and subsequent resistance to muscle damage 94 Myers, J 52 Myers, L.M 122, 126, 132 myosin molecules 84, 90 Nakamoto, H 93 Narici, M.V 44, 47 National Advisory Council on Aging 164 Navarro, A 90 Naybeck, B.L 166 Naylor, L.A 68 Nazemi, R 41, 44 Neal, R.J 68 Neidre, D.B 41 Nemeth, P.M 44, 85 Nessel, E.H 109 nested data see statistics Nettl, F 53 Newell, A 67 Newman, A.B 166 Newton, M 114 Newton, R.U 93, 94 Ng, A.V 85 Nichaman, M.Z 52 Nicholl, J.P 191 Nichols, J.F 88 Nieman, D.C 191 Nimmo, M.A 47 Nindl, B.C 93 Norman, Greg 70 Norman, J.F 68 Norton, K 13 Nosaka, K 92, 94 Nosek, B 124 Nouailhetas, V.L.A 90 O’Brien Cousins, S 122, 126 O’Flynn, G 141 O’Reilly, K.P 85, 89 Oatis, C.A 87 Oeppen, J 66 Ogawa, T 94 Ogles, B.M 115, 116, 117 Oishi, Y 84 Okada, M 84 oldest old 7–8, 49, 133, 188 Olson, H.W 188 Olson, L.T Olympic Games 11, 12, 13, 79 Orava, S 181–2 Ory, M 122, 123, 126, 127, 164, 187 Ory, M.G 126 outliers see statistics overload Owen, N 168 oxidative capacity 85–6 oxidative damage 91 oxidative stress 90 Paarsulu, M.E 70 Paffenbarger, R.S., II 52, 187–8 Palin, David Palinkas, L.A 161, 162 Palmore, E 160 Partington, S 52 Pascoe, D.D 89 Paskevich, D.M 105 Pate, R 191 Patel, V.L 70 Paterson, D.H 87, 92, 189 Patterson, J 85 Payne, V.G 133 peak performance 12 see also age-related performance trends Pearce, W 70, 71, 126 Pearson, D 89 Pearson, S.D 89 Pearson, S.J 47 Peel, N 161 Pels, A.E., III 60 Pennix, B.W.J.H 160 perceived competence 109 perceptual processes and aging 67–9 performance decline see agerelated performance trends Perle, S.M 1, 10, 66, 84, 126 Perricelli, B.C 42 Peterson, J.M 94 Petruzzello, S.J 130 Phelan, E.A 161, 162, 163 phosphocreatine [PCr] 81, 87–8 physical activity 8; benefits of 1; lifespan involvement 1, 8, 79, 106; and successful aging 159–69 physical abilities: disuse of 1, 16, 41, 42, 66; maintenance of 1, 41 physical inactivity: aging stereotypes and 122, 165; in Canadians 164; effects of 1, 159–60; and risk of injury 183 physiological functional capacity (PFC): changes with age 2, 43; decline in see sarcopenia; physiological mechanisms of 49; strength training and 48 Phillips, L.H 66 Phoenix, C 137, 151, 152 Picken, E.B 84 Pierson, W.O 188 Pimentel, A.E 2, 47, 48, 57, 82, 94 Pizza, F.X 94 Plato, C.C 66 Ploutz-Snyder, L.L 89, 94 Podolin, D.A 88 Poehlman, E.T 61 Pollock, M.L 48, 56, 57, 58 Pomeroy, J 66 Poon, F 114 postmodernism 138, 141, 142, 151, 152 Powell, A.P 160 powerlifting see weightlifting and powerlifting Plowman, S.A 53 Prakash, M 52 Pressey, S.L 159 prevalence 173 prevention-promotion approach 131, 133 primary aging 41, 43 priming 124–5 Prochniewicz, E 83, 90 Proctor, D.N 61, 83 progressive overtraining 81 Prohaska, T.R 126, 132 psychological well-being 115 public policy 13, 186–92; and costs of masters sport 187 Pucsok, J 93 Pugh, T 173 201 index quality-adjusted life expectancy (QALE) 188, 189 quality of life 52, 127, 130, 133, 137, 189, 191 qualitative research 127–33; 137 Qualls, C.R 86, 87 Quetelet, M.A 43 Quilter, R.E 66 Qureshi, S 167–8, 186, 189, 190, 191 racewalking 22, 23, 32 Radaelli, A 52 Radak, Z 93 Rader, E.P 91, 93 Ragg, K.E 57 Rahhal, T 125 Ramey, D.R 93 Ramsey, J.J 85 Rasch, J 160 Raschker, Philippa 107 Rasmussen, H.N 85 Rasmussen, U.F 85 Ravi, R 190 Reaburn, P 93, 94 reaction time 66 reactive oxygen species (ROS) 85, 86, 89, 90 recovery 79; age and 81, 86–7; duration of 80–1; evidence of impairment of 82–93; fatigue and 86–9; impact of inadequate time 81–2; role in training 80–1 Reed, D.M 160 Reichstadt, J 161, 162, 165 Reijnen, J 191 rekindler 143 relative age effect in Masters Athletes 107–113, 118; and age 111, 118; and gender 109–11; implications of 113; and motivational changes 107; and participation rates 108; and sport type 111–13 response execution see motor performance response selection see decision making retirement from sport, reasons for 12 Reuter-Lorenz, P.A 73 Reynolds, S.L 66 Reznick, A.Z 91, 93 202 index Ricciardelli, L.A 161–2 Rice, C.L 92 Richardson, A 85 Richardson, S.S 115 Richter, E.A 89 Rivera, A.M 60 Robergs, R.A 89 Roberts, G.C 105 Robinson, S 52, 53 Robinson, William 12 Rod, J.L 48, 56, 57, 58 Rodahl, K 19, 179 Rogers, M.A 44, 53, 56, 57, 85 role models see Masters Athletes as role models Rodin, J 164 Roodin, P.A 17 Roos, N.P 163, 164 Rooyackers, O 86 Roper, E.A 115, 137, 140 Rosa, E.F 90 Rosen, M.J 61 Rosenbaum, A.E 89, 94 Ross, H.E 68 Ross, R 83, 89 Roth, S.M 94 Roubenoff, R 83, 89 Rowe, J.W 16, 140, 141, 146, 152, 159, 160, 163, 164, 168 rowing 34, 112 Runner’s World 16 running 114, 115, 116, 117, 128, 180–1; records 16–17 Russell, D.G 68 Ryan, N.D 133 Ryan, R.M 114 Rybak, L.P 190 Rybash, J.M 17 Saarloos, D 111 Sady, M.A 60 Sady, S.P 60 Safdar, A 91 Salthouse, T.A 1, 17, 23, 71, 72, 74, 75, 126, 160, 190 Saltin, B 43, 44 Sandvik, L 179 Sanner, B 122, 123, 126, 127, 164, 187 Santrock, J.W 17 sarcopenia 44 Sargent, G.I 116 Sarkisian, C.A 126, 132 Sarna, S 188 Sarup, M 141 Sasvari, M 93 Schettler, J.D 93 Schiaffino, S 83 Schmidt, D.H 48, 56, 57, 58 Schmidt, P.K 53 Schloder, M 114, 115, 116 Schorer, J 68, 72 Schultz, J 88 Schulz, R 11, 12, 42, 44, 70, 71, 160 Seals, D.R 2, 18, 19, 23, 27, 35, 41, 42, 43, 47, 48, 53, 57, 58, 60, 82, 94, 109, 180 sedentary population 43–44; strength-trained athletes versus 47–8 Seeman, T.E 160, 164 Seiler, K.S 29, 34, 35 self-centredness 140 self-determination theory 114 self-efficacy 130 self-esteem 116, 125 self-integration 138, 139, 140, 152 Selig, S 85 semimembranosus muscle 84 Senior Olympics 106, 183 Senturk, U.K 90 Sethi, P.M 13, 22, 42 sex differences in decline 17, 32, 45 Shakespeare, William 123 She, L 88 Shema, S.J 160, 165 Shephard, R.J 16, 52, 56, 83, 89, 167–8, 186, 188, 189, 190, 191 Shinkai, S 191 Shioya, S 87 Sibley, B.A 66 Sieck, G.C 83 Siira, P 181–2 Silva, A.C 90 Simcoe, E 159 Simon, H.A 67, 69 Simonton, D.K 160 Singh, P 2, 21 Sinning, W.E 83 Sipila, S 84 Sjostrom, M 83, 86, 89 skeletal muscle: age-related changes in 82–4; agerelated changes in force per cross-sectional unit 84; age-related changes in oxidative capacity 85–6; age-related changes in size 83–4; susceptibility to damage 89–91 skill development 115 skilled performance 67; maintenance of 190; mechanisms of 72–5 Skinner, J.S 41 Skirstad, P Skolnik, H 1, 10, 66, 84, 126 Slade, M.D 127 Smith, E.L 16 Smith, J 93 Smith, J.C 87 Smith, T.J 176 Sneed, J.R 126 Snyder, A.C 88 soccer 68, 181 social support 115 social cognitive theory 130–1 social persuasion 130 Soman, S.M 190 Sorkin, J.D 53, 57, 61 Sowell, C.B 34 Sparkes, A 137, 151, 152 Speakman, J.R 86, 90 Spencer, W.A 86 Spina, R.J 44, 85, 94 Spinks, W.L 114, 117 Spirduso, W 29, 34, 35, 141 Spirduso, W.W 16, 45, 46, 106 Sport Canada sport continuer 143, 144, 145 sport involvement, benefits of squash 68 Stadtman, E.R 85 Stanish, W.D 180 Stanley, W.C 88 Starkes, J.L 1, 17, 21, 23, 28, 35, 48, 58, 60, 68, 70, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117 statistics: cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis 30–4; methodology in performance trends 28–34; modelling, historical overview of 16–22; multilevel modelling 30–4; nested data 29–30; outliers in modelling 29 Statistics Canada 122 Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou, A 80, 81 Steele, C.M 125 Stein, H 91, 93 Stephens, D.P 87 stereotype threat 125 stereotypes of aging 13, 41, 122–34; combating 127–32, 187; explicit 125; and impact on performance 124–7 Stevenson, E.T 47, 48, 57, 58, 109 Stine-Morrow, E.A.L 74 Stones, M.J 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 34, 42, 67 Strawbridge, W.J 160, 161, 163, 165 strength training see muscular strength and power Stretton, C 165 Stuve, T.A 68 subjective health 116 successful aging 3, 16, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 146, 148, 151–4; biomedical theory of 161; definition of 160–4; and health 161–3, 165; and life satisfaction 163; objective definition of 161; psychosocial theory of 161; subjective definition of 161, 164; see also Masters Athletes and successful aging; physical activity and successful aging Sugawara, J 41, 44 Suh, D Summers, J.J 116 Surek, J.T 84 swimming 9, 107, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 181; age of peak performance in 25–8; records 19 Sydney 186, 187 Taaffe, D.R 94 Tahara, S 93 Takahashi, K 41 Talbot, L.A 56, 57, 61 Tam, R 125 Tanaka, H 2, 18, 19, 23, 27, 35, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 57, 58, 82, 94, 109, 180 Tang, Y.Q 17, 18, 23, 28 Tantrum, M 111, 114, 115, 116 Tarnopolsky, M.A 88, 91 Tarpenning, K 1, 57, 58 Tate, R.B 159, 161, 162 Taylor, A.W 87, 92 Taylor, C.C 83, 86, 89 Taylor-Jones, J.M 93 Tench, K 18, 19, 109 tennis 69 Tesch-Römer, C 68, 73 Thaulow, E 179 thiobarbituate reactive substances (TBARS) 90 Third Age 141, 142, 146, 148, 151 Thomas, D.D 83, 84, 90 Thomas, D.P 86–7 Thompson, L.V 83, 84, 90 Thompson, P.D 60 Tinetti, M.E 160 Tipton, C.M 41 Toepell, A.R Tobin, J 83, 84 Tobin, J.D 66 Toft, A.D 93 Tomescu-Dita, Constantina 11, 12, 13 Tonkonogi, M 86 Tonstad, S 188 Torres, Dara 11, 12, 13, 79, 95 Toronto 9, 16, 186 Toth, M.J 61 Tracy, B.L 94 track & field 8, 107, 111, 116, 117; age of peak performance in 25–8; multilevel analysis in 30–4; records 18–19 training 2, 10, 74, 95; bioenergic losses and 23; changes over time 10, 23, 61, 82; injury and 174, 175, 177; see also aerobic capacity and Tran, Z.V 47, 48 Trappe, S.W 53, 56, 57 Trappe, T.A 93 triathlon 34 Turner, F.M 17, 18, 23, 28 Tyndall, G.L 85 United Nations United States Department of State Urbanchek, M.G 84 USA Masters Championships 108 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships 109 203 index USA Masters Track and Field Championships 112 use it or lose it 137, 142, 143, 146–51 Vaanholt, L.M 86, 90 Vailas, A.C 41 Vaillant, G.E 166 Van Camp, S 53 van Eijk, J.T M 160 Van Huss, W.D 188 van Pragg, H 190 Van Remmen, H 85 van Tilberg, T 160 Vasilaki, A 89, 93 vastus lateralis 83, 85 Vaupel, J.W 66 Velthuijsen, J.W 191 Vercruyssen, M 66 Verity, L.S 47, 53 vicarious experiences 130 Vidmar, M 189 Villarin, J 85, 89, 90 Vincent, H.K 93 Vincent, K.R 93 Virkajarvi, J 188 Visser, G.H 86, 90 Volek, J.S 93 volleyball 69 Volpi, E 41, 44 Volpin, G 91, 93 von Duvillard, S.P 165 Vukovich, M.D 53, 56, 57 Vuori, I, 188 Wallace, J.P 47, 53 Wallace, L Wallhagen, M.I 161, 163, 165 Walro, J.M 83 204 index Walsh, B 86 Wang, B.W 93 Wang, Z.M 83, 89 Ward, P 68 Waters, D.L 86, 87 Wei, J.Y 125 Wei, M 52 Weidner, M.L 85 weightlifting and powerlifting 112; age-related decline in 45–6; differences between the sexes in 45; events in 45 Weindruch, R 85 Weir, P.L 2, 17, 21, 23, 28, 35, 48, 58, 60, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117, 166, 167 Weiss, M Wells, J.A 88 Wells, R.H 53 Welsh, R.C 73 Wenk, H.E 68 Wheatley, R.W 87 Whitbourne, S.K 126 White, L.R 160 Whitlock, Ed 13, 127–8 Wiebe, C.G 57 Wiethop, B.V 88 Wilkins, J Williams, A.D 81, 82, 85 Williams, A.M 68 Williams, B.T 191 Wilmore, J 56 Wilmore, J.H 47, 52, 57, 58 Winblad, B 83, 86, 89 Wing, A.L 52, 187–8 Wiswell, R.A 1, 2, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 160 Wolfe, R 41 Wong, C 130, 131, 132, 133, 187 Wong, M.D 126, 132 World Health Organization 43, 159 World Masters Athletics (WMA) 15, 29, 30 World Masters (Track & Field) Championships 9, 16, 18 World Masters Games 9, 183, 186; and effect on public policy 186–7 World Masters Winter Games Wright, J.G 56, 57, 61 Wright, V.J 42 Wrisberg, C.A 115, 137, 140 Wyers, L 93 Yamabayashi, H 87 Yamazaki, K 41 Yang, L 127 Yang, X.-M 88 Yarasheski, K.E 88 Young, A 47 Young, B.W 17, 21, 23, 28, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117 Young, I.S 90 Young, J.C 88 Young, T.K 173, 174 Zackin, M.J 56 Zagrodsky, J 126 Zarzhevsky, N 91, 93 Zebrowitz, L.A 123 Zerba, E 84, 89 ... was found in Masters weightlifting or rowing In this study, we analyzed 4, 820 participation entries from the 20 05 World Masters Games We found that the likelihood of participating in the swimming... other seniors While the research into role models specific to seniors is in its early stages, the evidence suggests the complexity inherent in 122 sean horton these issues Seniors react to Masters. .. authors found that, for the participants who were highly invested in their memory skills, the negative stereotype depressed their scores Hess et al (20 03) hypothesized that the negative condition